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Wang D, Chen Y, Xiang S, Hu H, Zhan Y, Yu Y, Zhang J, Wu P, Liu FY, Kai T, Ding P. Recent advances in immunoassay technologies for the detection of human coronavirus infections. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2023; 12:1040248. [PMID: 36683684 PMCID: PMC9845787 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.1040248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2022] [Accepted: 11/30/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the seventh coronavirus (CoV) that has spread in humans and has become a global pandemic since late 2019. Efficient and accurate laboratory diagnostic methods are one of the crucial means to control the development of the current pandemic and to prevent potential future outbreaks. Although real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR) is the preferred laboratory method recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) for diagnosing and screening SARS-CoV-2 infection, the versatile immunoassays still play an important role for pandemic control. They can be used not only as supplemental tools to identify cases missed by rRT-PCR, but also for first-line screening tests in areas with limited medical resources. Moreover, they are also indispensable tools for retrospective epidemiological surveys and the evaluation of the effectiveness of vaccination. In this review, we summarize the mainstream immunoassay methods for human coronaviruses (HCoVs) and address their benefits, limitations, and applications. Then, technical strategies based on bioinformatics and advanced biosensors were proposed to improve the performance of these methods. Finally, future suggestions and possibilities that can lead to higher sensitivity and specificity are provided for further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danqi Wang
- Xiang Ya School of Public Health, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Yuejun Chen
- Breast Surgery Department I, Hunan Cancer Hospital, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Shan Xiang
- Xiang Ya School of Public Health, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Huiting Hu
- Breast Surgery Department I, Hunan Cancer Hospital, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Yujuan Zhan
- Xiang Ya School of Public Health, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Ying Yu
- Xiang Ya School of Public Health, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Jingwen Zhang
- Xiang Ya School of Public Health, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Pian Wu
- Xiang Ya School of Public Health, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Fei Yue Liu
- Department of Economics and Management, ChangSha University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Tianhan Kai
- Xiang Ya School of Public Health, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Ping Ding
- Xiang Ya School of Public Health, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
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2
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Bagno FF, Sérgio SAR, Figueiredo MM, Godoi LC, Andrade LAF, Salazar NC, Soares CP, Aguiar A, Almeida FJ, da Silva ED, Ferreira AGP, Durigon EL, Gazzinelli RT, Teixeira SMR, Fernandes APSM, da Fonseca FG. DEVELOPMENT AND VALIDATION OF AN ENZYME-LINKED IMMUNOASSAY KIT FOR DIAGNOSIS AND SURVEILLANCE OF COVID-19. JOURNAL OF CLINICAL VIROLOGY PLUS 2022:100103. [PMID: 35993012 PMCID: PMC9384617 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcvp.2022.100103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2021] [Revised: 08/01/2022] [Accepted: 08/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
There is a massive demand to identify alternative methods to detect new cases of COVID-19 as well as to investigate the epidemiology of the disease. In many countries, importation of commercial kits poses a significant impact on their testing capacity and increases the costs for the public health system. We have developed an ELISA to detect IgG antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 using a recombinant viral nucleocapsid (rN) protein expressed in E. coli. Using a total of 894 clinical samples we showed that the rN-ELISA was able to detect IgG antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 with high sensitivity (97.5%) and specificity (96.3%) when compared to a commercial antibody test. After three external validation studies, we showed that the test accuracy was higher than 90%. The rN-ELISA IgG kit constitutes a convenient and specific method for the large-scale determination of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in human sera with high reliability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Flávia F Bagno
- Centro de Tecnologia de Vacinas (CT Vacinas), BH-Tec, UFMG. Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
- Fundação Oswaldo Cruz-Fiocruz, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Sarah A R Sérgio
- Centro de Tecnologia de Vacinas (CT Vacinas), BH-Tec, UFMG. Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Maria Marta Figueiredo
- Centro de Tecnologia de Vacinas (CT Vacinas), BH-Tec, UFMG. Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
- Universidade Estadual de Minas Gerais, Divinópolis, MG, Brazil
| | - Lara C Godoi
- Centro de Tecnologia de Vacinas (CT Vacinas), BH-Tec, UFMG. Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Luis A F Andrade
- Centro de Tecnologia de Vacinas (CT Vacinas), BH-Tec, UFMG. Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Natália C Salazar
- Centro de Tecnologia de Vacinas (CT Vacinas), BH-Tec, UFMG. Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Camila P Soares
- Universidade de São Paulo (USP), Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Andressa Aguiar
- Geriatric and Convalescent Hospital Dom Pedro II, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Flávia Jaqueline Almeida
- Department of Pediatrics, Santa Casa de São Paulo School of Medical Sciences, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Edimilson D da Silva
- Fundação Oswaldo Cruz-Fiocruz, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Antônio G P Ferreira
- Fundação Oswaldo Cruz-Fiocruz, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Edison Luiz Durigon
- Universidade de São Paulo (USP), Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Ricardo T Gazzinelli
- Centro de Tecnologia de Vacinas (CT Vacinas), BH-Tec, UFMG. Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
- Fundação Oswaldo Cruz-Fiocruz, Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Santuza M R Teixeira
- Centro de Tecnologia de Vacinas (CT Vacinas), BH-Tec, UFMG. Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
- Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Depto de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Ana Paula S M Fernandes
- Centro de Tecnologia de Vacinas (CT Vacinas), BH-Tec, UFMG. Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
- Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Faculdade de Farmácia, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Flavio G da Fonseca
- Centro de Tecnologia de Vacinas (CT Vacinas), BH-Tec, UFMG. Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
- Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Depto de Microbiologia, ICB/UFMG, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
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3
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Bagno FF, Sérgio SA, Figueiredo MM, Godoi LC, Andrade LA, Salazar NC, Soares CP, Aguiar A, Almeida FJ, da Silva ED, Ferreira AG, Durigon EL, Gazzinelli RT, Teixeira SM, Fernandes APS, da Fonseca FG. Development and validation of an enzyme-linked immunoassay kit for diagnosis and surveillance of COVID-19. JOURNAL OF CLINICAL VIROLOGY PLUS 2022; 2:100101. [PMID: 35959109 PMCID: PMC9356643 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcvp.2022.100101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2022] [Revised: 07/12/2022] [Accepted: 07/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
Abstract
There is a massive demand to identify alternative methods to detect new cases of COVID-19 as well as to investigate the epidemiology of the disease. In many countries, importation of commercial kits poses a significant impact on their testing capacity and increases the costs for the public health system. We have developed an ELISA to detect IgG antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 using a recombinant viral nucleocapsid (rN) protein expressed in E. coli. Using a total of 894 clinical samples we showed that the rN-ELISA was able to detect IgG antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 with high sensitivity (97.5%) and specificity (96.3%) when compared to a commercial antibody test. After three external validation studies, we showed that the test accuracy was higher than 90%. The rN-ELISA IgG kit constitutes a convenient and specific method for the large-scale determination of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in human sera with high reliability.
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4
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Targovnik AM, Simonin JA, Mc Callum GJ, Smith I, Cuccovia Warlet FU, Nugnes MV, Miranda MV, Belaich MN. Solutions against emerging infectious and noninfectious human diseases through the application of baculovirus technologies. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2021; 105:8195-8226. [PMID: 34618205 PMCID: PMC8495437 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-021-11615-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2021] [Revised: 09/20/2021] [Accepted: 09/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Baculoviruses are insect pathogens widely used as biotechnological tools in different fields of life sciences and technologies. The particular biology of these entities (biosafety viruses 1; large circular double-stranded DNA genomes, infective per se; generally of narrow host range on insect larvae; many of the latter being pests in agriculture) and the availability of molecular-biology procedures (e.g., genetic engineering to edit their genomes) and cellular resources (availability of cell lines that grow under in vitro culture conditions) have enabled the application of baculoviruses as active ingredients in pest control, as systems for the expression of recombinant proteins (Baculovirus Expression Vector Systems—BEVS) and as viral vectors for gene delivery in mammals or to display antigenic proteins (Baculoviruses applied on mammals—BacMam). Accordingly, BEVS and BacMam technologies have been introduced in academia because of their availability as commercial systems and ease of use and have also reached the human pharmaceutical industry, as incomparable tools in the development of biological products such as diagnostic kits, vaccines, protein therapies, and—though still in the conceptual stage involving animal models—gene therapies. Among all the baculovirus species, the Autographa californica multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus has been the most highly exploited in the above utilities for the human-biotechnology field. This review highlights the main achievements (in their different stages of development) of the use of BEVS and BacMam technologies for the generation of products for infectious and noninfectious human diseases. Key points • Baculoviruses can assist as biotechnological tools in human health problems. • Vaccines and diagnosis reagents produced in the baculovirus platform are described. • The use of recombinant baculovirus for gene therapy–based treatment is reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Marisa Targovnik
- Cátedra de Biotecnología, Departamento de Microbiología, Inmunología, Biotecnología y Genética, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Junín 956, Buenos Aires, 1113, Argentina.
- Instituto de Nanobiotecnología (NANOBIOTEC), Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, CONICET -Universidad de Buenos Aires, Junín 956, Sexto Piso, C1113AAD, 1113, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - Jorge Alejandro Simonin
- Laboratorio de Ingeniería Genética y Biología Celular y Molecular, Área Virosis de Insectos, Instituto de Microbiología Básica y Aplicada, Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología, Universidad Nacional de Quilmes, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Gregorio Juan Mc Callum
- Cátedra de Biotecnología, Departamento de Microbiología, Inmunología, Biotecnología y Genética, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Junín 956, Buenos Aires, 1113, Argentina
- Instituto de Nanobiotecnología (NANOBIOTEC), Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, CONICET -Universidad de Buenos Aires, Junín 956, Sexto Piso, C1113AAD, 1113, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Ignacio Smith
- Cátedra de Biotecnología, Departamento de Microbiología, Inmunología, Biotecnología y Genética, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Junín 956, Buenos Aires, 1113, Argentina
- Instituto de Nanobiotecnología (NANOBIOTEC), Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, CONICET -Universidad de Buenos Aires, Junín 956, Sexto Piso, C1113AAD, 1113, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Franco Uriel Cuccovia Warlet
- Laboratorio de Ingeniería Genética y Biología Celular y Molecular, Área Virosis de Insectos, Instituto de Microbiología Básica y Aplicada, Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología, Universidad Nacional de Quilmes, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - María Victoria Nugnes
- Laboratorio de Ingeniería Genética y Biología Celular y Molecular, Área Virosis de Insectos, Instituto de Microbiología Básica y Aplicada, Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología, Universidad Nacional de Quilmes, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - María Victoria Miranda
- Cátedra de Biotecnología, Departamento de Microbiología, Inmunología, Biotecnología y Genética, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Junín 956, Buenos Aires, 1113, Argentina
- Instituto de Nanobiotecnología (NANOBIOTEC), Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, CONICET -Universidad de Buenos Aires, Junín 956, Sexto Piso, C1113AAD, 1113, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Mariano Nicolás Belaich
- Laboratorio de Ingeniería Genética y Biología Celular y Molecular, Área Virosis de Insectos, Instituto de Microbiología Básica y Aplicada, Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología, Universidad Nacional de Quilmes, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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Trang CTH, Nakanishi M, Hayashidani H, Taniguchi T. Development of an indirect ELISA based on soluble antigen produced from virus-infected cells for detection of porcine hemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus. J Virol Methods 2020; 289:114016. [PMID: 33290788 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2020.114016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2020] [Revised: 11/03/2020] [Accepted: 11/14/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Porcine hemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus (PHEV) is a member of the genus Betacoronavirus and is the etiologic agent of encephalomyelitis or vomiting and wasting disease in neonatal pigs. Although there are only a few epidemiological studies that document the seroprevalence of PHEV infection, there are reports of sporadic outbreaks, including recent documentation of an influenza-like respiratory disease associated with PHEV in the United States. To address this issue, we have developed a new indirect enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for use in sero-epidemiological research of PHEV infection. One hundred and fifty porcine serum samples that were determined as antibody-positive or antibody-negative in virus neutralization (VN) tests were used in conjunction with PHEV-specific antigen extracted from virus-infected FS-L3 cells using RBS buffer containing 0.2 % NP-40 to develop this assay. The ELISA showed a high sensitivity (95.35 %) and specificity (96.88 %) by receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis, with an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.996 attesting to its accuracy. Our results revealed a strong correlation between the results of the indirect ELISA and VN test (R = 0.850, P < 0.05), with near-perfect agreement (kappa value = 0.932). These results indicate that this new indirect ELISA might be useful for diagnosis and sero-epidemiological tracking of PHEV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chau Thi Huyen Trang
- Division of Animal Life Science, Institute of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan
| | - Makoto Nakanishi
- Research and Development Section, Institute of Animal Health, National Federation of Agricultural Co-operative Association, 7 Ohja-machi, Sakura-shi, Chiba-ken, 285-0043, Japan
| | - Hideki Hayashidani
- Division of Animal Life Science, Institute of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan; Cooperative Department of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan
| | - Takahide Taniguchi
- Division of Animal Life Science, Institute of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan; Cooperative Department of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan.
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6
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Norman M, Gilboa T, Ogata AF, Maley AM, Cohen L, Busch EL, Lazarovits R, Mao CP, Cai Y, Zhang J, Feldman JE, Hauser BM, Caradonna TM, Chen B, Schmidt AG, Alter G, Charles RC, Ryan ET, Walt DR. Ultrasensitive high-resolution profiling of early seroconversion in patients with COVID-19. Nat Biomed Eng 2020; 4:1180-1187. [PMID: 32948854 PMCID: PMC7498988 DOI: 10.1038/s41551-020-00611-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2020] [Accepted: 08/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Sensitive assays are essential for the accurate identification of individuals infected with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Here, we report a multiplexed assay for the fluorescence-based detection of seroconversion in infected individuals from less than 1 µl of blood, and as early as the day of the first positive nucleic acid test after symptom onset. The assay uses dye-encoded antigen-coated beads to quantify the levels of immunoglobulin G (IgG), IgM and IgA antibodies against four SARS-CoV-2 antigens. A logistic regression model trained using samples collected during the pandemic and samples collected from healthy individuals and patients with respiratory infections before the first outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) was 99% accurate in the detection of seroconversion in a blinded validation cohort of samples collected before the pandemic and from patients with COVID-19 five or more days after a positive nasopharyngeal test by PCR with reverse transcription. The high-throughput serological profiling of patients with COVID-19 allows for the interrogation of interactions between antibody isotypes and viral proteins, and should help us to understand the heterogeneity of clinical presentations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maia Norman
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA, USA.,Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Tal Gilboa
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA, USA.,Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Alana F Ogata
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA, USA.,Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Adam M Maley
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA, USA.,Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Limor Cohen
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Evan L Busch
- Department of Epidemiology, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Roey Lazarovits
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA, USA.,Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Chih-Ping Mao
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Yongfei Cai
- Division of Molecular Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jun Zhang
- Division of Molecular Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | | | - Blake M Hauser
- Ragon Institute of MGH, MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | | | - Bing Chen
- Division of Molecular Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Aaron G Schmidt
- Ragon Institute of MGH, MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA.,Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Galit Alter
- Ragon Institute of MGH, MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Richelle C Charles
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Edward T Ryan
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - David R Walt
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA. .,Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA, USA. .,Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
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Norman M, Gilboa T, Ogata AF, Maley AM, Cohen L, Cai Y, Zhang J, Feldman JE, Hauser BM, Caradonna TM, Chen B, Schmidt AG, Alter G, Charles RC, Ryan ET, Walt DR. Ultra-Sensitive High-Resolution Profiling of Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Antibodies for Detecting Early Seroconversion in COVID-19 Patients. MEDRXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR HEALTH SCIENCES 2020:2020.04.28.20083691. [PMID: 32511657 PMCID: PMC7277013 DOI: 10.1101/2020.04.28.20083691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic continues to infect millions of people worldwide. In order to curb its spread and reduce morbidity and mortality, it is essential to develop sensitive and quantitative methods that identify infected individuals and enable accurate population-wide screening of both past and present infection. Here we show that Single Molecule Array assays detect seroconversion in COVID-19 patients as soon as one day after symptom onset using less than a microliter of blood. This multiplexed assay format allows us to quantitate IgG, IgM and IgA immunoglobulins against four SARS-CoV-2 targets, thereby interrogating 12 antibody isotype-viral protein interactions to give a high resolution profile of the immune response. Using a cohort of samples collected prior to the outbreak as well as samples collected during the pandemic, we demonstrate a sensitivity of 86% and a specificity of 100% during the first week of infection, and 100% sensitivity and specificity thereafter. This assay should become the gold standard for COVID19 serological profiling and will be a valuable tool for answering important questions about the heterogeneity of clinical presentation seen in the ongoing pandemic.
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Minami S, Terada Y, Shimoda H, Takizawa M, Onuma M, Ota A, Ota Y, Akabane Y, Tamukai K, Watanabe K, Naganuma Y, Kanagawa E, Nakamura K, Ohashi M, Takami Y, Miwa Y, Tanoue T, Ohwaki M, Ohta J, Une Y, Maeda K. Establishment of serological test to detect antibody against ferret coronavirus. J Vet Med Sci 2016; 78:1013-7. [PMID: 26935842 PMCID: PMC4937135 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.16-0059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Since there is no available serological methods to detect antibodies to ferret coronavirus (FRCoV), an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) using recombinant partial nucleocapsid (N) proteins of the ferret coronavirus (FRCoV) Yamaguchi-1 strain was developed to establish a serological method for detection of FRCoV infection. Many serum samples collected from ferrets recognized both a.a. 1-179 and a.a. 180-374 of the N protein, but two serum samples did not a.a. 180-374 of the N protein. This different reactivity was also confirmed by immunoblot analysis using the serum from the ferret.Therefore, the a.a. 1-179 of the N protein was used as an ELISA antigen. Serological test was carried out using sera or plasma of ferrets in Japan. Surprisingly, 89% ferrets in Japan had been infected with FRCoV. These results indicated that our established ELISA using a.a. 1-179 of the N protein is useful for detection of antibody to FRCoV for diagnosis and seroepidemiology of FRCoV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shohei Minami
- Laboratory of Veterinary Microbiology, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Yamaguchi University, 1677-1 Yoshida, Yamaguchi 753-8515, Japan
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9
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Bukbuk DN, Fukushi S, Tani H, Yoshikawa T, Taniguchi S, Iha K, Fukuma A, Shimojima M, Morikawa S, Saijo M, Kasolo F, Baba SS. Development and validation of serological assays for viral hemorrhagic fevers and determination of the prevalence of Rift Valley fever in Borno State, Nigeria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2014; 108:768-73. [PMID: 25344695 PMCID: PMC7107251 DOI: 10.1093/trstmh/tru163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Rift Valley fever (RVF) is endemic to the tropical regions of eastern and southern Africa. The seroprevalence of RVF was investigated among the human population in Borno State, Nigeria to determine the occurrence of the disease in the study area in comparison with that of Lassa fever and Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic fever. Methods Recombinant nucleoprotein (rNP)-based IgG-ELISAs for the detection of serum antibodies against RVF virus (RVFV), Lassa fever virus (LASV), and Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV) were used to test human sera in Borno State, Nigeria. The presence of neutralizing antibody against the RVFV-glycoprotein-bearing vesicular stomatitis virus pseudotype (RVFVpv) was also determined in the human sera. Results Of the 297 serum samples tested, 42 (14.1%) were positive for the presence of RVFV-IgG and 22 (7.4%) and 7 (2.4%) of the serum samples were positive for antibodies against LASV and CCHFV, respectively. There was a positive correlation between the titers of neutralizing antibodies obtained using RVFVpv and those obtained using the conventional neutralization assay with the attenuated RVFV-MP12 strain. Conclusions The seroprevalence of RVF was significantly higher than that of LASV and CCHF in Borno State, Nigeria. The RVFVpv-based neutralization assay developed in this study has the potential to replace the traditional assays based on live viruses for the diagnosis and seroepidemiological studies of RVF.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Nadeba Bukbuk
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri, Nigeria
| | - Shuetsu Fukushi
- Department of Virology 1, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hideki Tani
- Department of Virology 1, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Tomoki Yoshikawa
- Department of Virology 1, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Satoshi Taniguchi
- Department of Virology 1, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Koichiro Iha
- Department of Virology 1, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Aiko Fukuma
- Department of Virology 1, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Masayuki Shimojima
- Department of Virology 1, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shigeru Morikawa
- Department of Veterinary Science, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Masayuki Saijo
- Department of Virology 1, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Francis Kasolo
- Disease Prevention and Control Cluster at the WHO Regional Office for Africa, Congo-Brazzaville
| | - Saka Saheed Baba
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri, Nigeria
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10
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Takahashi T, Maeda K, Suzuki T, Ishido A, Shigeoka T, Tominaga T, Kamei T, Honda M, Ninomiya D, Sakai T, Senba T, Kaneyuki S, Sakaguchi S, Satoh A, Hosokawa T, Kawabe Y, Kurihara S, Izumikawa K, Kohno S, Azuma T, Suemori K, Yasukawa M, Mizutani T, Omatsu T, Katayama Y, Miyahara M, Ijuin M, Doi K, Okuda M, Umeki K, Saito T, Fukushima K, Nakajima K, Yoshikawa T, Tani H, Fukushi S, Fukuma A, Ogata M, Shimojima M, Nakajima N, Nagata N, Katano H, Fukumoto H, Sato Y, Hasegawa H, Yamagishi T, Oishi K, Kurane I, Morikawa S, Saijo M. The first identification and retrospective study of Severe Fever with Thrombocytopenia Syndrome in Japan. J Infect Dis 2013; 209:816-27. [PMID: 24231186 PMCID: PMC7107388 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jit603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 586] [Impact Index Per Article: 53.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background. Severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome (SFTS) is caused by SFTS virus (SFTSV), a novel bunyavirus reported to be endemic in central and northeastern China. This article describes the first identified patient with SFTS and a retrospective study on SFTS in Japan. Methods. Virologic and pathologic examinations were performed on the patient's samples. Laboratory diagnosis of SFTS was made by isolation/genome amplification and/or the detection of anti-SFTSV immunoglobulin G antibody in sera. Physicians were alerted to the initial diagnosis and asked whether they had previously treated patients with symptoms similar to those of SFTS. Results. A female patient who died in 2012 received a diagnosis of SFTS. Ten additional patients with SFTS were then retrospectively identified. All patients were aged ≥50 years and lived in western Japan. Six cases were fatal. The ratio of males to females was 8:3. SFTSV was isolated from 8 patients. Phylogenetic analyses indicated that all of the Japanese SFTSV isolates formed a genotype independent to those from China. Most patients showed symptoms due to hemorrhage, possibly because of disseminated intravascular coagulation and/or hemophagocytosis. Conclusions. SFTS has been endemic to Japan, and SFTSV has been circulating naturally within the country.
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11
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Expression of recombinant herpes simplex virus type 2 glycoprotein D by high-density cell culture of Spodoptera frugiperda. Biologia (Bratisl) 2012; 67:405-410. [PMID: 32214412 PMCID: PMC7088583 DOI: 10.2478/s11756-012-0002-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2011] [Accepted: 10/05/2011] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) is the major cause of genital herpes in humans. The glycoprotein D of HSV-2 (gD2) is a promising subunit vaccine candidate for the treatment of genital herpes. The aim of the present study was to express a biologically active recombinant gD2 in eukaryotic baculovirus system in quantities sufficient for further studies. Human cDNA encoding a gD2 protein with 393 amino acids was subcloned into the pFastBac HTb vector and the recombinant protein was expressed in Spodoptera frugiperda (Sf9) cells by high-density cell culture. In a stirred bioreactor, the key limiting factors including glucose concentration, glutamine concentration and dissolved oxygen (DO) were optimized for high-density cell growth. The Sf9 cell density could reach 9.6×106 cells/mL and the yield of recombinant gD2 protein was up to 192 mg/L in cell culture under the optimal conditions of 15 mM glucose, 0.4 g/L glutamine and 40% DO. Production of significant amounts of pure, full-length gD2 opened up the possibility to investigate novel functions of gD2. Moreover, the purified recombinant gD2 protein revealed a partial prophylactic immune function in genital herpes of guinea pigs infected with HSV-2.
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12
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The Nucleocapsid Protein of the SARS Coronavirus: Structure, Function and Therapeutic Potential. MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE SARS-CORONAVIRUS 2009. [PMCID: PMC7176212 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-03683-5_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
As in other coronaviruses, the nucleocapsid protein is one of the core components of the SARS coronavirus (CoV). It oligomerizes to form a closed capsule, inside which the genomic RNA is securely stored thus providing the SARS-CoV genome with its first line of defense from the harsh conditions of the host environment and aiding in replication and propagation of the virus. In addition to this function, several reports have suggested that the SARS-CoV nucleocapsid protein modulates various host cellular processes, so as to make the internal milieu of the host more conducive for survival of the virus. This article will analyze and discuss the available literature regarding these different properties of the nucleocapsid protein. Towards the end of the article, we will also discuss some recent reports regarding the possible clinically relevant use of the nucleocapsid protein, as a candidate diagnostic tool and vaccine against SARS-CoV infection.
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13
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Kammila S, Das D, Bhatnagar PK, Sunwoo HH, Zayas-Zamora G, King M, Suresh MR. A rapid point of care immunoswab assay for SARS-CoV detection. J Virol Methods 2008; 152:77-84. [PMID: 18620761 PMCID: PMC2678951 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2008.05.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2008] [Revised: 04/18/2008] [Accepted: 05/08/2008] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The emergence of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) resulted in several outbreaks worldwide. Early tests for diagnosis were not always conclusive in identifying a SARS suspected patient. Nucleocapsid protein (NP) is the most predominant virus derived structural protein which is shed in high amounts in serum and nasopharyngeal aspirate during the first week of infection. As part of such efforts, a simple, easy to use immunoswab method was developed by generating a panel of monoclonal antibodies (MAbs), Bispecific MAbs and chicken polyclonal IgY antibody against the SARS-CoV nucleocapsid protein (NP). Employing the MAb-based immunoswab, an NP concentration of 200 pg/mL in saline and pig nasopharyngeal aspirate, and 500 pg/mL in rabbit serum were detected. BsMAb-based immunoswabs detected an NP concentration of 20 pg/mL in saline, 500 pg/mL in rabbit serum and 20-200 pg/mL in pig nasopharyngeal aspirate. Polyclonal IgY-based immunoswabs detected an NP concentration of 10 pg/mL in pig nasopharyngeal aspirate providing the most sensitive SARS point of care assay. Results show that the robust immunoswab method of detecting SARS-CoV NP antigen can be developed into an easy and effective way of identifying SARS suspected individuals during a future SARS epidemic, thereby reducing and containing the transmission. The key feature of this simple immunoswab diagnostic assay is its ability to detect the presence of the SARS-CoV antigen within 45-60 min with the availability of the body fluid samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sriram Kammila
- Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Alberta, 11304-89 Avenue, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2N8
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14
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Nagata N, Iwata N, Hasegawa H, Sato Y, Morikawa S, Saijo M, Itamura S, Saito T, Ami Y, Odagiri T, Tashiro M, Sata T. Pathology and virus dispersion in cynomolgus monkeys experimentally infected with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus via different inoculation routes. Int J Exp Pathol 2007; 88:403-14. [PMID: 18039277 PMCID: PMC2517337 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2613.2007.00567.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome-associated coronavirus (SARS-CoV) causes SARS. The pathogenic mechanisms of SARS-CoV remain poorly understood. Six cynomolgus monkeys were inoculated with the HKU39849 isolate of SARS-CoV via four routes. After intranasal inoculation, the virus was isolated from respiratory swabs on days 2–7 postinoculation (p.i.) and virus genome was detected in intestinal tissues on day 7 p.i. Virus was not detected after intragastric inoculation. After intravenous inoculation, infectious virus was isolated from rectal swabs, and virus antigen was detected in intestinal cells on day 14 p.i. After intratracheal (i.t.) inoculation, virus antigen-positive alveolar cells and macrophages were found in lung and infectious virus was detected in lymphoid and intestinal tissues. The peribronchial lymph nodes showed evidence of an immune response. Lung tissue and/or fluid and/or the peribronchial lymph node of the intratracheally inoculated animals had high TNF-α, IL-8 and IL-12 levels. SARS lung lesions are only generated in monkeys by i.t. inoculation. The virus appears to spread into and perhaps via the intestinal and lymphatic systems. It has been suggested previously that viraemia may cause intestinal infections in SARS patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noriyo Nagata
- Department of Pathology, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan.
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15
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Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus as an agent of emerging and reemerging infection. Clin Microbiol Rev 2007; 20:660-94. [PMID: 17934078 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00023-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 657] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Before the emergence of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) coronavirus (SARS-CoV) in 2003, only 12 other animal or human coronaviruses were known. The discovery of this virus was soon followed by the discovery of the civet and bat SARS-CoV and the human coronaviruses NL63 and HKU1. Surveillance of coronaviruses in many animal species has increased the number on the list of coronaviruses to at least 36. The explosive nature of the first SARS epidemic, the high mortality, its transient reemergence a year later, and economic disruptions led to a rush on research of the epidemiological, clinical, pathological, immunological, virological, and other basic scientific aspects of the virus and the disease. This research resulted in over 4,000 publications, only some of the most representative works of which could be reviewed in this article. The marked increase in the understanding of the virus and the disease within such a short time has allowed the development of diagnostic tests, animal models, antivirals, vaccines, and epidemiological and infection control measures, which could prove to be useful in randomized control trials if SARS should return. The findings that horseshoe bats are the natural reservoir for SARS-CoV-like virus and that civets are the amplification host highlight the importance of wildlife and biosecurity in farms and wet markets, which can serve as the source and amplification centers for emerging infections.
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Surjit M, Lal SK. The SARS-CoV nucleocapsid protein: a protein with multifarious activities. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2007; 8:397-405. [PMID: 17881296 PMCID: PMC7106238 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2007.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2007] [Revised: 07/10/2007] [Accepted: 07/11/2007] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Ever since the discovery of SARS-CoV in the year 2003, numerous researchers around the world have been working relentlessly to understand the biology of this virus. As in other coronaviruses, nucleocapsid (N) is one of the most crucial structural components of the SARS-CoV. Hence major attention has been focused on characterization of this protein. Independent studies conducted by several laboratories have elucidated significant insight into the primary function of this protein, which is to encapsidate the viral genome. In addition, many reports also suggest that this protein interferes with different cellular pathways, thus implying it to be a key regulatory component of the virus too. In the first part of this review, we will discuss these different properties of the N-protein in a consolidated manner. Further, this protein has also been proposed to be an efficient diagnostic tool and a candidate vaccine against the SARS-CoV. Hence, towards the end of this article, we will discuss some recent progress regarding the possible clinically relevant use of the N-protein.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sunil K. Lal
- Corresponding author at: Virology Group, ICGEB, P.O. Box 10504, Aruna Asaf Ali Road, New Delhi 110067, India. Tel.: +91 9818522900.
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17
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Spencer KA, Osorio FA, Hiscox JA. Recombinant viral proteins for use in diagnostic ELISAs to detect virus infection. Vaccine 2007; 25:5653-9. [PMID: 17478017 PMCID: PMC7130988 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2007.02.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2006] [Revised: 02/15/2007] [Accepted: 02/19/2007] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
ELISAs provide a valuable tool in the detection and diagnosis of virus infection. The ability to produce recombinant viral proteins will ensure that future ELISAs are safe, specific and rapid. This latter point being the most crucial advantage in that even if a virus cannot be cultured, provided gene sequence is available, it is possible to rapidly respond to emerging viruses and new viral strains of existing pathogens. Indeed, ELISAs based on peptides (corresponding to epitopes) also hold great promise, as in this case no cloning or expression of a recombinant protein is required. Both recombinant protein and peptide based systems lend themselves to large scale production and purification. These approaches can also be used to distinguish recombinant vaccines from parental or wild type viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly-Anne Spencer
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, UK
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18
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Fukushi S, Mizutani T, Saijo M, Kurane I, Taguchi F, Tashiro M, Morikawa S. Evaluation of a novel vesicular stomatitis virus pseudotype-based assay for detection of neutralizing antibody responses to SARS-CoV. J Med Virol 2007; 78:1509-12. [PMID: 17063504 PMCID: PMC7166816 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.20732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)‐coronavirus (SARS‐CoV) is the causative agent of SARS. The S protein of SARS‐CoV is a major target for neutralizing antibodies (Nabs) in infected patients. We developed a neutralization assay using a recombinant vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) bearing SARS‐CoV‐S protein (VSV‐SARS‐St19). A total of 56 serum samples collected from 22 healthcare workers in the Hanoi French Hospital during the SARS epidemic in 2003 were evaluated and compared to the conventional neutralizing assay using infectious SARS‐CoV. The results of the neutralization assay using VSV‐SARS‐St19 pseudotype showed good correlations with those using infectious SARS‐CoV. The newly developed neutralization assay was more sensitive to low antibody titers in serum samples. Thus, the VSV‐SARS‐St19 is a useful tool for detecting Nabs against SARS‐CoV. J. Med. Virol. 78:1509–1512, 2006. © 2006 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuetsu Fukushi
- Department of Virology I, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Musashimurayama, Tokyo, Japan.
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19
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Liu Z, Wang Z, Liu Y, Dong W, Qi Y. Analysis of proteins that interact with nucleocapsid protein of SARS-CoV using 15-mer phage-displayed library. CHINESE SCIENCE BULLETIN-CHINESE 2007; 52:2072-2080. [PMID: 32214725 PMCID: PMC7088746 DOI: 10.1007/s11434-007-0303-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2007] [Accepted: 04/16/2007] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Analysis of proteins that interact with N protein of SARS-CoV using 15-mer phage-displayed library will help to explore the virus pathogenesis and to develop new drugs and vaccines against SARS. In this study, we cloned, expressed and purified N protein of SARS-CoV. This 46-kD N protein was verified by SDS-PAGE and Western-blot. Then, the peptides binding-specific to N protein were identified using 15-mer phage-displayed library. Surprisingly, all of the 89 clones from monoclonal ELISA were positive (S/N>2.1) and the result was further confirmed experimentally once again. Six N protein-binding peptides, designated separately as SNA1, SNA2, SNA4, SNA5, SNA9 and SNG11, were selected for sequencing. Sequence analysis suggested that SNA5 shared approximatively 100% sequence identity to SNA4, SNA2, SNA9 and SNA1. In addition, the binding specificity of the 15-mer peptides with the SARS-CoV N protein was further demonstrated by blocking ELISA using the synthetical 15-mer peptide according to the deduced amino acid sequence of SNA5. Also, the deduced amino sequence of SNA5 was compared with proteins in translated database using the tblastx program, and the results showed that the proteins with the highest homology were Ubiquinol-cytochrome c reductase iron-sulfur subunits (UCRI or UQCR), otherwise known as the Rieske iron-sulfur proteins (RISP). Notablely, in the [2Fe-2S] redox centre of UCRI, there were 6 residues [GGW(Y)F(Y)CP] compatible to the residues (position 2→7, GGWFCP7) of the NH2-terminal of the 15-mer peptide, which indicated higher binding specificity between the N protein of SARS-CoV and the redox centre of UCRI to some extent. Here, the possible molecular mechanisms of SARS-CoV N protein in the pathogenesis of SARS are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- ZhengXue Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072 China
- Biology Department, Chongqing Three Gorges University, Chongqing, 404000 China
| | - ZhanHui Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072 China
| | - YingLe Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072 China
| | - Wei Dong
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072 China
| | - YiPeng Qi
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072 China
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