The role of perceived public and private green space in subjective health and wellbeing during and after the first peak of the COVID-19 outbreak

Residential greenspace and COVID-19 Severity: A cohort study of 313,657 individuals in Greater Manchester, United Kingdom

BACKGROUND

Greenspaces contribute positively to mental and physical well-being, promote social cohesion, and alleviate environmental stressors, such as air pollution. Ecological studies suggest that greenspace may affect incidence and severity of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19).

OBJECTIVE

This study examines the association between residential greenspace and COVID-19 related hospitalization and death.

METHOD

In this retrospective cohort based on patient records from the Greater Manchester Care Records, all first COVID-19 cases diagnosed between March 1, 2020, and May 31, 2022 were followed until COVID-19 related hospitalization or death within 28 days. Residential greenspace availability was assessed using the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index per lower super output area in Greater Manchester. The association of greenspace with COVID-19 hospitalization and mortality were estimated using multivariate logistic regression models after adjusting for potential individual, temporal, and spatial confounders. We explored potential effect modifications of the associations with greenspace and COVID-19 severity by age, sex, body mass index, smoking, deprivation, and certain comorbidities. Combined effects of greenspace and air pollution (NO2 and PM2.5) were investigated by mutually adjusting pairs with correlation coefficients ≤ 0·7.

RESULTS

Significant negative associations were observed between greenspace availability and COVID-19 hospitalization and mortality with odds ratios [OR] (95 % Confidence Intervals [CI]) of 0·96 (0·94-0·97) and 0·84 (0·80-0·88) (per interquartile range [IQR]), respectively. These were significantly modified by deprivation (P-value for interaction < 0.05), showing that those most deprived obtained largest benefits from greenspace. Inclusion of NO2 and PM2.5 diminished associations to null for COVID-19 hospitalization, but only reduced them slightly for mortality, where inverse associations remained.

CONCLUSION

In the Greater Manchester area, residential greenspace is associated with reduced risk of hospitalization or death in individuals with COVID-19, with deprived groups obtaining the greatest benefits. Associations were strongest for COVID-19 mortality, which were robust to inclusion of air pollutants in the models.

Exploration of the Determinants of Subjective Health and Depression Using Korean Longitudinal Study of Aging Data

Aging is an imperative issue in Korean society, and a healthy life is important for a better quality of life for older adults. Therefore, the purpose of this research was to investigate the determinants of subjective health and depression in middle-aged and elderly Korean individuals. This study used three attributes as the determinants of subjective health and depression, including the curve linear effect of medical expenses and eating-out expenses and the linear impact of regular exercise. We utilized the Korean Longitudinal Study of Aging (KLOSA) to determine the associations between five attributes: subjective health, depression, medical expenses, eating-out expenses, and regular exercise. Research panel data were employed as the data source. The study period was between 2018 and 2020. This research implemented various multiple linear panel regression econometric analysis instruments: ordinary least squares, random effects, and fixed effects. The mean age of survey participants was 72.10 years, and 35 percent of participants were female. The number of observations for data analysis was 7197. The results revealed that medical and eating-out expenses had a curved linear effect on subjective health and depression. Moreover, regular exercise positively affected subjective health and resulted in less depression. These findings may inform policy decisions that promote regular exercise and manage medical and eating-out expenses, thereby enhancing subjective health and mitigating depression.

Impact of neighborhood context on self-rated health among very old adults living in Germany: a cross-sectional representative study

BACKGROUND

Increasingly, evidence has shown that different aspects of neighborhood context play a significant role in self-rated health, one of the key health indicators in advanced age. Nevertheless, very old adults are often under represented or excluded from such research. Therefore, the first aim of this study was to examine whether social, socioeconomic, and physical neighborhood context is associated with self-rated health in the very old population of Germany. The second objective was to explore whether the link of socioeconomic and physical neighborhood context with self-rated health is moderated by availability of social resources in neighborhoods.

METHODS

Data from the representative survey, "Old Age in Germany" (D80+) were employed. In total, the study sample of D80+ included 10,578 individuals aged 80 years and over. Additionally, the D80+ data were matched with the freely accessible regional dataset of the Federal Institute for Research on Building, Urban Affairs, and Spatial Development. Two self-rated items (place attachment and social cohesion) were used to assess social neighborhood context. Socioeconomic context of neighborhoods was operationalized by German index of socioeconomic deprivation. To evaluate physical context, perceived measures of building conditions and walkability were included. Using the maximum likelihood estimator with robust standard errors, logistic regression models were estimated to analyze the relationship between neighborhood context (social, socioeconomic, and physical context, as well as their interactions) and self-rated health.

RESULTS

Including 8,066 participants in the analysis, the findings showed that better condition of residential building, higher walkability, being closely attached to outdoor places, and higher social cohesion were associated with higher chance to report good self-rated health of very old adults. In the adjusted models, the German socioeconomic deprivation index was not related to self-rated health. The effect of socioeconomic and physical neighborhood context on self-rated health did not differ according available neighborhood social resources.

CONCLUSIONS

The results indicate that especially more favorable conditions in social and physical neighborhood context are associated with good self-rated health in the very old population of Germany. Further studies should consider multiple aspects of neighborhood context as well as their interplay when examining the neighborhood impact on self-rated health in older populations.

Nature exposure and mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic: A Navigation Guide systematic review with meta-analysis

Prior reviews have highlighted that nature exposure was a valuable coping strategy enhancing mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic. However, no existing reviews have determined the quality of evidence and risk of bias of the empirical studies supporting this claim. To address this gap, we employed a Navigation Guide systematic review and meta-analysis approach to investigate associations between nature exposure and mental health during the pandemic. Searches in PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, CINAHL, and PsycInfo retrieved relevant articles published between January 1, 2020, and March 4, 2024. We used the Navigation Guide methodology to assess the risk of bias and Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluations (GRADE) assessments to evaluate the overall quality of evidence. Our search retrieved 113 studies that met the inclusion criteria and reported diverse types of exposure, including nature availability, nature visit frequency, green space accessibility, and green space type, alongside associations with 12 mental health outcomes. Meta-analyses found access to gardens was associated with lower odds of depression [(Pooled odds ratio [OR] = 0.71, 95%CI = 0.61, 0.82), I2 = 0%, n = 3] and anxiety [(Pooled OR = 0.73, 95%CI = 0.63, 0.84), I2 = 0%, n = 3]. Increased time in green spaces was associated with lower level of stress [(Pooled Corr = -0.11, 95%CI = -0.17, -0.05), I2 = 0%, n = 2]. Higher frequency of visits to nature was associated with improved mental well-being [(Pooled standardized beta = 0.10, 95%CI = 0.07, 0.14), I2 = 0%, n = 2] and general mental health [(Pooled standardized beta = 0.11, 95%CI = 0.03-0.38), I2 = 82%, n = 2]. However, the number of pooled studies was small and the overall quality of evidence was "very low" for all outcomes, and high levels of bias were observed (26% of studies had high, 71% probably high). Nonetheless, given the trends in the results, nature-based solutions emphasizing exposure to gardens and green spaces near the home may have promoted psychological resilience during this public health crisis.

A systematic review of the relationship between natural environments and physiological and mental health during different stages of the COVID-19 pandemic

COVID-19 has altered how individuals interact with natural environments. Numerous studies have investigated the effects of such environments on health. However, how natural environments influenced individuals' physiological and mental health during various stages of the COVID-19 pandemic remains unclear. Therefore, we conducted this study to investigate the effects of natural environments on individuals' physiological and mental health during different stages of the pandemic; we also identified factors that mediated these effects. Overall, we evaluated the importance of natural environments during challenging times. This study adhered to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis guidelines. The pandemic period was divided into three stages on the basis of severity: pandemic (March 2020 - February 2022), easing (February 2022-September 2022), and post-acute COVID pandemic (September 2022 - present). An initial pool of 3018 studies was narrowed down to a final sample of 73 studies. During the pandemic stage, individuals frequenting public green spaces exhibited improved well-being, reduced stress levels, and a sense of nature deprivation. Private green spaces played crucial roles in maintaining health during the pandemic stage. Highquality window views were associated with improved well-being and reduced depression. During the easing stage, the environmental quality of public green spaces influenced individuals' perceived safety and sense of belonging. And coastal areas were the preferred natural destinations in this stage. During the post-acute COVID pandemic stage, individuals acknowledged the importance of natural environments in maintaining physiological and mental health as they gradually returned to prepandemic normalcy. In conclusion, the COVID-19 pandemic highlighted humanity's reliance on nature. Therefore, sufficient urban spaces should be dedicated to preservation of natural environments to mitigate negative emotions arising from prolonged indoor stays.

Exploring the impact of pandemic fear on visitation to park attractions in urban city: A case study in Seoul, South Korea

This research explores changes in perceptions and utilization of parks during the COVID-19 pandemic in Seoul, South Korea. It investigates the relationship between fear of the pandemic and individuals' opinions about open spaces and their visiting decisions. The study surveyed 600 adults from February 22-23, 2022, and used structural equation modeling to analyze the data. The findings revealed that increased fear of the pandemic led to more positive park sentiments, resulting in higher park visits and fewer visits to other public spaces. The research highlights the significance of parks during the COVID-19 pandemic and how people's perceptions were influenced by their pandemic-related fear.

Exploring the provision, efficiency and improvements of urban green spaces on accessibility at the metropolitan scale

Accurately assessing urban green space (UGS) accessibility and proposing effective and specific proposals for UGS provision improvement accordingly is vital to urban development. Taking the metropolitan of Shanghai, China as the study site, this study first assessed its UGS provision by improved multiple step floating catchment area methods and multiple indexes, including UGS accessibility, theoretical capacity, potential demand, and traffic supply. Second, it investigated the impacts on citywide UGS accessibility justice for each UGS by comparing Gini index differences of citywide UGS accessibility between the conditions when exist and non-exist for each UGS. Third, it used ternary plots to explore the influence mechanism of the factors of UGS theoretical capacity, potential demand, and traffic supply on accessibility, and introduced an RGB color triangle to spatially and simultaneously display the effects of these three factors on accessibility for each UGS in Shanghai. Fourth, it assessed and classified the UGS provision efficiency for accessibility according to the relationships among the theoretical capacity, potential demand, and traffic supply factors by 3D scatter plot. Fifth, it proposed specific types and priorities of requirement for UGS improvement according to its impact on citywide UGS accessibility justice and the effect of its theoretical capacity factor on UGS accessibility. The findings showed that UGS accessibility and its three factors in Shanghai were correlative and had a spatial clustering trend in central city areas. The majority of UGSs showed positive impact on citywide accessibility justice, which went up with the values of accessibility and the three factors. Most UGSs were dominated by theoretical capacity power. The UGS provision efficiency was relatively good for most UGSs, which had relatively well-matched conditions and demands. The improvement requirements for UGSs on accessibility investigated in this study will improve UGS provision.

Greenspace use during the COVID-19 pandemic: A longitudinal population mobility study in the United Kingdom

BACKGROUND

The coronavirus pandemic greatly disrupted the lives of people. Restrictions introduced worldwide to limit the spread of infection included stay-at-home orders, closure of venues, restrictions to travel and limits to social contacts. During this time, parks and outdoor greenspaces gained prominent attention as alternative location for respite. Population mobility data offers a unique opportunity to understand the impact of the pandemic on outdoor behaviour. We examine the role of the restrictions on park use throughout the full span of the pandemic while controlling for weather and region.

METHODS

This study provides a longitudinal population analysis of park visitation using Google COVID-19 Community Mobility Reports data in the UK. Daily park visitation was plotted and ANOVA analyses tested season and year effects in visitation. Then, regressions examined park visitation beyond weather (temperature and rain), according to COVID-19 restrictions, while controlling for region specificities through unit fixed effect models.

RESULTS

Time series and ANOVA analyses documented the significant decrease in park visitation in the spring of 2020, the seasonal pattern in visitation, and an overall sustained and elevated use over nearly three years. Regressions confirmed park visitation increased significantly when temperature was greater and when it rained less. More visitation was also seen when there were fewer COVID-19 cases and when the stringency level of restrictions was lower. Of special interest, a significant interaction effect was found between temperature and stringency, with stringency significantly supressing the effect of higher temperature on visitation.

CONCLUSIONS

COVID-19 restrictions negatively impacted park visitation on warm days. Given the general health, social, and wellbeing benefits of greenspace use, one should consider the collateral negative impact of restrictions on park visitation. When social distancing of contacts is required, the few remaining locations where it can safely occur should instead be promoted.

Relationship between Subjective Health, the Engel Coefficient, Employment, Personal Assets, and Quality of Life for Korean People with Disabilities

The aim of this research is to examine the effect of subjective health on the quality of life of Korean people with disabilities. The second goal of this study is to examine the effect of the Engel coefficient on quality of life. Additionally, this study is conducted to inspect the effect of employment and personal assets on quality of life. Further, in this work, the moderating effect of personal assets on the association between employment and quality of life for people with a disability is explored. The Panel Survey of Employment for the Disabled served as the source of data. The study period ranges from 2016 to 2018. To test the research hypotheses, this study adopted econometric analyses, namely, ordinary least squares, fixed effect, and random effect models. The results revealed that the quality of life for people with disabilities is positively influenced by subjective health, employment, and personal assets. In contrast, the Engel coefficient exerts a negative impact on quality of life. Plus, the finding indicates that personal assets negatively moderate the relationship between employment and quality of life for people with disabilities. This research is aimed at presenting policy implications for the welfare of people with disabilities.

How Much Did Urban Park Use Change under the COVID-19 Pandemic? A Comparative Study of Summertime Park Use in 2019 and 2020 in Edinburgh, Scotland

The importance of urban parks was highlighted during the COVID-19 pandemic, when a number of restrictions on social gatherings were in place and people's movements were often restricted to their local neighbourhood. This study examined the changes in patterns of park use before and during COVID-19 to understand how the pandemic influenced such use. The methods involved behaviour observation and mapping, to offer a comparison of the use of parks in Edinburgh, Scotland, before and in the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic. The findings show an overall increase in use of urban parks during COVID-19, as expected, with significantly higher use in social areas, sports and fitness areas, and playground areas. However, while there was an overall increase in people visiting parks with others during COVID, in woodland areas there was an increase in lone visitors. This study shows the importance of parks for socialisation, exercise and children's play, but also for spending time alone in natural areas during COVID-19. The value of urban parks at a time of social disruption, such as the pandemic, is highlighted, and their role in supporting a variety of urban dwellers' needs points to priorities for future park planning, design and management.

Restorative Effects of Biophilic Workplace and Nature Exposure during Working Time: A Systematic Review

The work environment plays a crucial role in the health and performance of employees. The growing interest in workers' well-being has driven the inclusion of nature in workplaces, despite many employees spending most of their time indoors, away from nature. Studies show that biophilic design in offices can have positive effects and promote workers' well-being. However, research on the beneficial effects of nature exposure in the workplace is limited and scattered. Thus, the aim of this systematic review was to consolidate current knowledge on the restorative effects of nature exposure on workers during work activities. Different types of exposure, both outdoors and indoors, were considered, with a focus on outcomes related to well-being, motivation, job satisfaction, and work performance. Out of the initially identified 1225 articles, only 16 met the criteria for analysis. Although the analysed studies provided compelling evidence regarding the restorative effects of nature exposure in the workplace, the review also points out gaps and limitations concerning the number of specific studies in this area and the need to adequately assess the sensory dimensions involved in these effects. Conducting more comprehensive and multidimensional investigations into the impacts of nature on the work environment could contribute to guiding more effective design strategies and creating healthier and more productive workplaces for employees.

Reduction in the use of green spaces during the COVID-19 pandemic and its impact on mental health

Our study examined the use of green spaces before and during the pandemic in a large cohort of Italian twins and evaluated its impact on measures of mental health (depressive, anxiety, stress symptoms). Twins were analysed as individuals and as pairs. A twin design approach was applied to minimize confounding by genetic and shared environmental factors. Questionnaires from 2,473 twins enrolled in the Italian Twin Registry were screened. Reduced green space use was associated with significantly higher levels of depression, anxiety and distress. Being a woman, residing in urban areas, and having a high perceived risk of the outbreak resulted in a higher likelihood to modify green space use, with a negative impact on mental health.

How People's COVID-19 Induced-Worries and Multiple Environmental Exposures Are Associated with Their Depression, Anxiety, and Stress during the Pandemic

This study investigates how people's perceived COVID-19 risk, worries about financial hardship, job loss, and family conflicts, and exposures to greenspace, PM2.5, and noise (in people's residential neighborhoods and daily activity locations) are related to their depression, anxiety, and stress during the COVID-19 pandemic. Using a two-day activity-travel diary, a questionnaire, and real-time air pollutant and noise sensors, a survey was conducted to collect data from 221 participants living in two residential neighborhoods of Hong Kong during the COVID-19 pandemic. Linear regression was conducted to explore the relationships. Significant associations between people's COVID-19-related worries and exposures to grassland and PM2.5 with depression, anxiety, and stress were found in the results. These associations with depression, anxiety, and stress vary depending on people's demographic attributes. These results can help direct the public authorities' efforts in dealing with the public mental health crisis during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Green infrastructure inequality in the context of COVID-19: Taking parks and trails as examples

Inequality in access to urban green infrastructures has been a major concern among scholars and governments, especially since the COVID-19 outbreak. There is a lack of knowledge on how people respond to the pandemic regarding the usage of green infrastructure in cities. This paper explores the shifts in visitation to parks and trails, two popular green infrastructures in Salt Lake County, Utah, by analyzing the results of a survey conducted during the pandemic. Our conceptualization considers personal and neighborhood-level factors, including personal socioeconomic status, existing inequalities of green infrastructures, urban form, and neighborhood conditions. People who reside close to the city center tend to go to parks more often, while those living in urban edges use trails more. Visiting green infrastructures less often is more likely in areas with higher COVID-19 infection rates. The regression results confirm the importance of neighborhood-level factors and illustrate the intricate elements influencing people's decisions to visit different green infrastructures during the pandemic, which shows non-linear relationships. Richer, white, and younger people seem to enjoy green infrastructures more often, leading to the concern of amplified inequality. Higher COVID-19 cases result in higher demands for green infrastructures, which are not fulfilled during the pandemic, especially for vulnerable communities, leading to spatial exclusion. The results highlight the importance of smart growth, including compact development, public transit, and pocket parks, in promoting the urban resilience of park and trail visits, as they may provide more access opportunities and alternatives to green infrastructures even in the context of the pandemic.

The effects of COVID-19 on Central Florida's community gardens: lessons for promoting food security and overall community wellbeing

For quite some time, food systems scholars, public health workers, and food justice activists have recognized structural problems in the global food system that can cause food insecurity and inequitable access to nutritious foods. The COVID-19 pandemic and the accompanying disruption in food supply chains (FSCs) exposed these problems and raised questions about how community gardening and urban agriculture might offer some solutions. In this article, we examine the effects of the pandemic on the operations of community gardens in Central Florida and the attempts of these gardens to address the disruption in food supplies in their local communities. We do so by using data drawn from two research strategies employed by the members of University of South Florida's Urban Food Sovereignty Group: (1) a survey conducted in 2021 of 45 leaders of community gardens throughout the Central Florida region; and (2) participation in the meetings and activities of a coalition of community gardens based in Tampa, Florida, from 2019 to 2022. Results reveal that although most community gardens in Central Florida were forced to change their routines in various ways (e.g., limiting the number of workers or volunteers who could work at the garden at the same time, or delivering workshops and education programs online instead of in-person), some gardens were able to maintain their regular operations and even reported increases in their membership or participation during the pandemic. Many community garden leaders also recognized the positive effect that community gardening seemed to have on their gardeners' mental health, noting that their gardens became places of refuge for gardeners who sought safe, outdoor spaces, to relieve stress and interact with their neighbors. These same leaders also observed the effect of the pandemic on residents' access to quality food, and intensified their efforts to provide more fresh food to pantries and traditional emergency food outlets. Survey respondents also shared important lessons they learned from the pandemic by suggesting that community gardens establish clear emergency protocols, use existing resources more efficiently, continue their educational programs, and strengthen their communications and cooperation with other gardens and actors in local food supply chains in order to ensure food security. We conclude by suggesting that one of the best ways that local communities can avert future food crises and strengthen their resilience is to root themselves more firmly in the principles of food sovereignty so they can sustain themselves when commercial FSCs are disrupted.

Characteristics of urban park recreation and health during early COVID-19 by on-site survey in Beijing

The positive health effects of green space have received increasing attention, however, on-site surveys and city-level research to reveal the relationship between urban park recreation and urbanite health in metropolitan areas during a post-pandemic period are lacking. We conducted an on-site survey using a questionnaire with 225 respondents from 22 urban parks distributed across the metropolitan area of Beijing during the early COVID-19 eased period with another 1346 respondents in 2021 to make verification. We identified factors that could influence public perceptions of park quality and human health (i.e., physical, mental, and social health) and revealed gender differences in perceptions of park characteristics. The correspondence pattern of perceived urban park quality with social health is distinct from that of physical and mental health. Due to the strict social distancing policy in early COVID-19 period, urban parks in different levels of urbanization environment could exert varied health effects.

Exploring changes in residential preference during COVID-19: Implications to contemporary urban planning

The advent of the COVID-19 pandemic and the subsequent lockdown has reshuffled our daily routines and activity spaces. The home and its immediate environment have attained a critical role in coping with the confinement both as living, working and recreational space. Drawing on a longitudinal survey from greater Oslo, we analyze shifts in residential preferences amidst COVID-19. Given the pandemic induced movement restrictions, we pay special attention to the mediating role of perceived accessibility on the link between several sociodemographic/locational/housing characteristics on preference shifts. Amidst a drop in perceived accessibility, outdoor assets like gardens or balconies, and motility by car and public transport are amongst the residential and locational amenities that have gained most in people's considerations for a new dwelling peri-pandemically. Dwelling satisfaction and preferences with regard to neighborhood density, dwelling size, and work-proximity, have remained largely unchanged despite a clear trend towards more teleworking. Our results can be understood as a nod of approval to contemporary compact urban planning. Nonetheless challenges as to bolstering its resilience still linger and more needs to be done to mitigate the inequalities in (perceived) access to in-home, near-home, and mobility assets that we have also observed to have (re)-immerged in the wake of the pandemic.

Natural environments, psychosocial health, and health behaviors in a crisis - A scoping review of the literature in the COVID-19 context

The COVID-19 outbreak led to major restrictions globally, affecting people's psychosocial health and their health behaviors. Thus, the purpose of this scoping review was to summarize the available research regarding nature and health in the COVID-19 context. Keywords relating to natural environments and COVID-19 were combined to conduct a systematic online search in six major databases. Eligibility criteria were a) published since 2020 with data collected in the COVID-19 context b) peer-reviewed, c) original empirical data collected on human participants, d) investigated the association between natural environments and psychosocial health or health behaviors, and e) English, German, or Scandinavian languages. Out of 9126 articles being screened, we identified 188 relevant articles, representing 187 distinct studies. Most research focused on adults in the general population and was predominantly conducted in the USA, Europe, and China. Overall, the findings indicate that nature may mitigate the impact of COVID-19 on psychological health and physical activity. Through a systematic thematic analysis of the extracted data, three primary themes were identified: 1) type of nature assessed, 2) psychosocial health and health behaviors investigated, and 3) heterogeneity in the nature-health relationship. Research gaps in the COVID-19 context were identified regarding I) nature characteristics that promote psychosocial health and health behaviors, II) investigations of digital and virtual nature, III) psychological constructs relating to mental health promotion, IV) health-promoting behaviors other than physical activity, V) underlying mechanisms regarding heterogeneity in the nature-health relationship based on human, nature, and geographic characteristics, and VI) research focusing on vulnerable groups. Overall, natural environments demonstrate considerable potential in buffering the impact of stressful events on a population level on mental health. However, future research is warranted to fill the mentioned research gaps and to examine the long-term effects of nature exposure during COVID-19.

Exploring non-linear built environment effects on urban vibrancy under COVID-19: The case of Hong Kong

The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic has enormously changed the way people perceive and use urban spaces, exacerbating some pre-existing issues including urban vibrancy decline. This study aims to explore built environment effects on urban vibrancy under COVID-19, which will help recalibrate planning models and design principles. Based on multi-source geo-tagged big data of Hong Kong, this study reveals variations in urban vibrancy and employs machine learning modeling and interpretation methods to examine built environment effects on urban vibrancy before, during, and after the outbreak of COVID-19, with review volume of restaurants & food retailers as the indicator for urban vibrancy and built environment depicted from five dimensions (i.e., building form, street accessibility, public transport accessibility, functional density, and functional mixture). We found that (1) urban vibrancy concussively decreased during the outbreak and slowly recovered afterwards; (2) built environment's capability to stimulate urban vibrancy was weakened during the outbreak and restored afterwards; (3) the relationships between built environment and urban vibrancy were non-linear and moderated by the pandemic. This research enriches our understandings of the role of the pandemic in influencing urban vibrancy and its correlation with built environment, enlightening decision makers with nuanced criteria for pandemic-adaptive urban planning and design.

Migrant gardeners, health and wellbeing: exploring complexity and ambivalence from a UK perspective

There has been increasing interest in how green spaces and gardening contribute to people's physical, mental and social wellbeing, and this interest has increased due to COVID-19. This article explores the particular experiences of migrant gardeners and the implications for their health and wellbeing. It draws on a qualitative research project that involved conducting semi-structured interviews with participants with migration heritage in and around a city in the north of England. The participants were recruited through purposive and snowball sampling; of the 25 participants, some were allotment holders, whilst the rest cultivated crops in their gardens or even on their balcony. Thematic analysis of the interview transcripts generated themes that reflect current definitions of health, encompassing physical, mental and social wellbeing. However, whilst the findings confirm many positive effects of gardening, they also point to some ambivalence in relation to cultivation, outdoor practices and health, with evidence of neutral or even negative effects at times. The article explores the implications of these findings for initiatives to encourage gardening, such as social prescribing, and to address 'green poverty'. An additional finding is that for gardeners with migration heritage, gardening can be understood in terms of cultural wellbeing. Consequently, there is a need to broaden the concept of wellbeing to include this cultural dimension.

Exploring the Spatial Relative Risk of COVID-19 in Berlin-Neukölln

Identifying areas with high and low infection rates can provide important etiological clues. Usually, areas with high and low infection rates are identified by aggregating epidemiological data into geographical units, such as administrative areas. This assumes that the distribution of population numbers, infection rates, and resulting risks is constant across space. This assumption is, however, often false and is commonly known as the modifiable area unit problem. This article develops a spatial relative risk surface by using kernel density estimation to identify statistically significant areas of high risk by comparing the spatial distribution of address-level COVID-19 cases and the underlying population at risk in Berlin-Neukölln. Our findings show that there are varying areas of statistically significant high and low risk that straddle administrative boundaries. The findings of this exploratory analysis further highlight topics such as, e.g., Why were mostly affluent areas affected during the first wave? What lessons can be learned from areas with low infection rates? How important are built structures as drivers of COVID-19? How large is the effect of the socio-economic situation on COVID-19 infections? We conclude that it is of great importance to provide access to and analyse fine-resolution data to be able to understand the spread of the disease and address tailored health measures in urban settings.

Demographic and spatial variables associated with spending time in nature during COVID-19 lockdowns

To stop the spread of SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus (COVID-19) governments around the world implemented lockdowns restricting public travel. In the Australian state of Victoria, this included limiting permitted reasons for leaving home and restricting movements to within a 5 km radius of one's home. In 2020, we conducted a state-wide survey (N = 1024) of Victorians that coincided with a lockdown. We asked respondents where they had spent time in nature and how they perceived lockdowns affected the amount of time they spent in nature. We then considered demographic and spatial predictors of spending more or less time in nature. Women, younger people, and those living in areas with higher socio-economic status were likely to report spending more time in nature. Closer proximity of residents to parks and waterways and higher proportional area of native vegetation within a 1-km radius were also associated with more time in nature. Understanding how different groups were affected by restrictions on access to nature can help improve government management of crises like pandemics, including through urban planning for green space, supporting improved individual and societal resilience. We discuss the implications of our findings for improving access to nature during lockdowns as well as opportunities for a post-pandemic relationship with nature, particularly in urban settings.

Nature experience from yards provide an important space for mental health during Covid-19

Urban dwellers' use of public and private green spaces may have changed during the early years of the Covid-19 pandemic due to movement restriction. A survey was deployed in Brisbane and Sydney, Australia 1 year after the start of Covid-19 restrictions (April 2021) to explore relationships of mental health and wellbeing to different patterns of private yard versus public green space visitation. More frequent yard use during the initial year of Covid-19 was correlated with lower stress, depression, and anxiety and higher wellbeing. However, greater duration of yard visits (week prior to survey) was associated with higher stress, anxiety, and depression scores, potentially because individuals may seek to use nature spaces immediately available for emotional regulation during difficult times. The results highlight the importance of yards for mental health and wellbeing during the Covid-19 pandemic and that relationships between nature interaction and mental health may be context and timeframe dependent.

Covid-19 and outdoor recreation - Lessons learned? Introduction to the special issue on "Outdoor recreation and Covid-19: Its effects on people, parks and landscapes"

The special issue presents international experiences with COVID-19 in the years 2020 and 2021 on outdoor recreation and nature-based tourism. To set the scene, a bibliometric and qualitative analysis illustrates and clusters recent publications on COVID-19. Against this background contributions from Japan, China, Brazil, Indonesia, Austria, Croatia, the United States, New Zealand, Taiwan, Australia, Sweden, Poland and Ireland draw a truly international picture of the pandemic crisis, the effects, coping behavior and related strategies. The papers contribute to the COVID-19 related research by documenting the shock in the field of outdoor recreation and tourism, by understanding the immediate consequences on behavior and the required managerial consequences and finally, by analyzing the possible follow up effects including long term effects, discussing resilient solutions and proposing new strategies. In the discussion section we try to answer the questions whether the high visitation rate in recreation facilities, forests, parks and protected areas will remain, and whether adapted visitor management concepts will be required. In addition, we discuss possible implications for urban planning and management. Finally, based on a changing connectedness to nature also possible positive effects by the pandemic are discussed which may lead to a new target group in outdoor recreation and nature-based tourism.

Management implications

The overview on the Covid-19 related literature suggests improvements in planning and management, such as-new concepts for destination and visitor management, considering an ongoing risk-management,-proactive urban planning and management considering short-term effects in the existing built environment as well as a long-term perspective with strategically planned green infrastructure, including not only the supply of green infrastructure, but also its accessibility, its amenities, and aspects of environmental justice,-the consideration of new target groups in tourism and outdoor recreation.

A Transdisciplinary Framework to Unlock the Potential Benefits of Green Spaces for Urban Communities Under Changing Contexts

New urban models increasingly seek to create more sustainable, livable, and healthier cities by reinvigorating green space. In this article, we highlight and briefly review several main but disconnected areas of study in which the factors that frame human-environment interactions and therefore also influence the potential well-being outcomes of those interactions are studied. We then use the intersection of affordance theory and socio-institutional programming to provide a conceptual framework that ties together these spheres of research, and we discuss some critical keys for enabling different positive green space experiences. Urban communities are not homogeneous, and accounting for the intersection between individual differences and landscape programming opens up more diverse pathways for affording positive human-environment interactions and different well-being outcomes.

The Perceptions and Use of Urban Neighborhood Parks Since the Outbreak of COVID-19: A Case Study in South Korea

As the COVID-19 pandemic continues, the stress of city dwellers is increasing, and some adapt to the pandemic by pursuing physical and psychological well-being in neighborhood parks. To improve the resilience of the social-ecological system against COVID-19, it is important to understand the mechanism of adaptation by examining the perception and use of neighborhood parks. The purpose of this study is to investigate users' perceptions and use of urban neighborhood parks since the outbreak of COVID-19 in South Korea using systems thinking. To verify the hypotheses about the relationship between variables involved in COVID-19 adaptive feedback, two research objectives were set. First, this study determined the causal structure leading to park visits using systems thinking. Second, the relationship between stress, motivation, and the frequency of visits to neighborhood parks was empirically verified. To conduct the research, the system of use and perceptions of parks were analyzed through a causal loop diagram to determine the feedback between psychological variables. Then, a survey was conducted to verify the relationship between stress, motivation for visits, and visit frequency, which are the major variables derived from the causal structure. A total of three feedback loops were derived in the first step, including a loop in which COVID-19 stress was relieved by visits to parks and a loop in which COVID-19 stress worsened due to crowding in parks. Finally, the relationship of stress leading to park visits was confirmed, and the empirical analysis showed that anger about contagion and social disconnection were linked as motives for park visits, and that park visits were mainly motivated by the desire to go out. The neighborhood park functions as an adaptive space for the stress of COVID-19 and will maintain its role as social distancing becomes more important to various socio-ecological changes. The strategies driven by the pandemic can be adapted in park planning to recover from stress and improve resilience.

Visiting Urban Green Space and Orientation to Nature Is Associated with Better Wellbeing during COVID-19

The COVID-19 pandemic has severely challenged mental health and wellbeing. However, research has consistently reinforced the value of spending time in green space for better health and wellbeing outcomes. Factors such as an individual's nature orientation, used to describe one's affinity to nature, may influence an individual's green space visitation behaviour, and thus influence the wellbeing benefits gained. An online survey in Brisbane and Sydney, Australia (n = 2084), deployed during the COVID-19 pandemic (April 2021), explores if nature experiences and nature orientation are positively associated with personal wellbeing and if increased amounts of nature experiences are associated with improvement in wellbeing in the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic. We found that both yard and public green space visitation, as well as nature orientation scores, were correlated with high personal wellbeing scores, and individuals who spent more time in green space compared to the previous year also experienced a positive change in their health and wellbeing. Consistently, people with stronger nature orientations are also more likely to experience positive change. We also found that age was positively correlated to a perceived improvement in wellbeing over the year, and income was negatively correlated with a decreased change in wellbeing over the year, supporting other COVID-19 research that has shown that the effects of COVID-19 lifestyle changes were structurally unequal, with financially more established individuals experiencing better wellbeing. Such results highlight that spending time in nature and having high nature orientation are important for gaining those important health and wellbeing benefits and may provide a buffer for wellbeing during stressful periods of life that go beyond sociodemographic factors.

Urban agriculture in walkable neighborhoods bore fruit for health and food system resilience during the COVID-19 pandemic

Urban agriculture is the key to creating healthy cities and developing resilient urban food systems in uncertain times. However, relevant empirical evidence is limited. This study quantitatively verified the association of access to local food through urban agriculture with subjective well-being, physical activity, and food security concerns of neighborhood communities in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. The target was Tokyo, Japan, where small-scale local food systems are widespread in walkable neighborhoods. We found that diversity in local food access, ranging from self-cultivation to direct-to-consumer sales, was significantly associated with health and food security variables. In particular, the use of allotment farms was more strongly associated with subjective well-being than the use of urban parks, and it was more strongly associated with the mitigation of food security concerns than the use of food retailers. These findings provide robust evidence for the effectiveness of integrating urban agriculture into walkable neighborhoods.

Towards building resilient cities to pandemics: A review of COVID-19 literature

With the global prevalence of COVID-19 disease, the concept of urban resilience against pandemics has drawn the attention of a wide range of researchers, urban planners, and policymakers. This study aims to identify the major dimensions and principles of urban resilience to pandemics through a systematic review focused on lessons learned from the COVID-19 pandemic and comparing different perspectives regarding resilient urban environments to such diseases. Based on the findings, the study proposes a conceptual framework and a series of principles of urban resilience to pandemics, consisting of four spatial levels: housing, neighborhoods, city, and the regional and national scales, and three dimensions of pandemic resilience: pandemic-related health requirements, environmental psychological principles, and general resilience principles. The findings show that resilient cities should be able to implement the pandemic-related health requirements, the psychological principles of the environment to reduce the stresses caused by the pandemic, and the general principles of resilience in the smart city context. This framework provides scholars and policymakers with a comprehensive understanding of resilience on different scales and assists them in making better-informed decisions.

Is indoor and outdoor greenery associated with fewer depressive symptoms during COVID-19 lockdowns? A mechanistic study in Shanghai, China

Increasing numbers of studies have observed that indoor and outdoor greenery are associated with fewer depressive symptoms during COVID-19 lockdowns. However, most of these studies examined direct associations without sufficient attention to underlying pathways. Furthermore, few studies have combined different types of indoor and outdoor greenery to examine their effects on the alleviation of depressive symptoms. The present study hypothesized that indoor and outdoor exposure to greenery increased the perceived restorativeness of home environments, which, in turn, reduced loneliness, COVID-related fears, and, ultimately, depressive symptoms. To test our hypotheses, we conducted an online survey with 386 respondents in Shanghai, China, from April to May 2022, which corresponded to strict citywide lockdowns that resulted from the outbreak of the Omicron variant. Indoor greenery measures included the number of house plants, gardening activities, and digital nature exposure as well as semantic image segmentation applied to photographs from the most viewed windows to quantify indoor exposure to outdoor trees and grass. Outdoor greenery measures included total vegetative cover (normalized difference vegetation index [NDVI]) within a 300 m radius from the home and perceived quality of the community's greenery. Associations between greenery and depressive symptoms/clinical levels of depression, as measured by the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9), were examined using generalized linear and logistic regression models. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to test pathways between greenery exposure, restorativeness, loneliness, fear of COVID-19, and depressive symptoms. The results showed that: 1) indoor and outdoor greenery were associated with fewer depressive symptoms; 2) greenery could increase the restorativeness of the home environment, which, in turn, was associated with fewer COVID-related mental stressors (i.e., loneliness and fear of COVID-19), and ultimately depressive symptoms; and 3) gender, education, and income did not modify associations between greenery and depressive symptoms. These findings are among the first to combine objective and subjective measures of greenery within and outside of the home and document their effects on mental health during lockdowns. Comprehensive enhancements of greenery in living environments could be nature-based solutions for mitigating COVID-19 related mental stressors.

Believing in or Denying Climate Change for Questionable Reasons: Generic Conspiracist Beliefs, Personality, and Climate Change Perceptions of Romanian University Students

People's perceptions of climate change represent a growing concern, especially when these perceptions entail the denial of climate change. Past studies have highlighted the detrimental role of conspiracist beliefs concerning climate change regarding people's perceptions on this matter. However, the effects of generic conspiracy beliefs and the different types of beliefs determining skepticism about climate change, as well as that of an individual's personality, are still an open area of inquiry. Our cross-sectional study (N = 842) explored the relationships between the degree to which people hold different generic conspiracy beliefs, their personality characteristics (as defined within the Big Five taxonomy), and climate change beliefs (i.e., in its occurrence and anthropogenic causation). Results indicated common predictors of these dimensions of climate change beliefs, specifically three of the five types of generic conspiracy beliefs, extraversion, agreeability, and intellect/imagination as personality factors. While conspiracy beliefs related to personal well-being emerged as related to climate change skepticism, those in government malfeasance and information control were found to be associated with more acceptance of climate change and its anthropogenic causation. These findings reveal a mixed pattern of relationships between different conspiracist beliefs and climate change perceptions and suggest the complex psychological and ideological underpinnings of the attitudes towards climate change.

Negotiating Complexity: Challenges to Implementing Community-Led Nature-Based Solutions in England Pre- and Post-COVID-19

Nature-based solutions (NbS), including green social prescribing (GSP), are sustainable ways to address health and wellbeing, especially since the COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated the strain on healthcare. NbS require national and local cross-sector coordination across complex, interrelated systems, but little is known about the specific challenges this poses for community-led NbS. We carried out a traditional literature review to establish the context and knowledge base for this study and interviewed 26 stakeholders. These came from environment, health and social care sectors at national and local levels, with local-level stakeholders from Bradford and Walsall: English cities significantly affected by the pandemic, with high levels of deprivation and health inequality. The interviews explored experiences of implementing NbS, both pre- and post-pandemic and the resulting renewed interest in the salutogenic effects of engaging with natural environments. We coded the interview transcriptions using NVivo to identify the challenges existing in the systems within which these stakeholders operate to create and manage NbS. By synthesizing what is known about the challenges from existing literature with findings from the interviews, we developed eight categories of challenges (perception and knowledge, political, financial, access to natural spaces, engagement, institutional and organisational, coordination, GSP referral and services) faced by multiple sectors in implementing community-led NbS in England. Furthermore, this study highlights the new challenges related to the pandemic. Identifying these challenges helps stakeholders in existing complex systems recognise what is needed to support and mainstream NbS in England.

Integrated analysis of doubly disadvantaged neighborhoods by considering both green space and blue space accessibility and COVID-19 infection risk

The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic has taken a heavy toll on the physical and mental health of the public. Nevertheless, the presence of green and blue spaces has been shown to be able to encourage physical activities and alleviate the mental distress caused by COVID-19. However, just as the impact of COVID-19 varies by geographical region and area, the distribution of green and blue spaces is also different across different neighborhoods and areas. By using Hong Kong as the study area, we determine the local neighborhoods that suffer from both high COVID-19 infection risk as well as low green and blue space accessibility. The results show that some of the poorest neighborhoods in the territory such as Sham Shui Po, Kwun Tong and Wong Tai Sin are also among the most doubly disadvantaged in terms of COVID-19 infection risk as well as green and blue space accessibility.

Analysis of pandemic outdoor recreation and green infrastructure in Nordic cities to enhance urban resilience

Recent empirical research has confirmed the importance of green infrastructure and outdoor recreation to urban people's well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic. However, only a few studies provide cross-city analyses. We analyse outdoor recreation behaviour across four Nordic cities ranging from metropolitan areas to a middle-sized city. We collected map-based survey data from residents (n = 469-4992) in spring 2020 and spatially analyse green infrastructure near mapped outdoor recreation sites and respondents' places of residence. Our statistical examination reveals how the interplay among access to green infrastructure across cities and at respondents' residential location, together with respondents' socio-demographic profiles and lockdown policies or pandemic restrictions, affects outdoor recreation behaviour. The results highlight that for pandemic resilience, the history of Nordic spatial planning is important. To support well-being in exceptional situations as well as in the long term, green infrastructure planning should prioritise nature wedges in and close to cities and support small-scale green infrastructure.

Experiencing Public Spaces in Southern Chile: Analysing the Effects of the Built Environment on Walking Perceptions

In Latin American cities, the built environment is facing crucial challenges in the 21st century, not only in terms of the redesign of the physical environment, but also how to remodel public spaces as healthier places for walking and social interaction. The objective of this article is to evaluate the effects of the built environment on walking perceptions in a central neighbourhood in the intermediate city of Valdivia, Chile. The methodology integrates quantitative and qualitative methods to explore which elements of the physical built environment ease and hinder walkability. Depthmap software and Simpson's Diversity Index are used to evaluate connectivity and diversity of land uses at street level. Additionally, the People Following method and 26 walking interviews are conducted using the Natural Go-Along technique to analyse pedestrians' perceptions about their mobility environment. The results show that the factors that promote walkability mainly include streets with high connectivity values, wide pavements, diversity of greening, and facade characteristics of buildings with architectural heritage causing tranquillity, longing, and happiness. On the contrary, factors that inhibit walkability are related to poor-quality and narrow sidewalks, cars parked on sidewalks, dirty streets, and motorized traffic and vehicular noise causing negative emotions in walking perceptions such as tiredness, anger, disgust, discomfort, and insecurity, with negative effects on the well-being of residents that vary according to age and gender. Finally, recommendations are oriented to improve public spaces in central areas in southern Chile, to address moving towards more liveable and inclusive environments and support well-being through urban design in these types of context.

Antecedents of Subjective Health among Korean Senior Citizens Using Archival Data

This study aimed to investigate the determinants of subjective health among South Korean senior citizens. Secondary data for the year 2018 was used from the Senior Citizen Research Panel data collected by the Korea Employment Information Service. A total of 3822 valid observations were analyzed. The dependent variable was subjective health, and the independent variables were religion participation, social gathering participation, economic activity, food expenditure, leisure expenditure, travel frequency, and art watching frequency. Descriptive analysis, correlation matrix, and independent t-test were carried out for data analysis. Multiple linear regression analysis was employed using assets, age, and gender as control variables to test the research hypotheses. The results indicate that all the proposed attributes have a significant positive impact on the subjective health of Korean senior citizens, with implications for policy making.

The Association between Active Mobility and Subjective Wellbeing during COVID-19 in MENA Countries

Objective: To augment the international scientific approach to raising public mental health through active lifestyle among adults, we added the evidence of the association between physical activity and subjective wellbeing in the Middle East and North Africa region by emphasizing the mediator—COVID-19. This study aimed to identify the correlations between active mobility and subjective wellbeing during the COVID-19 pandemic in a sample from Tabriz, Iran, which has not yet been tackled in previous study. Methods: We finalized an online survey (N = 603) from adults between 5 June and 15 July 2021. This group reported their individual and socio-economic characteristics and their perception features and location (e.g., home, work) during COVID-19. The paper developed three ordinal logistic regression (OLR) models to examine the association between active mobility types such as commute, non-commute, frequency of active travel to parks and services per week, and different subjective wellbeing including: 1- life satisfaction, 2- feeling energetic, and 3- peaceful mind while controlling for socio-economic variables (e.g., age, gender, education, job, and income) and objective commute distance. We also incorporated the most relevant objective (street length, land-use mix, number of intersections, and building and population density) and subjective (perceived distance to different services, perceived walking places, and perceived facilities attractiveness) factors. Results: Positive response relationships between four types of physical activity levels and subjective wellbeing scores were demonstrated in all of the three developed models (with significant levels of 0.05, and 0.1) with appropriate model fits, which confirmed the existing literature. However, these relationships showed different patterns (varied significant levels) for each type of subjective wellbeing. In addition, the factors including street length (p value: 0.004), perceived walkable places (p value: 0.021, 0.068, 0.017, and 0.025) (positively), population density, and perceived distance to shopping malls (p value: 0.076, <0.0001, and 0.059 (negatively) were associated with different indicators of subjective wellbeing. Conclusion: As for the implication of our study, special actions by urban authorities such as increasing mixed-use and creating attractive places will be required to enhance the walkability of the neighborhoods. Moreover, notifying the adults regarding the benefits of physical activity is much more needed.

Landscape Perception and the Importance of Recreation Areas for Students during the Pandemic Time

The landscape and its perception influence the quality of life of a local community. Recreation areas bring a lot of benefits to society, also in terms of mental health. Open space and contact with nature, particularly during a crisis such as the pandemic, help alleviate the effects of the lockdown and social isolation. The study objective was to determine whether and to what extent the COVID-19 pandemic influenced the importance of recreation areas and the perception of landscape among students-a social group that experiences mood disorders increasingly often and has been severely affected by the lockdown. A survey was conducted in two stages, using a Google Forms online survey. A total of 381 students from universities in Lublin participated in the survey. The survey showed that the significance of recreation areas increased during the pandemic. The perception of landscape changed as well: the value of nature, scenic views, and the therapeutic effect of the landscape began to be appreciated to a greater extent. The survey results indicate the need to ensure the diversity of green areas and improve their accessibility. Designing these areas should also consider quiet areas as well as ensuring green mobility and places of recreation.

Nature's contributions in coping with a pandemic in the 21st century: A narrative review of evidence during COVID-19

While COVID-19 lockdowns have slowed coronavirus transmission, such structural measures also have unintended consequences on mental and physical health. Growing evidence shows that exposure to the natural environment (e.g., blue-green spaces) can improve human health and wellbeing. In this narrative review, we synthesized the evidence about nature's contributions to health and wellbeing during the first two years of the COVID-19 pandemic. We found that during the pandemic, people experienced multiple types of nature, including both outdoors and indoors. Frequency of visits to outdoor natural areas (i.e., public parks) depended on lockdown severity and socio-cultural contexts. Other forms of nature exposure, such as spending time in private gardens and viewing outdoor greenery from windows, may have increased. The majority of the evidence suggests nature exposure during COVID-19 pandemic was associated with less depression, anxiety, stress, and more happiness and life satisfaction. Additionally, nature exposure was correlated with less physical inactivity and fewer sleep disturbances. Evidence was mixed regarding associations between nature exposure and COVID-related health outcomes, while nature visits might be associated with greater rates of COVID-19 transmission and mortality when proper social distancing measures were not maintained. Findings on whether nature exposure during lockdowns helped ameliorate health inequities by impacting the health of lower-socioeconomic populations more than their higher-socioeconomic counterparts for example were mixed. Based on these findings, we argue that nature exposure may have buffered the negative mental and behavioral impacts of lockdowns during the COVID-19 pandemic. Recovery and resilience during the current crises and future public health crises might be improved with nature-based infrastructure, interventions, designs, and governance.

Nature's contributions in coping with a pandemic in the 21st century: A narrative review of evidence during COVID-19

While COVID-19 lockdowns have slowed coronavirus transmission, such structural measures also have unintended consequences on mental and physical health. Growing evidence shows that exposure to the natural environment (e.g., blue-green spaces) can improve human health and wellbeing. In this narrative review, we synthesized the evidence about nature's contributions to health and wellbeing during the first two years of the COVID-19 pandemic. We found that during the pandemic, people experienced multiple types of nature, including both outdoors and indoors. Frequency of visits to outdoor natural areas (i.e., public parks) depended on lockdown severity and socio-cultural contexts. Other forms of nature exposure, such as spending time in private gardens and viewing outdoor greenery from windows, may have increased. The majority of the evidence suggests nature exposure during COVID-19 pandemic was associated with less depression, anxiety, stress, and more happiness and life satisfaction. Additionally, nature exposure was correlated with less physical inactivity and fewer sleep disturbances. Evidence was mixed regarding associations between nature exposure and COVID-related health outcomes, while nature visits might be associated with greater rates of COVID-19 transmission and mortality when proper social distancing measures were not maintained. Findings on whether nature exposure during lockdowns helped ameliorate health inequities by impacting the health of lower-socioeconomic populations more than their higher-socioeconomic counterparts for example were mixed. Based on these findings, we argue that nature exposure may have buffered the negative mental and behavioral impacts of lockdowns during the COVID-19 pandemic. Recovery and resilience during the current crises and future public health crises might be improved with nature-based infrastructure, interventions, designs, and governance.

Urban parks as a potential mitigator of suicide rates resulting from global pandemics: Empirical evidence from past experiences in Seoul, Korea

Globally, the increased suicide rate of the general population has become a concern not only because of the COVID-19 pandemic, but also because of its associated socioeconomic insecurity, loss of jobs, and economic shocks. This study employed robust fixed-effects panel models to empirically identify the mitigating effects of infectious diseases, via urban parks, on the suicide rate, and to examine gender differences in this regard, based on previous experiences in Seoul, Korea. We found that the differentiating mitigating effect did not significantly affect suicide rates during the 2015 MERS epidemic. However, during the 2009 H1N1 pandemic, wherein the number of confirmed cases was very high and diffused nationwide, urban parks significantly reduced the suicide rates for both men and women. The role of parks as a mitigator was more enhanced in cities with a high number of confirmed cases if it was associated with economic shocks. However, this effect was significant only in the suicide rates of men, not women. During a pandemic, urban parks can help maintain social interaction and sustain physical activities (i.e., walking and exercise) while maintaining physical distance. National and local governments should develop urban parks to actively control the suicide rate influenced by movement restriction measures inevitably occurring during the spread of infectious diseases.

Using social media data to understand the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on urban green space use

Having access to and visiting urban green space (UGS) improves liveability and provides considerable benefits to residents. However, traditional methods of investigating UGS visitation, such as questionnaires and social surveys, are usually time- and resource-intensive, and frequently provide less transferable, site-specific outcomes. This study uses social media data (Twitter) to examine spatio-temporal changes in UGS use in London associated with COVID-19 related lockdowns. It compares georeferenced Tweets posted in a 3 month period from 23 March to 23 June for 3 years covering the first lockdown in the UK in 2020, with Tweets for the same period in 2019 and 2021. The results show that (1) the land-use type of Public Park and Garden was the most frequently visited type of UGS, which may be correlated with these UGS areas remaining opening during the lockdown period; (2) the usage of UGS decreased in central London and increased in other areas during lockdown, which may correlated with working from home restrictions; (3) activities were positively associated with Physical activities maybe as a result of allowing people to take a single daily exercise, and (4) people spent more time in UGS areas on weekdays than weekends compared to pre-lockdown. This is the first study to examine social media data over consistent time period before, during and after the lockdown in relation to UGS. The results show that the findings and method can inform policy makers in their management and planning of UGS, especially in a period of social crisis like the COVID-19 pandemic.

Examining the Influence of Housing Conditions and Daily Greenspace Exposure on People's Perceived COVID-19 Risk and Distress

Many people have worried about COVID-19 infection, job loss, income reduction, and family conflict during the COVID-19 pandemic. Some social groups may be particularly vulnerable due to their residential neighborhoods and daily activities. On the other hand, people's daily exposure to greenspace offers promising pathways for reducing these worries associated with COVID-19. Using data collected with a questionnaire and a two-day activity diary from two typical neighborhoods in Hong Kong, this study examines how people's housing conditions and daily greenspace exposure affect their perceived COVID-19 risk and distress (i.e., worries about job loss, income reduction, and family conflict) during the pandemic. First, the study compares people's perceived COVID-19 risk and distress based on their residential neighborhoods. Further, it examines the associations between people's perceived COVID-19 risk and distress with their housing conditions and daily greenspace exposure using ordinal logistic regression models. The results indicate that living in a high-risk neighborhood, being married, renting a residential unit, and living in a large household are significantly associated with a higher neighborhood-based perceived COVID-19 risk and distress during the pandemic. In addition, people also reported lower mobility-based perceived COVID-19 risk when compared to their neighborhood-based perceived COVID-19 risk, while they still have a high perceived COVID-19 risk in their occupational venues if they have to work in a high-risk district (e.g., Kowloon). Lastly, daily greenspace exposure (i.e., woodland) could reduce people's perceived COVID-19 risk and distress. These results have important implications for the public health authority when formulating the measures during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Human Flow Dataset Reveals Changes in Citizens' Outing Behaviors including Greenspace Visits before and during the First Wave of the COVID-19 Pandemic in Kanazawa, Japan

Greenspaces, including parks, provide various socio-ecological benefits such as for aesthetics, temperature remediation, biodiversity conservation, and outdoor recreation. The health benefits of urban greenspaces have received particular attention since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, which has triggered various movement restrictions and lifestyle changes, including regarding the frequency of people's visits to greenspaces. Using mobile-tracking GPS data of Kanazawa citizens, we explored how citizens' behaviors with respect to outings changed before and during Japan's declaration of a COVID-19 state of emergency (April-May 2020). We also examined citizens' greenspace visits in relation to their travel distance from home. We found that Kanazawa citizens avoided going out during the pandemic, with a decrease in the number, time, and distance of outings. As for the means of transportation, the percentage of outings by foot increased on both weekdays and holidays. While citizens refrained from going out, the percentage change of the percentage in large greenspace visits increased very slightly in 2020. As for greenspace visitation in 2020 compared to 2019, we found that citizens generally visited greenspaces closer to their homes, actually increasing visitation of nearby (within 1000 m) greenspaces. This study of how outing behaviors and greenspace use by Kanazawa citizens have changed underscores the value of nearby greenspaces for physical and mental health during movement restrictions under the pandemic.

Realising the Sustainable Development Goal 11.7 in the post-pandemic era – A case study of Taiwan

The COVID-19 pandemic has dramatically impacted our daily lives worldwide. For instance, pandemic-prevention policies restrict people’s mobility, which causes problems in accessing urban greenspaces. Indeed, unequal access to urban greenspace has been accentuated during the most stringent lockdowns of 2020 and 2021. Amid such challenging circumstances, there has been a growing attention placed on Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 11.7, which has brought opportunities for urgent action. In this paper, we applied the Gini coefficient to our analysis of unequal access to urban greenspaces across all urban planning areas in six special municipalities in Taiwan. Moreover, we also conducted comparative analyses between the Gini coefficient and other socio-economic factors. The results show that approximately 63.98% of the urban planning area suffers from unequal access to greenspaces. In addition, urban greenspace provision and household income show significant positive correlations with the Gini coefficient, which reflects Taiwan’s environmental injustice. Furthermore, these findings can help city planners and decision-makers evaluate levels of equality in each urban planning area and decide which priority areas should be improved. Finally, this study can also be used as a reference for decision-makers to realise SDG 11.7 in the post-pandemic era.

Perceived Qualities, Visitation and Felt Benefits of Preferred Nature Spaces during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Australia: A Nationally-Representative Cross-Sectional Study of 2940 Adults

We investigated how the perceived quality of natural spaces influenced levels of visitation and felt benefits during the COVID-19 pandemic in Australia via a nationally representative online and telephone survey conducted on 12–26 October (Social Research Centre’s Life in AustraliaTM panel aged > 18 years, 78.8% response, n = 3043). Our sample was restricted to those with complete information (n = 2940). Likert scale responses to 18 statements regarding the quality of local natural spaces that participants preferred to visit were classified into eight quality domains: access; aesthetics; amenities; facilities; incivilities; potential usage; safety; and social. These domains were then summed into an overall nature quality score (mean = 5.8, range = 0–16). Associations between these quality variables and a range of nature visitation and felt benefits were tested using weighted multilevel models, adjusted for demographic and socioeconomic confounders. Compared with participants in the lowest perceived nature quality quintile, those in the highest quality quintile had higher odds of spending at least 2 h in their preferred local nature space in the past week (Odds Ratio [OR] = 3.40; 95% Confidence Interval [95%CI] = 2.38–4.86), of visiting their preferred nature space almost every day in the past four weeks (OR = 3.90; 2.77–5.47), and of reporting increased levels of nature visitation in comparison with before the COVID-19 pandemic (OR = 3.90; 2.54–6.00). Participants in the highest versus lowest perceived nature quality quintile also reported higher odds of feeling their visits to nature enabled them to take solace and respite during the pandemic (OR = 9.49; 6.73–13.39), to keep connected with their communities (OR = 5.30; 3.46–8.11), and to exercise more often than they did before the pandemic (OR = 3.88; 2.57–5.86). Further analyses of each quality domain indicated time in and frequency of visiting nature spaces were most affected by potential usage and safety (time in nature was also influenced by the level of amenity). Feelings of connection and solace were most affected by potential usage and social domains. Exercise was most influenced by potential usage, social and access domains. In conclusion, evidence reported in this study indicates that visits to nature and various health-related benefits associated with it during the COVID-19 pandemic were highly contingent upon numerous qualities of green and blue spaces.

Are All Urban Parks Robust to the COVID-19 Pandemic? Focusing on Type, Functionality, and Accessibility

Many people visited urban parks during the COVID-19 pandemic to reduce the negative effects of lack of physical activity, social isolation, anxiety, and depression. It is unclear whether all parks are robust against the pandemic, helping people sustain healthy daily living through the diverse activities within them. Nevertheless, few studies have identified the specific relationship between park visits and the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, this study aims to demonstrate how physical features such as type, functionality, and access influenced daily visiting to parks during the pandemic, using mobile phone data at a micro level. This study first classified urban parks as point-type parks with an area of less than 1 ha, plane-type parks with 1 ha or more, and line-type parks with elongated shapes, while measuring accessibility to residential, employment, transportation, and auxiliary facilities within the park. The study employed the multi-level regression model with random intercept to investigate the effects of differing park visits, focusing on Goyang city, South Korea. Our analysis results identified that easy access from home was more important than the park size during the pandemic. If we look at the types of parks, the use of both plane- and point-type parks increased more than that of line-type parks. However, line-type parks near homes, along with shopping and sports facilities, were found to be more robust to the pandemic. These findings can be informative to provide specific guidelines to fulfill the enhanced role of parks in sustaining public health during an infectious disease pandemic that may strike again.