Mapping the metabolic signatures of fermentation broth, mycelium, fruiting body and spores powder from Ganoderma lucidum by untargeted metabolomics

Alterations in physico-chemical properties, microstructure, sensory characteristics, and volatile compounds of red pepper (Capsicum annuum var. conoides) during various thermal drying durations

Red pepper (Capsicum annuum var. conoides) is commonly used for dried pepper production in China, and the drying process, particularly the during duration, profoundly affects its quality. The findings indicate that prolonged exposure to high temperatures during thermal drying results in significant darkening, an evident decrease in red and yellow tones, and gradual transformation of the pepper's microscopic structure from granular to compact, along with 88% reduction in moisture content and 81% decrease in thickness. The capsaicinoid content increased, resulting in a 4.3-fold increase in spiciness after drying compared to that of fresh pepper. The pepper aroma shifts from fruity, choking, and grassy to herb, dry wood, and smoky. Compounds such as 2-Acetylfuran, furfural, 2-methylfuran, 1-methylpyrrole, 2-methylpyrazine, and 2,5-dimethylpyrazine exhibited positive correlations with drying time, whereas ethyl 2-methylpropanoate, ethyl butanoate, ethyl 2-methylbutanoate, ethyl hexanoate, and 3-methylbutyl butanoate showed negative correlations, indicating their potential as markers for monitoring thermal drying processes.

Effect of folA gene in human breast milk-derived Limosilactobacillus reuteri on its folate biosynthesis

Introduction

Folate supplementation is crucial for the human body, and the chemically synthesized folic acid might have undesirable side effects. The use of molecular breeding methods to modify the genes related to the biosynthesis of folate by probiotics to increase folate production is currently a focus of research.

Methods

In this study, the folate-producing strain of Limosilactobacillus reuteri B1-28 was isolated from human breast milk, and the difference between B1-28 and folA gene deletion strain ΔFolA was investigated by phenotyping, in vitro probiotic evaluation, metabolism and transcriptome analysis.

Results

The results showed that the folate producted by the ΔFolA was 2-3 folds that of the B1-28. Scanning electron microscope showed that ΔFolA had rougher surface, and the acid-producing capacity (p = 0.0008) and adhesion properties (p = 0.0096) were significantly enhanced than B1-28. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that differentially expressed genes were mainly involved in three pathways, among which the biosynthesis of ribosome and aminoacyl-tRNA occurred in the key metabolic pathways. Metabolomics analysis showed that folA affected 5 metabolic pathways, involving 89 different metabolites.

Discussion

In conclusion, the editing of a key gene of folA in folate biosynthesis pathway provides a feasible pathway to improve folate biosynthesis in breast milk-derived probiotics.

UPLC-ESI-MS/MS-based widely targeted metabolomics reveals differences in metabolite composition among four Ganoderma species

The Chinese name "Lingzhi" refers to Ganoderma genus, which are increasingly used in the food and medical industries. Ganoderma species are often used interchangeably since the differences in their composition are not known. To find compositional metabolite differences among Ganoderma species, we conducted a widely targeted metabolomics analysis of four commonly used edible and medicinal Ganoderma species based on ultra performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry. Through pairwise comparisons, we identified 575-764 significant differential metabolites among the species, most of which exhibited large fold differences. We screened and analyzed the composition and functionality of the advantageous metabolites in each species. Ganoderma lingzhi advantageous metabolites were mostly related to amino acids and derivatives, as well as terpenes, G. sinense to terpenes, and G. leucocontextum and G. tsugae to nucleotides and derivatives, alkaloids, and lipids. Network pharmacological analysis showed that SRC, GAPDH, TNF, and AKT1 were the key targets of high-degree advantage metabolites among the four Ganoderma species. Analysis of Gene Ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes demonstrated that the advantage metabolites in the four Ganoderma species may regulate and participate in signaling pathways associated with diverse cancers, Alzheimer's disease, and diabetes. Our findings contribute to more targeted development of Ganoderma products in the food and medical industries.

Current Biological Knowledge, Applications, and Potential Use of the Desert Shaggy Mane Mushroom Podaxis pistillaris (Agaricomycetes): A Review

Podaxis pistillaris, an abundant gasteroid mushroom, has become an important biological element in arid and semiarid communities worldwide. This mushroom possesses cosmetic, edible, and medicinal attributes, playing a crucial role in communities in countries such as Australia, India, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, and Mexico. Proximate studies highlight the nutritional richness of P. pistillaris, characterized by high protein content and essential bioelements such as K, P, and Mg. Furthermore, P. pistillaris is integral to the traditional medicine of indigenous communities in America, Asia, and Africa, where it is revered for its purported wound-healing, anti-inflammatory, and coagulant properties. In the case of Mexico, the Seri community uses and markets P. pistillaris in various forms, including ointments and, within the region, its spores. Chemical analysis of this species reveals notable compounds, including epicorazines A-C exhibiting antimicrobial properties, along with polysaccharides such as β-glucans, and a recently identified ergosterol derivative named podaxisterol. Despite its importance, the chemical characterization and assessment of the biological activity of its compounds have been largely understudied. Consequently, there are currently no wound-healing products on the market derived from fungi, as the majority originate from plant sources. This work aims to present the essential aspects of P. pistillaris's ethnobiological use, medicinal properties, bioactive compounds, and biotechnological applications. In addition, it underscores the overlooked status of P. pistillaris among fungi inhabiting arid areas, emphasizing its potential as a valuable subject for further research.

Comparative metabolic profiling of mycelia, fermentation broth, spore powder and fruiting bodies of Ophiocordyceps gracilis by LC-MS/MS

INTRODUCTION

Ophiocordyceps gracilis, a type of edible and medicinal fungus, exhibits multiple health-promoting effects. Due to the scarcity of natural O. gracilis, artificial cultures have been developed as its substitutes. However, lacking comprehension of the metabolite composition of cultures limits its utilisation.

OBJECTIVE

This research aimed to evaluate the nutritional and medicinal value of four cultures of O. gracilis by analysing their metabolite composition. In addition, metabolic pathways in mycelia and fruiting bodies were analysed to explore fruiting body formation mechanism at metabolic level.

METHOD

The mycelia, fermentation broth, spore powder and fruiting bodies of O. gracilis were cultivated in this study. Their metabolite composition was compared using an untargeted metabolomics approach based on liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS).

RESULTS

Principal component analysis (PCA) and orthogonal projections to latent structures discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) showed that the four cultures have noticeable differences in metabolite composition. A total of 612 metabolites were identified, among which 159 metabolites showed significant differences, and these differential metabolites were classified into 13 categories. The metabolites in the fruiting bodies were the most abundant compared with other cultures. However, each culture had its own advantages and significantly accumulates some active metabolites respectively. Pearson's correlation analysed the mutual relationship among metabolites. In addition, seven metabolic pathways were closely related to fruiting body formation, such as "Biosynthesis of plant secondary metabolites", "amino acids metabolism", "tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle".

CONCLUSION

This study offered a reference to mycelia, fermentation broth, spore powder and fruiting bodies of O. gracilis as health-promoting functional foods and medicine.

Modeling and optimization of the protocol of complex chromatography separation of cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors from Ganoderma lucidum spore

INTRODUCTION

The spores of the medicinal fungus Ganoderma lucidum possess hepatoprotective properties. The main components, triterpenes, are particularly beneficial, making the screening and preparation of active triterpenes from Ganoderma lucidum significant.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to screen and verify cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors from G. lucidum spores, establish a rapid online hyphenated technique for the preparation of active ingredients, and analyze the structures of the active ingredients.

METHODS

Ultrafiltration LC combined with an enzyme inhibition assay and molecular docking was employed to screen and evaluate cyclooxygenase-2 ligands, which were prepared by pressurized liquid extraction coupled online with countercurrent chromatography and semi-preparative LC. The structures of the compounds were identified by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy.

RESULTS

Six cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors, namely, ganoderic acids I, C₂ , G, B, and A and ganoderenic acid A, were screened and evaluated. They were prepared using the online hyphenated technique, following which their structures were identified.

CONCLUSION

This study provides opportunities for the discovery and development of new therapeutic drugs from other natural resources, as the present instrumental setup achieved efficient and systematic extraction and isolation of natural products compared with reference separation methods, thus exhibiting significant potential for industrial applications.

A Review on the Sources, Structures, and Pharmacological Activities of Lucidenic Acids

Ganoderma lucidum has long been used as a multi-purpose plant and functional food. The pharmacological properties of G. lucidum are primarily attributed to its polysaccharides and triterpenoids. Ganoderic and lucidenic acids are the two major triterpenoids groups in G. lucidum. Despite the discovery of 22 types of lucidenic acids, research on lucidenic acids is significantly less extensive compared to that on ganoderic acid. To the best of our knowledge, for the first time, in this review, we aimed to summarize the sources, contents, chemical structures, and pharmacological effects, including anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-viral, neuroprotective, anti-hyperlipidemic, anti-hypercholesterolemic, and anti-diabetic properties, of lucidenic acids. Studies on lucidenic acids are still preliminary and have several limitations. Therefore, more in-depth studies with optimal designs are essential for the development of lucidenic acids as medicines, functional foods, and nutraceuticals.

Hydrophilic Metabolite Composition of Fruiting Bodies and Mycelia of Edible Mushroom Species (Agaricomycetes)

Mushrooms have two components, the fruiting body, which encompasses the stalk and the cap, and the mycelium, which supports the fruiting body underground. The part of the mushroom most commonly consumed is the fruiting body. Given that it is more time consuming to harvest the fruiting body versus simply the mycelia, we were interested in understanding the difference in metabolite content between the fruiting bodies and mycelia of four widely consumed mushrooms in Taiwan: Agrocybe cylindracea (AC), Coprinus comatus (CC), Hericium erinaceus (HE), and Hypsizygus marmoreus (HM). In total, we identified 54 polar metabolites using 1H NMR spectroscopy that included sugar alcohols, amino acids, organic acids, nucleosides and purine/pyrimidine derivatives, sugars, and others. Generally, the fruiting bodies of AC, CC, and HM contained higher amounts of essential amino acids than their corresponding mycelia. Among fruiting bodies, HE had the lowest essential amino acid content. Trehalose was the predominant carbohydrate in most samples except for the mycelia of AC, in which the major sugar was glucose. The amount of adenosine, uridine, and xanthine in the samples was similar, and was higher in fruiting bodies compared with mycelia, except for HM. The organic acid and sugar alcohol content between fruiting bodies and mycelia did not tend to be different. Although each mushroom had a unique metabolic profile, the metabolic profile of fruiting bodies and mycelia were most similar for CC and HE, suggesting that the mycelia of CC and HE may be good replacements for their corresponding fruiting bodies. Additionally, each mushroom species had a unique polar metabolite fingerprint, which could be utilized to identify adulteration.

Comparison analysis of metabolite profiling in seeds and bark of Ulmus parvifolia, a Chinese medicine species

Ulmus parvifolia (U. parvifolia) is a Chinese medicine plant whose bark and leaves are used in the treatment of some diseases such as inflammation, diarrhea and fever. However, metabolic signatures of seeds have not been studied. The seeds and bark of U. parvifolia collected at the seed ripening stage were used for metabolite profiling analysis through the untargeted metabolomics approach. A total of 2,578 and 2,207 metabolites, while 503 and 132 unique metabolites were identified in seeds and bark, respectively. Additionally, 574 differential metabolites (DEMs) were detected in the two different organs of U. parvifolia, which were grouped into 52 classes. Most kinds of metabolites classed into prenol lipids class. The relative content of flavonoids class was the highest. DEMs contained some bioactive compounds (e.g., flavonoids, terpene glycosides, triterpenoids, sesquiterpenoids) with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer activities. Most kinds of flavonoids and sesquiterpenes were up-regulated in seeds. There were more varieties of terpene glycosides and triterpenoids showing up-regulated in bark. The pathway enrichment was performed, while flavonoid biosynthesis, flavone and flavonol biosynthesis were worthy of attention. This study identified DEMs with pharmaceutical value between seeds and bark during seed maturation and offered a molecular basis for alternative or complementary use of seeds and bark of U. parvifolia as a Chinese medicinal material.

Transcriptome profiling of transcription factors in Ganoderma lucidum in response to methyl jasmonate

Ganoderma lucidum is a traditional Chinese medicine and its major active ingredients are ganoderma triterpenoids (GTs). To screen for transcription factors (TFs) that involved in the biosynthetic pathway of GTs in G. lucidum, the chemical composition in mycelia, primordium and fruiting body were analyzed, and the transcriptomes of mycelia induced by methyl jasmonate (MeJA) were analyzed. In addition, the expression level data of MeJA-responsive TFs in mycelia, primordia and fruiting body were downloaded from the database, and the correlation analysis was carried out between their expression profiles and the content of total triterpenoids. The results showed that a total of 89 components were identified, and the content of total triterpenoids was the highest in primordium, followed by fruiting body and mycelia. There were 103 differentially expressed TFs that response to MeJA-induction including 95 upregulated and 8 downregulated genes. These TFs were classified into 22 families including C2H2 (15), TFII-related (12), HTH (9), fungal (8), bZIP (6), HMG (5), DADS (2), etc. Correlation analysis showed that the expression level of GL23559 (MADS), GL26472 (HTH), and GL31187 (HMG) showed a positive correlation with the GTs content, respectively. While the expression level of GL25628 (fungal) and GL26980 (PHD) showed a negative correlation with the GTs content, respectively. Furthermore, the over expression of the Glmhr1 gene (GL25628) in Pichia pastoris GS115 indicated that it might be a negative regulator of GT biosynthesis through decreasing the production of lanosterol. This study provided useful information for a better understanding of the regulation of TFs involved in GT biosynthesis and fungal growth in G. lucidum.

Autotoxicity of Endogenous Organic Acid Stress in Two Ganoderma lucidum Cultivars

Ganoderma lucidum has been used as a rare medical mushroom for centuries in China, due to its health-promoting properties. Successive cropping obstacles are common in the cultivation of G. lucidum, although the remaining nutrients in the germ substrate are sufficient for a second fruiting. Here, we aimed to study the metabolite profile of G. lucidum via nontargeted metabonomic technology. Metabonomic data revealed that organic acids played an important role in the cropping obstacles of G. lucidum, which is accordance with the pH decrease in the germ substrate. A Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes (KEGG) enrichment analysis indicated that most differential acids participated in the metabolic pathways. Five acids were all significantly upregulated by two MS with high energy (MSE) modes in two cultivars, among which 5-hydroxy-2-oxo-4-ureido-2,5-dihydro-1H-imidazole-5-carboxylic acid is also involved in purine metabolism regulation and microbial metabolism in diverse environments. Taken together, this work illustrated the organic acid stress generated by G. lucidum, which formed the autotoxicity feedback, and resulted in cropping obstacles. Determining the cause of the cropping obstacles in G. lucidum will promote the utilization rate of fungus substrate to realize the sustainable use of this resource.

Metabolomic comparison between natural Huaier and artificial cultured Huaier

Vanderbylia robiniophila (Murrill) B.K. (Huaier) is a kind of higher fungal fruiting body parasitic on the trunk of Sophora japonica and Robinia pseudoacacia L.. As a traditional Chinese medicine with a history of more than 1600 years, Huaier has attracted wide attention for its excellent anticancer activity. A systematic study on the metabolome differences between natural Huaier and artificial cultured Huaier was conducted using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry in this study. Principal component analysis and orthogonal projection on latent structure-discriminant analysis results showed that cultured Huaier evidently separated and individually separated from natural Huaier, indicating metabolome difference between natural Huaier and cultured Huaier. Hierarchical clustering analysis was further performed to cluster the differential metabolites and samples based on their metabolic similarity. The higher content of amino acids, alkaloids and terpenoids in natural Huaier makes it an excellent choice as a traditional Chinese medicine for anti-cancer or nutritional supplementation. The results of the Bel-7402 and A549 cells cytotoxicity test showed that the anticancer activity of natural Huaier was better than that of cultured Huaier. This may be due to the difference in chemical composition, which makes the anticancer activity of natural and cultured Huaier different.

Ganoderma lucidum: A potential source to surmount viral infections through β-glucans immunomodulatory and triterpenoids antiviral properties

Ganoderma lucidum (G. lucidum) polysaccharides and triterpenoids are the major bioactive compounds and have been used as traditional medicine for ancient times. Massive demands of G. lucidum have fascinated the researchers towards its application as functional food, nutraceutical and modern medicine owing to wide range of application in various diseases include immunomodulators, anticancer, antiviral, antioxidant, cardioprotective, hepatoprotective. G. lucidum polysaccharides exhibit immunomodulatory properties through boosting the action of antigen-presenting cells, mononuclear phagocyte system, along with humoral and cellular immunity. β-Glucans isolated from G. lucidum are anticipated to produce an immune response through pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). β-Glucans after binding with dectin-1 receptor present on different cells include macrophages, monocytes, dendritic cells and neutrophils produce signal transduction that lead to trigger the mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), T cells and Nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) that refer to cytokines production and contributing to immune response. While triterpenoids produce antiviral effects through inhibiting various enzymes like neuraminidase, HIV-protease, DENV2 NS2B-NS3 protease and HSV multiplication. Polysaccharides and triterpenoids adjunct to other drugs exhibit potential action in prevention and treatment of various diseases. Immunomodulators and antiviral properties of this mushroom could be a potential source to overcome this current pandemic outbreak.

Transcriptional Dynamics of Genes Purportedly Involved in the Control of Meiosis, Carbohydrate, and Secondary Metabolism during Sporulation in Ganoderma lucidum

Ganoderma lucidum spores (GLS), the mature germ cells ejected from the abaxial side of the pileus, have diverse pharmacological effects. However, the genetic regulation of sporulation in this fungus remains unknown. Here, samples corresponding to the abaxial side of the pileus were collected from strain YW-1 at three sequential developmental stages and were then subjected to a transcriptome assay. We identified 1598 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and found that the genes related to carbohydrate metabolism were strongly expressed during spore morphogenesis. In particular, genes involved in trehalose and malate synthesis were upregulated, implying the accumulation of specific carbohydrates in mature G. lucidum spores. Furthermore, the expression of genes involved in triterpenoid and ergosterol biosynthesis was high in the young fruiting body but gradually decreased with sporulation. Finally, spore development-related regulatory pathways were explored by analyzing the DNA binding motifs of 24 transcription factors that are considered to participate in the control of sporulation. Our results provide a dataset of dynamic gene expression during sporulation in G. lucidum. They also shed light on genes potentially involved in transcriptional regulation of the meiotic process, metabolism pathways in energy provision, and ganoderic acids and ergosterol biosynthesis.

UPLC/MS-based untargeted metabolomics reveals the changes of metabolites profile of Salvia miltiorrhiza bunge during Sweating processing

Salvia miltiorrhiza has numerous compounds with extensive clinical application. "Sweating", a processing method of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), results in great changes in pharmacology and pharmacodynamics. Previously, chromatogram of 10 characteristic metabolites in S. miltiorrhiza showed a significant difference after "Sweating". Due to the complexity of TCM, changes in metabolites should be investigated metabolome-wide after "Sweating". An untargeted UPLC/MS-based metabolomics was performed to discover metabolites profile variation of S. miltiorrhiza after "Sweating". Multivariate analysis was conducted to screen differential metabolites. Analysis indicated distinct differences between sweated and non-sweated samples. 10,108 substance peaks had been detected altogether, and 4759 metabolites had been identified from negative and positive ion model. 287 differential metabolites were screened including 112 up-regulated and 175 down-regulated and they belong to lipids and lipid-like molecules, and phenylpropanoid and polyketides. KEGG analysis showed the pathway of linoleic acid metabolism, and glyoxylate and dicarboxylate metabolism were mainly enriched. 31 and 49 identified metabolites were exclusively detected in SSM and NSSM, respectively, which mainly belong to carboxylic acids and derivatives, polyketides and fatty acyls. By mapping tanshinones and salvianolic acids to 4759 identified metabolites library, 23 characteristic metabolites had been identified, among which 11 metabolites changed most. We conclude that "Sweating'' has significant effect on metabolites content and composition of S. miltiorrhiza.