"It made me feel brighter in myself"- The health and well-being impacts of a residential front garden horticultural intervention

Promoting planting in front gardens: a systematic approach to intervention development

Planting in front gardens is associated with a range of human and environmental health benefits. Effective interventions aimed at cultivating this practice are, however, hampered by the paucity of theory- and evidence-based behavioural research in this context. This study aims to systematically determine a set of behaviour change interventions likely to be effective at promoting planting in front gardens amongst UK householders. The Behaviour Change Wheel framework was applied. Behavioural systems mapping was used to identify community actors relevant to front gardening. Potential behavioural influences on householders' front gardening were identified using the Capability, Opportunity, Motivation, Behaviour model. Using peer-reviewed scientific findings as evidence, behavioural influences were systematically linked to potential intervention strategies, behaviour change techniques and real-world implementation options. Finally, intervention recommendations were refined through expert evaluations and local councillor and public stakeholder feedback, evaluating them against the Acceptability, Practicability, Effectiveness, Affordability, Side effects and Equity criteria in a UK implementation context. This study formulated 12 intervention recommendations, implementable at a community level, to promote front gardening. Stakeholder feedback revealed a preference for educational and supportive (social and practical) strategies (e.g., community gardening workshops, front gardening 'starter kits') over persuasive and motivational approaches (e.g., social marketing, motivational letters from the council to householders). Householders' front gardening behaviour is complex and influenced by the behaviour of many other community actors. It also needs to be understood as a step in a continuum of other behaviours (e.g., clearing land, gardening, waste disposal). This study demonstrates the application of behavioural science to an understudied implementation context, that is, front gardening promotion, drawing on a rigorous development process promoting a transparent approach to intervention design. Stakeholder consultation allowed relevance, feasibility and practical issues to be considered. These improve the likely effectiveness of interventions in practice. The next steps include evaluating the proposed interventions in practice.

Impact of "blue-green diet" on human health and wellbeing: A systematic review of potential determinants in shaping the effectiveness of blue-green infrastructure (BGI) in urban settings

Discourses concerning the potential health benefits of blue-green infrastructure (BGI) have gained momentum, highlighting its positive influence on human health and wellbeing. While studies have explored the concept of "Nature Pyramid" and the role of exposure to natural environments in promoting health, the role of water elements remains underexplored. Rooted in this concept, this study proposed a notion of "blue-green diet" as a framework to understand the intricate mechanisms and determinants of optimal blue-green exposure. Understanding the relationship between these determinants and their health-related impacts can facilitate the enhancement of BGI design, leading to greater effectiveness in promoting health and wellbeing and supporting sustainable urban development strategies. To enhance the comprehension of the "blue-green diet", this study conducted a systematic literature review to grasp the underlying mechanisms behind its beneficial effects, focusing on two key determinants of "blue-green diet", which are also derived from the concept of the "Nature Pyramid": (1) the type of BGI and (2) the mode of interaction with and within BGIs. Under the search of BGI's overall health impacts, this study selected 54 journal publications concerning BGI's type and interaction mode from Web of Science and Scopus since 2010. The review revealed significant disparities in the health benefits provided by different types of BGI (in terms of artificial extent and scale) and between active and passive interaction modes. It examines how to balance natural and artificial elements for enhancing the benefits of BGI and discusses the attributes of BGI that encourage diverse and meaningful interaction patterns. These efforts collectively aim to optimize BGI design and planning, increase its capacity to promote health, and extend its benefits to a wider range of individuals. Future research should encompass a broader spectrum of determinants, such as diverse BGI settings, visit frequency and duration, and user's social-cultural backgrounds.

Which horticultural activities are more effective for children's recovery from stress and mental fatigue? A quasi-experimental study

Introduction

Studies have established the benefits of horticultural therapy and activities for human health and well-being. Nonetheless, limited research has been conducted on the potential restorative advantages and distinctions between different types of horticultural activities in terms of stress reduction.

Methods

This study employed a quantitative research method to investigate the stress recovery benefits of five horticultural activities (flower arrangement, sowing and transplanting seeds, kokedama crafting, pressed flower card making, and decorative bottle painting with dried flowers) and one reference activity (short composition writing) for children. The experiment was conducted in a children's activity center's multi-purpose classroom with 48 elementary students aged 9-12 years. The subjects first took a stress test to induce stress and then engaged in horticultural activities for 20 min. Physiological stress was assessed using electrocardiograms and electroencephalograms as feedback indicators. Psychological and emotional changes were determined using the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule for Children and Self-Assessment Manikin scales.

Results

The results demonstrated that horticultural activities greatly reduced physiological fatigue, and their recovery benefits were significantly greater than those of the reference activity. The recovery effects from different horticultural activities were similar across physiological indicators, although flower arrangement and sowing and transplanting seeds exhibited relatively robust recovery benefits. The heart rate and α-EEG-based generalized estimating equation revealed that horticultural activities offered significantly better relative recovery at each time phase of operation than the reference activity, with girls showing a 3.68% higher relative recovery value than boys. Flower arrangement and kokedama crafting offered better physiological recovery for students with prior horticultural experience, and these two activities received the highest scores in terms of positive effects and the "pleasure" dimension. Students believed that participating in horticultural activities resulted in a noteworthy increase in personal confidence and a greater sense of achievement.

Conclusion

The study suggests that horticultural activities that involve real and vibrant plants or natural materials and are more attractive have more stress-relieving benefits. We conclude that horticultural activities are beneficial leisure activities that aid in stress relief for children and that it is important to consider the attributes of activities when developing horticultural programs for elementary students.

A lower connection to nature is related to lower mental health benefits from nature contact

Increasing evidence demonstrates the psychological benefits of nature contact. However, the evidence is often established at the population level, and the individual differences in the psychological benefits gained from nature are considered negligible variations. In this study, we performed a cross-sectional online survey in Brisbane and Sydney, Australia, from April 15th and May 15th, 2021 around one year after the first covid-19 pandemic lockdowns. The results show that individuals with a stronger connection to nature are linked with a lower level of stress and anxiety with increased frequency in public greenspace visits, while such an association is less clear for individuals with a weaker connection to nature. We also find that, through the answer to an open-ended question, individuals with a lower connection to nature tend to mention nature-related words less as the reason for visiting greenspace. This indicates that a person's connection to nature is linked with how they interact with nature and thus might determine whether and how much psychological benefit a person gains from experiencing nature.

Quantifying the relationship between gardening and health and well-being in the UK: a survey during the covid-19 pandemic

BACKGROUND

Rates of non-communicable diseases, including cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes, and mental health problems, such as anxiety and depression, are high and rising in the urbanising world. Gardening could improve both mental and physical health and help prevent a range of conditions by increasing fruit and vegetable (F&V) consumption, promoting physical activity, and reducing stress. However, good quality quantitative research in the area is scarce, and our understanding of the role of allotments and home gardens, and the effects of the level of engagement in gardening and involvement with food production has thus far been limited.

METHODS

We quantitatively assess the relationship between home and allotment gardening and various indicators and predictors of health and well-being using an online survey of gardeners (n = 203) and non-gardeners (n = 71) in the UK. The survey was composed of multiple validated questionnaires (including the Short Form Food Frequency Questionnaire (SFFFQ), the Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Wellbeing Scale (WEMWBS), the Physical Health Questionnaire (PHQ) and the Self-Rated Health question (SRH)) and self-defined questions relating to participants' involvement with gardening and food production, and relevant demographic and lifestyle factors. Data were analysed using a series of hierarchical logistic and multiple linear regression models adjusting for socio-demographic variables.

RESULTS

After adjusting for relevant socio-demographic factors, gardening related variables were associated with better self-rated health, higher mental well-being, increased F&V consumption. Higher F&V intake was in turn also associated with better self-rated health and decreased odds of obesity. Thus, gardening had a positive association with four different aspects of health and well-being, directly or indirectly via increased F&V consumption.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that gardening in UK allotments and domestic gardens may promote different aspects of health and well-being via multiple mechanisms. Improving access to growing space and promoting regular gardening could provide a range of benefits to public health. More research on how socio-economic factors influence the health and well-being benefits of gardening will help policymakers devise strategies to maximise these benefits.

Is there any difference between the owners and the public in their visual impact assessments?--A case study of the front garden of multi-storey residential buildings

As a special garden unique to China, the front garden of multi-storey residential buildings has certain public attributes but is managed by a single owner. In this study, the front gardens of multi-storey residential buildings in Jiangsu province, China, were set as research object. Meanwhile, the size of garden, plant type, plant vertical structure, color number, plant coverage, and fence material were chosen as the landscape features to be explored. Then the experiments were conducted to reveal the visual impact assessment rendered by the public with different demographic attributes and the results obtained were analyzed. As is indicated by the statistical analysis, significant differences exist between the owners and the public in their visual impact assessments of the front gardens; the six landscape features are the main factors that influence the public's visual impact assessment; and the public with different demographic attributes would render different visual impact assessments of front gardens. This study offers valuable help for the design of front gardens of multi-storey residential buildings.

Emerging trends and knowledge domain of research on urban green open spaces and wellbeing: A scientometric review

Green Open Spaces (GOS) and its linkages to human health and wellbeing have received growing attention in the field of urban planning. In spite of increase in number of studies in this field, there is lack of scientometric perspective pertaining to this research domain. The purpose of the study is to map the research status and key research directions in the interdisciplinary domain: Green open spaces, public health and urban planning, using Citespace. Scientometric analysis (co-author, co-citation, co-word and cluster analysis) is conducted for 451 peer reviewed publications, primarily published in last two decades (2000-2021) in the web of science database. The study assessed influential authors, journals and documents to identify the intellectual structure and network of co-authorship and countries to understand research collaborations of this domain. As a result of this review, five emerging research trends in this domain are identified - Emerging data sources, Study areas at various spatial scales, Type of study, Assessment of urban GOS benefits and Urban planning contribution in the research area. In addition, critical review of these trends is conducted to understand corresponding challenges and opportunities. The critical analysis highlighted the need of generating evidence base appropriate for assessing GOS use and user perception, especially in developing nations capturing socio-demographic diversity. The use of Citespace for scientometric analysis facilitated the systematic understanding of this research area by visualizing and analyzing various patterns and trends. This study provides an intensive understanding of present research status and emerging trends of this research domain. Findings in this study are envisioned to provide practitioners, decision makers and researchers with promising future research directions.

Motivations for urban front gardening: A quantitative analysis

Private gardens in urban settings offer multiple benefits for the environment and society. In addition to benefits to people's health and well-being, planting in front gardens in particular can mitigate local flooding and urban heat islands. To encourage more front garden planting, greater understanding of householders' motivations for front gardening is needed. Addressing research gaps on gardening for reasons other than food production and on motivations for gardening in front gardens, a large-scale online survey (n = 1,000) was conducted with urban/suburban dwellers in England. Exploratory factor analysis identified three factors of motivation: enjoyment, meaning and benefit (intrinsic), creating something beautiful (aesthetic) and functional outcomes (utilitarian). A multiple regression model incorporating the three factors and sociodemographic variables explained 11% of variance of time spent front gardening, with intrinsic motivations the strongest predictor. Intrinsic motivations were stronger for women than for men. The study provides a quantitative categorisation of motivational factors as a basis for comparative research and design of interventions and policy to increase front gardening.

Horticultural therapy for stress reduction: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Introduction

Horticultural therapy has been increasingly accepted as a non-pharmacological stress reduction treatment. Previous studies have demonstrated its therapeutic effects, with the effect varying according to the populations, settings, and interventions of horticultural therapy. This study aimed to provide a comprehensive review of the current literature regarding the effectiveness of horticultural therapy in reducing stress.

Methods

We selected databases including PubMed, Cochrane Library, Embase, Web of Science, China National Knowledge Infrastructure, and VIP Data as our data source, and the original search was completed in January 2023.

Results

Our results showed significantly increased effects of horticultural therapy on psychological indicators compared to a control group, but an insignificant effect on physiology indicators. The result of the subgroup analysis demonstrated that the stress-reducing effects of horticultural therapy were related to the characteristics of the population and indoor and virtual areas were the most effective setting for horticultural therapy. At the same time, a total duration of 100-500 minutes provided better effects of stress reduction.

Discussion

We also developed a theoretical framework based on a "Participants-Settings-Interventions" structure for horticulture therapy in terms of its stress-reduction effects, to provide a reference for future horticultural therapy activities.

Key Factors Strengthening Residents’ Psychological Well-Being and Critical Human-Nature Connections within the Living Spaces—An Example from Beijing

Background: Residential green spaces and the co-inhabiting bird communities provide critical cultural ecosystem services for urban dwellers, which is critical for citizens’ psychological well-being but has largely been overlooked, especially in China. This study attempted to delineate the relationship between human-nature interactions occurring at different scenarios in the health deriving procedure, and identify the key factors influencing urban residents’ psychological well-being and the potential critical human-nature connections within their living spaces. Methods: Bird, plant, and social surveys were sequentially conducted. A model selection procedure based on AICc information was used to find the key factors that are responsible for residents’ psychological well-being, and logistic regression analysis was conducted to figure out the key drivers for the occurrence of critical within-living-space human-nature connections. Results: Most of the respondents are aware of the neighborhood biodiversity and most of them are fond of it, and respondents who prefer fauna over flora have a considerably lower depression degree. Watching birds is the only critical within-living-space nature-related activity that is responsible for residents’ psychological well-being. Both residents’ psychological well-being and bird watching activity were simultaneously affected by nature-related activities within and outside the living spaces, while their preference for different aspects of biodiversity and their capability in perceiving them were also important, despite the difference in exact parameters. In addition, personal attributes such as age, financial income, and physical or mental health status also contribute to psychological well-being. Conclusions: This study successfully bridged citizens’ minds with health products, and the major contribution was the demonstration of a spatial-scale-oriented circuit for people-nature connections, which contributes to the practical application of nature-based therapy.

Bringing nature into private urban housing: Environmental, social and food connections for urban resilience

Ongoing confinement for millions of urban citizens due to the Covid-19 pandemic has raised ecological consciousness, changed food habits and questioned the relationship urban dwellers have with nature. There is more interest in bringing plants into urban homes and in sustainable food sources, but no research have studied the relationships between food behaviours and plant-care activities. To address this gap and explore urban citizens' nature relatedness through the greening of private areas, we conducted a national survey of French, young urban citizens (n = 1000), who are more committed to 'edible' cities than older generations but have the lowest rate of plant purchasers. A quantitative approach reveals the prevalence of aesthetic/hedonistic expectations for plants in private housing but also demonstrates contrasting perceptions of tasks for plant maintaining and unequal valuation of social issues around plants. We discuss continuities between environmental awareness, commitment to sustainable food and natural/social uses of plants and argue that urban planning processes should address potential synergies for more integrative resilience. Community building around green areas, urban agriculture or collective gardens, in cities, can have ripple effects towards the greening of private housing. Lastly, the multi-disciplinary approach bridging psychosociology and urban studies can inspire multi-scalar urban planning.

Perceived COVID-19-related stress drives home gardening intentions and improves human health in Taiwan

The COVID-19 pandemic has added a layer of mental health problems and perceived stress. Home gardening is considered a good method to reduce perceived stress. The current research evidence is insufficient to understand the relationship and influencing factors between the intentions, behaviors, and benefits of home gardening during short-term COVID-19 events. Although the duration from the onset to stabilization of the outbreak lasted for only 1.5 months from May to June 2021 throughout Taiwan, the significant pandemic changes might have affected the perceived stress along with the intentions, behaviors, and benefits of home gardening. This study explored the relationship between pandemic stress and home gardening through online snowball sampling because of the strict social distancing regulations. A total of 1455 non-follow-up and internet questionnaires throughout Taiwan were collected during the wave onset, peak, easing, and stabilization stages. The questionnaire included questions on personal information, perceived pandemic stress, gardening intentions, gardening behaviors, and gardening benefits. This study showed that perceived stress increased from the pandemic onset to its peak, and decreased from the peak to stabilization stages. Home gardening intentions and behaviors also revealed similar trends. Higher pandemic-perceived stress directly increased home-gardening intentions and indirectly promoted home-gardening behaviors and benefits. Our findings indicated that home gardening is a positive element in reducing perceived stress. Lower gardening intentions and behaviors were observed when the high perceived stress was removed. This study suggests that home gardening was a valuable strategy for staying close to nature and obtaining multiple benefits during the peak pandemic period. Providing small-scale gardening activities and spaces is appropriate for obtaining gardening benefits and avoiding space abandonment after the pandemic. Providing seeds, seedlings, tools, knowledge, online home gardening programs, and small residential and food gardens is a valuable strategy for obtaining multiple benefits during the peak of the pandemic.

Can biodiverse streetscapes mitigate the effects of noise and air pollution on human wellbeing?

Most of the global population are urban, with inhabitants exposed to raised levels of pollution. Pollutants negatively impact human wellbeing, and can alter the structure and diversity of ecosystems. Contrastingly, urban biodiversity can positively contribute to human wellbeing. We know little, however, about whether the negative impacts of pollution on wellbeing could be lessened for householders living on more biodiverse streets, as the complex interlinkages between pollution, biodiversity and wellbeing have rarely been examined. Here, we used structural equation modelling to simultaneously test whether biodiversity (actual and perceived) mediates the relationship between traffic-related pollution (noise, dB; nitrogen dioxide, NO₂) or air pollution (PM_2.5) and wellbeing (mental wellbeing, happiness). In summer 2019, we conducted questionnaires and biodiversity surveys, and collected noise and air pollution data, from households (n = 282) across the streetscapes of Leeds, UK. Biodiversity (actual or perceived) showed no mediating effects. However, increased flowering plant richness was positively associated with mental wellbeing. Traffic-related pollution negatively affected pollinator and flowering plant richness, but not wellbeing. This could be because householders are not exposed to high levels of noise or NO₂ because they do not maintain front gardens on noisier streets. There was no measurable effect of air pollution on biodiversity or wellbeing. These findings shed light on the complex mechanisms through which biodiversity could improve human wellbeing. Enhancing the diversity of plant species in streetscapes would have a positive effect on wellbeing, further emphasising the important role that biodiverse urban streetscapes play in improving the liveability of cities.

Seeds and the city: a review of municipal home food gardening programs in Canada in response to the COVID-19 pandemic

In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada, home food gardening articles have saturated popular media outlets. Home food gardening is more popular than ever, and community gardens and community greenhouses are at capacity with long waiting lists for plots. Several local governments across the country are also participating in the food gardening craze. This study compares 19 municipal urban home food gardening programs that ran in 2020. These municipalities provided program participants with free gardening supplies and instructions on how to grow food at home. This study reveals a complicated relationship among municipalities, food gardening programs and household and community food security. The study also determines that the social and emotional challenges brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic are somewhat alleviated through gardening. Ultimately, municipalities are limited in their policy capacities to adequately move the needle on food insecurity in Canada.

Nature's contributions in coping with a pandemic in the 21st century: A narrative review of evidence during COVID-19

While COVID-19 lockdowns have slowed coronavirus transmission, such structural measures also have unintended consequences on mental and physical health. Growing evidence shows that exposure to the natural environment (e.g., blue-green spaces) can improve human health and wellbeing. In this narrative review, we synthesized the evidence about nature's contributions to health and wellbeing during the first two years of the COVID-19 pandemic. We found that during the pandemic, people experienced multiple types of nature, including both outdoors and indoors. Frequency of visits to outdoor natural areas (i.e., public parks) depended on lockdown severity and socio-cultural contexts. Other forms of nature exposure, such as spending time in private gardens and viewing outdoor greenery from windows, may have increased. The majority of the evidence suggests nature exposure during COVID-19 pandemic was associated with less depression, anxiety, stress, and more happiness and life satisfaction. Additionally, nature exposure was correlated with less physical inactivity and fewer sleep disturbances. Evidence was mixed regarding associations between nature exposure and COVID-related health outcomes, while nature visits might be associated with greater rates of COVID-19 transmission and mortality when proper social distancing measures were not maintained. Findings on whether nature exposure during lockdowns helped ameliorate health inequities by impacting the health of lower-socioeconomic populations more than their higher-socioeconomic counterparts for example were mixed. Based on these findings, we argue that nature exposure may have buffered the negative mental and behavioral impacts of lockdowns during the COVID-19 pandemic. Recovery and resilience during the current crises and future public health crises might be improved with nature-based infrastructure, interventions, designs, and governance.

Nature's contributions in coping with a pandemic in the 21st century: A narrative review of evidence during COVID-19

While COVID-19 lockdowns have slowed coronavirus transmission, such structural measures also have unintended consequences on mental and physical health. Growing evidence shows that exposure to the natural environment (e.g., blue-green spaces) can improve human health and wellbeing. In this narrative review, we synthesized the evidence about nature's contributions to health and wellbeing during the first two years of the COVID-19 pandemic. We found that during the pandemic, people experienced multiple types of nature, including both outdoors and indoors. Frequency of visits to outdoor natural areas (i.e., public parks) depended on lockdown severity and socio-cultural contexts. Other forms of nature exposure, such as spending time in private gardens and viewing outdoor greenery from windows, may have increased. The majority of the evidence suggests nature exposure during COVID-19 pandemic was associated with less depression, anxiety, stress, and more happiness and life satisfaction. Additionally, nature exposure was correlated with less physical inactivity and fewer sleep disturbances. Evidence was mixed regarding associations between nature exposure and COVID-related health outcomes, while nature visits might be associated with greater rates of COVID-19 transmission and mortality when proper social distancing measures were not maintained. Findings on whether nature exposure during lockdowns helped ameliorate health inequities by impacting the health of lower-socioeconomic populations more than their higher-socioeconomic counterparts for example were mixed. Based on these findings, we argue that nature exposure may have buffered the negative mental and behavioral impacts of lockdowns during the COVID-19 pandemic. Recovery and resilience during the current crises and future public health crises might be improved with nature-based infrastructure, interventions, designs, and governance.

Gardening can relieve human stress and boost nature connection during the COVID-19 pandemic

The COVID-19 pandemic has severely disrupted social life. Gardens and yards have seemingly risen as a lifeline during the pandemic. Here, we investigated the relationship between people and gardening during the COVID-19 pandemic and what factors influenced the ability of people to garden. We examined survey responses (n = 3,743) from gardeners who reported how the pandemic had affected personal motivations to garden and their use of their gardens, alongside pandemic-related challenges, such as food access during the first wave of COVID-19 (May-Aug 2020). The results show that for the respondents, gardening was overwhelmingly important for nature connection, individual stress release, outdoor physical activity and food provision. The importance of food provision and economic security were also important for those facing greater hardships from the pandemic. While the literature on gardening has long shown the multiple benefits of gardening, we report on these benefits during a global pandemic. More research is needed to capture variations in public sentiment and practice - including those who do little gardening, have less access to land, and reside in low-income communities particularly in the global south. Nevertheless, we argue that gardening can be a public health strategy, readily accessible to boost societal resilience to disturbances.

Do social isolation and neighborhood walkability influence relationships between COVID-19 experiences and wellbeing in predominantly Black urban areas?

Black Americans have been disproportionately affected by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2 or COVID-19) pandemic. Since the pandemic's start, we have observed compounded health, social, and economic impacts for communities of color, fueled in part by profound residential segregation in the United States that, for centuries prior to the pandemic, created differences in access to opportunity and resources. Based on a longitudinal cohort of Black residents living in two racially isolated Pittsburgh neighborhoods, we sought to: 1) describe the experiences of behavioral responses to COVID-19 conditions (e.g., closures of businesses, schools, government offices) and illness experiences reported by residents within these disinvested, urban areas and 2) determine if these experiences were associated with perceptions of risk, negative mental health outcomes, and food insecurity; and 3) examine whether any of the associations were explained by social isolation or modified by neighborhood walkability. We found direct associations between residents' experience with COVID-19-related closures and with the illness, with perceived risk, and change in psychological distress, sleep quality, and food insecurity from pre-COVID-19 levels. Social isolation was a statistically significant mediator of all of these associations, most strongly mediating the pathway to psychological distress. We found neighborhood walkability to be a significant moderator of the association between closure experiences and sleep quality. The results suggest that experiences of COVID-19 closures and illness were associated with serious threats to public health in Black, disinvested, urban neighborhoods, beyond those caused directly by the virus. Outcomes of the pandemic appear very much dependent on the extent to which social and physical resources are available to meet the demands of stress.

Attitudes and Behaviors toward the Use of Public and Private Green Space during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Iran

This paper reports the results of an exploratory study carried out in Birjand, Iran, during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic. The aim of the study was to explore the behavioral change in the use and the motivation to visit a green space (public or private) during the pandemic as compared to the pre-pandemic period, the effect of green spaces (private and public) on users’ feelings, the relations between the extent to which the access to green spaces was missed, and characteristics of respondents and the place they live. A survey was carried out through an online questionnaire in winter 2020 and about 400 responses were collected. The results showed a decrease in visitation of public green spaces during the pandemic, and higher visitation of private green spaces such as gardens or courtyards by those with access. In addition, both public and private green spaces enhance positive feelings and decrease the negative ones. Respondents missed access to green spaces, especially when their visitation before the pandemic was high, and women missed them more than men. Therefore, private green spaces might represent an opportunity for psychological respite in time of a pandemic, but also for socialization. The study reports respondents’ useful suggestions for urban landscape planning for the city of Birjand that might also be useful for other cities in dry lands; improving the quality of green spaces beyond the quantity may play a role in enhancing the connection to nature in the time of a pandemic, with positive effects on mental health, and this can also can improve recreation opportunities and reduce inequalities.

“We Have Been Part of the Response”: The Effects of COVID-19 on Community and Allotment Gardens in the Global North

Throughout history, urban agriculture practitioners have adapted to various challenges by continuing to provide food and social benefits. Urban gardens and farms have also responded to sudden political, economic, ecological, and social crises: wartime food shortages; urban disinvestment and property abandonment; earthquakes and floods; climate-change induced weather events; and global economic disruptions. This paper examines the effects on, and responses by, urban farms and gardens to the COVID-19 pandemic. The paper is based on data collected in the summer of 2020 at the onset of the pandemic when cities were struggling with appropriate responses to curb its spread. It builds on an international research project (FEW-meter) that developed a methodology to measure material and social benefits of urban agriculture (UA) in five countries (France, Germany, Poland, UK and USA) over two growing seasons, from a Food-Energy-Water nexus perspective. We surveyed project partners to ascertain the effects of COVID-19 on those gardens and farms and we interviewed policy stakeholders in each country to investigate the wider impacts of the pandemic on UA. We report the results with respect to five key areas: (1) garden accessibility and service provision during the pandemic; (2) adjustments to operational arrangements; (3) effects on production; (4) support for urban farms and gardens through the pandemic; and (5) thoughts about the future of urban agriculture in the recovery period and beyond. The paper shows that the pandemic resulted in multiple challenges to gardens and farms including the loss of ability to provide support services, lost income, and reductions in output because of reduced labor supply. But COVID-19 also created several opportunities: new markets to sell food locally; more time available to gardeners to work in their allotments; and increased community cohesion as neighboring gardeners looked out for one another. By illustrating the range of challenges faced by the pandemic, and strategies to address challenges used by different farms and gardens, the paper illustrates how gardens in this pandemic have adapted to become more resilient and suggests lessons for pandemic recovery and longer-term planning to enable UA to respond to future public health and other crises.

Associations of Vigorous Gardening With Cardiometabolic Risk Markers for Middle-Aged and Older Adults

This study investigates the associations of vigorous-intensity gardening time with cardiometabolic health risk markers. This cross-sectional study (AusDiab) analyzed 2011-2012 data of 3,664 adults (55% women, mean [range], age = 59.3 [34-94] years) in Australia. Multiple linear regression models examined associations of time spent participating in vigorous gardening (0, <150 min/week, ≥150 min/week) with a clustered cardiometabolic risk (CMR) score and its components, for the whole sample and stratified by age and gender. Of participants, 61% did no vigorous gardening, 23% reported <150 min/week, and 16% reported ≥150 min/week. In the whole sample, spending ≥150 min/week in vigorous gardening was associated with lower CMR (lower CMR score, waist circumference, diastolic blood pressure, and triglycerides) compared with no vigorous gardening. Stratified analyses suggested that these associations were almost exclusively observed for older adults and women. These findings suggest the public health potential of vigorous-intensity gardening in reducing CMR.

Greening the City: How to Get Rid of Garden Pavement! The ‘Steenbreek’ Program as a Dutch Example

The Steenbreek program is a private Dutch program which aims to involve citizens, municipalities and other stakeholders in replacing pavement with vegetation in private gardens. The Dutch approach is characterized by minimal governmental incentives or policy, which leaves a niche for private initiatives like Steenbreek, that mainly work on behavioural change. The aim of this paper is to build a model based on theory that can be used to improve and better evaluate depaving actions that are based on behavioural change. We tested this garden greening behaviour model in the Steenbreek program. The main result is that the model provides an understanding of the ‘how and why’ of the Steenbreek initiatives. Based on this we are able to provide recommendations for the improvement of future initiatives. Steenbreek covers a wide range of projects that together, in very different ways, take into account elements of the theoretical framework; either more on information factors, or on supporting factors, sometimes taking all elements together in a single action. This focus is sometimes understandable when just one element is needed (e.g., support), sometimes more elements could be taken into account to be more effective. If a certain element of the framework is lacking, the change of behaviour will not (or will only partly) take place. The model also gives insight into a more specific approach aimed at the people most susceptible to changing their behaviour, which would make actions more effective.