Rheological properties of vital wheat glutens with water or sodium chloride

Dynamic Study on Water State and Water Migration during Gluten-Starch Model Dough Development under Different Gluten Protein Contents

Mixing is crucial for dough quality. The gluten content influences water migration in dough development and properties, leading to quality changes in dough-based products. Understanding how the gluten protein content influences water migration during dough development is necessary for dough processing. A compound flour with different gluten protein contents (GPCs, 10-26%, w/w) was used to study the dough farinograph parameters and water migration during dough development. According to the farinograph test of the gluten-starch model dough, the GPC increases the water absorption and the strength of the dough. Water migration was determined via low-field nuclear magnetic resonance (LF-NMR). With the increase in GPC, the gluten protein increases the binding ability of strongly bound water and promotes the transformation of weakly bound water. However, inappropriate GPC (10% and 26%, w/w) results in the release of free water, which is caused by damage to the gluten network according to the microstructure result. Moreover, the changes in proteins' secondary structures are related to the migration of weakly bound water. Therefore, weakly bound water plays an important role in dough development. Overall, these results provide a theoretical basis for the optimization of dough processing.

Organic acids in bread-making affecting gluten structure and digestibility

Although wheat gluten has remarkable technological properties, it can induce adverse immune reactions in susceptible individuals, such as wheat allergy and celiac disease. Technological processing and some additives on bread formulation can modify gluten physicochemical structure, but the knowledge about the impacts on the digestibility and immunogenicity of gluten is limited. The present study aimed to study the effect of adding organic acids (acetic or ascorbic) on dough rheological properties and bread technological characteristics. In addition, breads were subjected to in vitro digestion and the digesta were analyzed by confocal microscopy, SDS-PAGE and ELISA immunoassay. Acetic acid resulted in a decrease in dough development time up to 44 % and a reduction in stability up to 20 %. Ascorbic acid, present in vinegar, on the other hand, increased elastic modulus (G') and resistance to extension of dough. After the in vitro digestion, SDS-PAGE indicated that protein degradation started in the gastric phase, with the generation of low molecular weight peptides. Accordingly, ELISA immunoassay suggested a great reduction in immunogenic gliadin content from oral to gastric phase. At the end of the intestinal phase, samples with ascorbic acid did not differ from the control, while vinegar addition indicated a reduction in gluten immunogenicity with a reduction of about 44 % in immunogenic gliadin content compared to the control. Results show a window of opportunity in the modulation of wheat bread formulation with reduced allergenicity, while maintaining the technofunctional properties.

Comparison of rheological properties between Mixolab-driven dough and bread-making dough under various salt levels

The properties of wheat dough according to salt level and type of mixer were investigated, and parameters derived from each analysis were comprehensively compared. Mixolab analysis showed that water absorption decreased with salt level while the dough strength increased. In the Mixolab C2 stage, related with thermal strength, C2 temperature and time had stronger correlation with other dough strength parameters than C2 torque. Thickness increase of gluten strand was dominant in the doughs prepared by vertical mixer (VMD) than in those prepared by Mixolab device (MLD), for the same salt level. In large deformation, increase in resistance to extension by salt level was much greater in VMD than in MLD. In small deformation, relationships of salt level with G', G'' and power-law exponent (n) were linear and non-linear in MLD and VMD, respectively. Since MLD could not perfectly reflect VMD, properties of dough should be considered in multiple ways for its comprehensive understanding.

Batter Characteristics and Oil Penetration of Deep-Fried Breaded Fish Nuggets: Effect of Wheat Starch—Gluten Interaction

To understand the effect of the interaction between wheat starch ( $\mathrm{W}\mathrm{S}$ ) and wheat gluten ( $\mathrm{W}\mathrm{G}$ ) on batter characteristics and oil penetration of deep-fried breaded fish nuggets, batters were prepared using a $\mathrm{W}\mathrm{S}$ and $\mathrm{W}\mathrm{G}$ blend at the ratios of 15 : 1, 13 : 1, 11 : 1, 9 : 1, and 7 : 1 $\mathrm{w}/\mathrm{w}$ , respectively, and batter-breaded fish nuggets (BBFNs) were fried at 170°C for 40 s followed by 190°C for 30 s. Moisture adsorption isotherms of $\mathrm{W}\mathrm{S}$ and $\mathrm{W}\mathrm{G}$ , viscosity, rheological behavior, and calorimetric properties of the batters were measured, and pick-up of BBFNs, thermogravimetric properties of the crust, and oil transport were investigated. The moisture absorption capacity of $\mathrm{W}\mathrm{G}$ was higher than $\mathrm{W}\mathrm{S}$ at a low water activity (0.04–0.65), while the opposite trend was observed at a highwater activity (0.65–0.88). As the proportion of $\mathrm{W}\mathrm{S}$ decreased, the viscosity, $G”$ and tan δ of batter, pick-up of BBFNs, temperature and enthalpy change (ΔH) of protein denaturation and $\mathrm{W}\mathrm{S}$ gelatinization, and oil penetration of BBFNs during deep-fat frying, which are decreased until reaching a minimum value at the ratio of 11 : 1 $\mathrm{w}/\mathrm{w}$ , then increased ( $p<0.05$ ). However, G' of batter and thermogravimetry temperatures of crust exhibited the opposite trend. These results proved that the $\mathrm{W}\mathrm{S}$ – $\mathrm{W}\mathrm{G}$ interaction significantly affected the batter characteristics and oil penetration of BBFNs during deep-fat frying, which can be used to guide the manufacturing of low-fat fried BBFNs.

Effect of freeze-thaw cycles on the physicochemical properties and frying performance of frozen Youtiao dough

The impact of freeze-thaw cycles on the physicochemical properties and frying performance of frozen Youtiao dough with chemical leavening agent was investigated. The specific volume of Youtiao made from frozen dough decreased by 66% after 4 freeze-thaw cycles. Meanwhile, the hardness and puncture force showed increasing trends, and the fibrous structure became unclear. The extensibility, storage modulus (G') and loss modulus (G'') of frozen Youtiao dough decreased during freeze-thaw cycles, while the creep compliance increased. Changes in rheological properties demonstrated that frozen Youtiao dough was more deformable and its strength was weakened. Moreover, the sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) extractable protein and free sulfhydryl content increased, revealing that protein was depolymerized. The loose structure with large pores and fractured protein network were observed by micromorphology. Freeze-thaw cycles had a detrimental effect on the Youtiao quality, which was related to the deterioration of rheological properties and protein structure of frozen Youtiao dough.

Effects of phosphorylation pretreatment and subsequent transglutaminase cross-linking on physicochemical, structural, and gel properties of wheat gluten

The presence of a large number of hydrophobic groups and non-polar amino acids in the wheat gluten (WG) is responsible for its poor water solubility, greatly limiting its industrial applications. Our results showed that the solubility and zeta potential of WG were significantly (P < 0.05) improved with the increasing concentration of sodium tripolyphosphate (STP), while the average particle size of WG was decreased. After WG was incubated with TGase, phosphorylation pretreatment significantly increased apparent viscosity of WG dispersant solution, suggesting that phosphorylation treatment promoted the generation of cross-linked polymers. In addition, phosphorylation pretreatment enhanced hydrophobic interactions and disulfide bond formation between TGase-induced WG gels, thus leading to a more homogeneous and dense three-dimensional network structure of gel, which was confirmed by SEM micrographs. To summarize, STP can be used as an effective additive for the modification of WG with an improved degree of TGase-mediated cross-linking for better rheological and gel properties.

The realm of plant proteins with focus on their application in developing new bakery products

Plant proteins are spreading due to growing environmental, health and ethical concerns related to animal proteins. Proteins deriving from cereals, oilseeds, and pulses are witnessing a sharp growth showing a wide spectrum of applications from meat and fish analogues to infant formulations. Bakery products are one of the biggest markets of alternative protein applications for functional and nutritional motives. Fortifying bakery products with proteins can secure a better amino-acids profile and a higher protein intake. Conventional plant proteins (i.e., wheat and soy) dominate the bakery industry, but emerging sources (i.e., pea, chickpea, and faba) are also gaining traction. Each protein brings specific functional properties and nutritional value. Therefore, this chapter gives an overview of the main features of plant proteins and discusses their impact on the quality of bakery products.

Extrusion of wheat gluten-peanut oil complexes and their rheological characteristics

In order to clarify the effects of extrusion treatment on the processing properties of extrudates, providing a theoretical basis for the production of gluten-based extrudates with favorable sensory quality. This study examined the effects of various extrusion temperatures on the rheological properties of wheat gluten-peanut oil complexes (WPE) and wheat gluten (WG). At the extrusion temperature conditions of this study, the dynamic moduli of gluten in WG and WPE reached the maximum, and the creep strain reached a minimum at 160 °C. Extrusion treatment resulted in the decrease in β-sheet and α-helix content and an increase in the amount of β-turns and random coils. The secondary structural changes and increase in the number of disulfide bonds led to gluten aggregation, thus affecting their rheological properties. These results enhance our understanding of the variations in the rheological properties of extrudates and promote the potential application of gluten-based complexes in extrusion.

Metabolite release and rheological properties of sponge cake after in vitro digestion and the influence of a flour replacer rich in dietary fibre

The present study aimed to better understand the metabolite release and rheological characteristics of sponge cake after in vitro digestion and the effect of Eucheuma as a fibre-rich flour replacer. Overall, 22 compounds including amino acids, saccharides, fatty acids, and other metabolites were identified based on nuclear magnetic resonance spectra. Principal component analysis and orthogonal projection to latent structures-discriminant analysis showed that Eucheuma reduced the release of amino acids and fatty acids. The released glucose from the EP20 sample (20% replacement of flour with Eucheuma) decreased by 35.4% in intestinal phases compared with the control cake. Eucheuma's in vitro effects on sponge cake digestion mainly reflected altered flow behaviour index. All samples showed solid-like behaviour and a decrease in viscoelastic moduli after digestion. This study forms the basis for future optimisation of food properties to control their digestive characteristics.

Non-animal proteins as cutting-edge ingredients to reformulate animal-free foodstuffs: Present status and future perspectives

Consumer interest in protein rich diets is increasing, with more attention being paid to the protein source. Despite the occurrence of animal proteins in the human diet, non-animal proteins are gaining popularity around the world due to their health benefits, environmental sustainability, and ethical merit. These sources of protein qualify for vegan, vegetarian, and flexitarian diets. Non-animal proteins are versatile, derived mainly from cereals, vegetables, pulses, algae (seaweed and microalgae), fungi, and bacteria. This review's intent is to analyze the current and future direction of research and innovation in non-animal proteins, and to elucidate the extent (limitations and opportunities) of their applications in food and beverage industries. Prior knowledge provided relevant information on protein features (processing, structure, and techno-functionality) with particular focus on those derived from soy and wheat. In the current food landscape, beyond conventionally used plant sources, other plant proteins are gaining traction as alternative ingredients to formulate animal-free foodstuffs (e.g., meat alternatives, beverages, baked products, snack foods, and others). Microbial proteins derived from fungi and algae are also food ingredients of interest due to their high protein quantity and quality, however there is no commercial food application for bacterial protein yet. In the future, key points to consider are the importance of strain/variety selection, advances in extraction technologies, toxicity assessment, and how this source can be used to create food products for personalized nutrition.

Carboxymethylcellulose-induced changes in rheological properties and microstructure of wheat gluten proteins under different pH conditions

ABSRACT

The interaction between gluten and hydrocolloid additive, as well as the pH condition during dough formation is very important in making flour products. In this study, the influence of different pH conditions on the interactions between gluten proteins (including glutenin and gliadin) and carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), and on the rheological and microstructure changes of gluten proteins was investigated. The dynamic frequency sweep indicated CMC-gluten displayed more solid-like behavior under alkaline conditions than that under acidic conditions. The creep-recovery experiment suggested acidic conditions were not conducive to maintain the elasticity of CMC-gluten. Microstructural changes of various glutens with CMC showed that a higher ratio of β-sheets was observed in the CMC-gluten and CMC-glutenin under alkaline conditions. Total free sulfhydryl contents and changes in tryptophan microenvironment showed glutenin played a key role in the G polymerization with the addition of CMC. Lower surface hydrophobicity of CMC-gluten was displayed under acidic conditions. Scanning electron microscopy images showed that neutral and alkaline conditions were conducive to the network structure formation of CMC-gluten and CMC-glutenin.

PRACTICAL APPLICATION

This study investigated the interaction of CMC with gluten, gluten, and gliadin under different pH conditions, providing a basis for expanding dough quality improvement, and extending the in-depth application of CMC in the food industry.

Fundamental characterization of wheat gluten

Vital wheat gluten plays an important role in the food industry, especially in baking to help standardize dough properties and improve bread volume. However, a fundamental characterization of a wide variety of vital gluten samples is not available so far. This would be necessary to relate compositional characteristics to the production process. Therefore, we analyzed the content of crude protein, starch, lipids and ash, oil and water absorption capacity, particle size distribution, gluten protein composition and spectroscopic properties of 39 vital gluten samples from 6 different suppliers. Principle component analysis of all analytical parameters revealed that the samples from one specialized vital gluten manufacturer had a different composition and a greater variability compared to all other samples from wheat starch producers. While the composition of vital gluten samples from the same manufacturer was similar and the score plot showed a cluster formation for samples from three suppliers, the variability over all samples was comparatively low. The samples from the other suppliers were too similar altogether so that it was hardly possible to identify clear differences, also related to functionality.

Predicting vital wheat gluten quality using the gluten aggregation test and the microscale extension test

Vital gluten is a by-product of wheat starch production and commonly used in bread making, but its quality is difficult to predict. The most accurate method to determine vital gluten quality is the baking experiment, but this approach is time- and labor-intensive. Therefore, the aim was to identify faster and easier ways to predict vital gluten quality. Three different approaches, the gliadin/glutenin ratio, the gluten aggregation test and the microscale extension test, were assessed for their predictive value regarding the baking performance of 46 vital gluten samples using two recipes. Hierarchical clustering classified the vital gluten samples into 23 samples with good, 15 with medium and eight with poor quality. Protein-related parameters, such as the gliadin/glutenin ratio, were not reliable to predict gluten quality, because the correlations to the bread volumes were weak. The gluten aggregation test and the microscale extension test were reliable methods to predict vital gluten quality for use in baking based on a scoring system. Both methods need less material, time and labor compared to baking experiments. Especially, maximum torque, peak maximum time, the ratio between peak30 and peak180 as well as the corresponding distance at maximum resistance to extension seem to be suitable alternatives to predict vital gluten quality.

Chemical modifications and their effects on gluten protein: An extensive review

Gluten protein as one of the plant resources is susceptible to genetic, physical, chemical, enzymatic and engineering modifications. Chemical modifications have myriad advantages over other treatments, including short reaction times, low cost, no requirement for specialized equipment, and highly clear modification effects. Therefore, chemical modification of gluten can be mainly conducted via acylation, glycosylation, phosphorylation, and deamidation. The present review investigated the impact of different chemical compounds on conformations of gluten and its subunits. Moreover, their effects on the physico-chemical, morphological, and rheological properties of gluten and their subunits were studied. This allows for the use of gluten for a variety of purposes in the food and non-food industry.

The Effect of Sea Salt, Dry Sourdough and Fermented Sugar as Sodium Chloride Replacers on Rheological Behavior of Wheat Flour Dough

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of formulation factors, sea salt (SS), dry sourdough (SD) and fermented sugar (FS) as sodium chloride replacers in wheat flour on dough mixing, extension, pasting and fermentation rheological properties, evaluated by Farinograph, Extensograph, Amylograph and Rheofermentometer devices. With regard to mixing and extension properties, SS and FS presented a strengthening effect, whereas SD presented a weakening one. SS and FS presented a positive effect on dough stability, energy and resistance, whereas SD presented a negative one. On the Amylograph, peak viscosity increased by SS and FS addition and decreased when SD was incorporated in the dough recipe. During fermentation, dough development and gas production in the dough system increased after SS and SD addition, whereas they decreased after FS addition. Response surface methodology (RSM) was used to investigate the effect of independent variables on the rheological properties of the dough. Mathematical models between the independent variables, SS, SD and FS, and the dependent variables, represented by the rheological values of the dough, were obtained. The best formulation obtained was of 0.30 g/100 g SS, 0.50 g/100 g SD and 1.02 mL/100 g FS addition with a 0.618 desirability value, following Derringer's desirability function approach. For this formulation, bread quality characteristics were better appreciated than for those obtained for the control sample, in which 1.5% NaCl was incorporated in wheat flour.

Use of Response Surface Methodology to Investigate the Effects of Sodium Chloride Substitution with Potassium Chloride on Dough’s Rheological Properties

Bakery products are one of the main sources of dietary sodium intake of the world’s population. During the last decade, sodium intake has increased worldwide and nowadays the World Health Organization recommends reducing sodium intake by up to 2 g Na/day. KCl is the leading substitute for reducing sodium in bakery products. Therefore, the main purpose of our study was to investigate the impact of sodium reduction on dough’s rheological properties by reformulating the dough recipe using two types of salts, namely NaCl and KCl, with different amounts added to wheat flour. In order to establish their combination for obtaining the optimum rheological properties of dough, the response surface methodology (RSM) by the Design Expert software was used. The effect of combined NaCl and KCl salts were made on mixing, viscometric and fermentation process by using Farinograph, Extensograph, Amylograph and Rheofermentometer devices. On dough’s rheological properties, KCl and NaCl presented a significant effect (p < 0.01) on water absorption, stability, energy, dough resistance to extension, falling number and all Rheofermentometer-analyzed values. Mathematical models were achieved between independent variables, the KCl and NaCl amounts, and the dependent ones, dough rheological values. The optimal values obtained through RSM for the KCl and NaCl salts were of 0.37 g KCl/100 g and 1.31 g NaCl/100 g wheat flour, which leads to a 22% replacement of NaCl in the dough recipe.

Evaluation of the processing quality of noodle dough containing a high Tartary buckwheat flour content through texture analysis

A texture analysis method for evaluating the processing quality of noodle dough with a high Tartary buckwheat flour (BF) content was established. And then the improvement of wheat flour (WF), wheat gluten (WG), and pre-gelatinized Tartary buckwheat flour (PBF) for the processing quality of buckwheat noodle dough was compared quantitatively, and the mechanism was explored through the observation of gluten network in dough sheets. Texture results showed that the coefficients of variation of tensile strength and adhesiveness of dough sheets among 16 groups were 17.76% and 40.72%, respectively, and the intragroup variation coefficients were only 4.17% and 7.07%, respectively. The tensile strength of dough sheets was significantly positively correlated with gluten index of WF and WG. In addition, with the increase of WG and PBF addition, the tensile strength and adhesiveness of dough sheets showed a linearly increase trend. Furthermore, the gluten network in the dough sheets containing WF or WG with high gluten index distributed more evenly and compactly than that with low gluten index. The dough sheet with 9% PBF showed more uniform gluten network, compared with that without added PBF. Overall, texture analysis of dough sheet can be used to evaluate the processing quality of noodle dough containing 70% BF, and the WF and WG with high gluten index had better improvement than PBF.

The Effect of Sodium Reduction by Sea Salt and Dry Sourdough Addition on the Wheat Flour Dough Rheological Properties

The aim of this research was to investigate a technological approach to decrease the sodium content from bakery products in order to respond to the World Health Organization (WHO)'s recommendation to reduce dietary salt intake. Due to the fact that sodium chloride is one of the main ingredients from baking products that affects dough rheology and therefore the technological process of the bakery products, it is important to evaluate these properties. This study analyzes the effect of sea salt with low sodium content (SS) and dry sourdough from wheat flour (SD) as substitutes for sodium chloride on dough rheological properties and on mixing, extension, pasting, and fermentation process by using Farinograph, Extensograph, Amylograph, Falling Number, and Rheofermentometer devices. The results were analyzed using response surface methodology. SS presented a strengthening effect on the gluten network whereas SD presented a weakening one. On extension properties, SS and SD presented a significant positive effect (p < 0.01) on resistance to extension (R50) and maximum resistance to extension (Rmax) values. For pasting properties, SS increased peak viscosity and falling number values whereas SD decreased them. On fermentation properties, SS decreased the maximum height of gaseous production and total CO2 volume production and increased the retention coefficient whereas SD presented an antagonistic effect on these parameters.

Role of NaCl level on the handling and water mobility in dough prepared from four wheat cultivars

In bread, NaCl plays a number of roles including improving flavor, functionality, dough handling, and prevention of sticky dough. Its reduction can create significant processing challenges. As such, the dough handling properties for four wheat cultivars (Pembina, Roblin, McKenzie, and Harvest) were investigated as a function of NaCl (0-4%) level. In terms of dough rheology, both cultivar and NaCl level were significant factors. The maximum deformation (J_max ) in the dough decreased with increasing NaCl levels, indicating that the gluten network became stronger so that it was able to resist the imposed stress. For extensibility, increasing the levels of NaCl resulted in increased resistance to extension for all cultivars. Dough stickiness was shown to be both cultivar and salt level dependent, with weaker cultivars showing higher stickiness. Findings for water association indicated that with the addition of NaCl there was less free water among the different cultivars and an increase in the water associated with the starch-fraction. Dough morphology measurements supported rheology trends; the stronger dough producing cultivars created more elongated protein polymers with a unidirectional network whereas the weaker cultivars created porous multidirectional networks. Overall, Pembina and Roblin formed stronger gluten networks than McKenzie and Harvest, however, the effect of NaCl level was shown to be cultivar dependent. Findings indicate that careful cultivar selection will help mitigate challenges in dough handling within a reduced NaCl environment.

Evaluating the use of zein in structuring plant-based products

The recent interest in plant-based foods has brought upon the need to develop novel structures using plant-based proteins. However, there is still room for improvement in the development of plant-based meat and cheese alternatives. The rheological properties of self-assembled zein networks were examined to evaluate potential in animal protein replacement. These plant-based protein networks were compared to gluten networks (a common ingredient in current plant-based products), chicken muscle tissue, and cheddar cheese. All samples were analyzed using temperature, amplitude, and frequency sweeps at different time points. Zein networks exhibited unique viscous behaviour (in line with that of an entangled polymer solution), in each amplitude, frequency and temperature sweeps, however only when freshly formed. The results suggest that the bonds and interactions responsible for strengthening zein networks need at least 24 h to fully form. Analysis of the secondary structure by FTIR revealed that zein undergoes a structural reorganization from intermolecular to intramolecular β-sheets during this time, but the substantial content of α-helix structures remains unchanged. Overall, different aspects of zein network rheological behaviour can be compared to either chicken breast, or cheddar cheese, presenting opportunities for zein in plant-based food structuring.

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The rheological behavior of zein networks is investigated

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Rheological properties of zein networks stabilized after 24 h of storage

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Zein networks and cheddar cheese are brittle and demonstrate melting behavior

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Zein networks and chicken muscle tissue demonstrate similar elastic properties

Deterioration mechanisms of high-moisture wheat-based food - A review from physicochemical, structural, and molecular perspectives

Wheat-based products are staple foods for over a third of the world's population. However, most wheat-based staple foods are provided with a high water content to maintain naturally chewable mouthfeel, which leads to a short shelf life and limits their distribution and marketing. Understanding the fundamental mechanisms and dynamics that drive the quality deterioration is therefore essential for obtaining alternative technologies for optimal quality and extended shelf life. Here, we provide the basis for the physicochemical, structural, and molecular changes occurring in various wheat products during storage, intending to elucidate the underlying deterioration causes. Generally, more desirable qualities are obtained for fresh wheat products, both in appearance and mouthfeel. During storage, changes in the physicochemical properties, structure, main constituents, and water status contribute to the quality deterioration. Based on these changes, deterioration mechanisms are summarized to provide both theoretical and practical references for the quality regulation of high-moisture wheat-based food.

Small and large strain rheology of gluten and gluten-starch doughs containing wheat bran dietary fiber

BACKGROUND

The small and large strain rheology of gluten (G) and gluten-starch (G + S) doughs containing wheat bran dietary fiber (WBDF) were investigated.

RESULTS

At the small strain stage, i.e. frequency and strain sweep tests, the doughs containing high WBDF concentration are more vulnerable and unstable, as indicated by the lower dough linear viscoelastic strain limit as well as the higher slope of elastic modulus. However, the elastic nature of doughs remarkably increased upon WBDF addition, indicating the reinforcement of the dough mechanical strength, which is also confirmed by the large strain test wherein the maximum strain significantly decreased from 4.37 to 1.82 for the G system and from 12.09 to 2.72 for the G + S system. The creep recovery test showed that WBDF induced the reduction in the strain of the doughs at a fixed stress, which may be related to the enhanced strain hardening capacity.

CONCLUSION

The addition of WBDF resulted in more brittle and unstable doughs with undesirable higher mechanical strength. The presence of starch greatly weakened the dough strength and led to inferior resistance to both small and large deformations. These findings confirmed the impairment of dough viscoelasticity upon addition of WBDF. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.