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CHOMCHAT P, KAEWMONG P, SIRINARUMITR K, SERA K, NODA J, SIRINARUMITR T. Study of trace elements in stranded green turtles (Chelonia mydas), hawksbill turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata), and olive ridley turtles (Lepidochelys olivacea) in Gulf of Thailand and Andaman Sea. J Vet Med Sci 2023; 85:557-564. [PMID: 36948643 PMCID: PMC10209466 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.22-0348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2022] [Accepted: 03/04/2023] [Indexed: 03/24/2023] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to survey and compare the amounts of elements in the serum of stranded sea turtles from the Gulf of Thailand and the Andaman Sea. The sea turtles from the Gulf of Thailand had Ca, Mg, P, S, Se, and Si concentrations significantly higher than those in sea turtles from the Andaman Sea. The Ni and Pb concentrations of sea turtles from the Gulf of Thailand was higher, but not significantly so, than in sea turtles from the Andaman Sea. Rb was detected only in sea turtles from the Gulf of Thailand. This may have been related to the industrial activities in Eastern Thailand. The concentration of Br in the sea turtles from the Andaman Sea were significantly higher than those in sea turtles from the Gulf of Thailand. The higher serum concentration of Cu in hawksbill (H) and olive ridley turtles (O) than in green turtles may be due to hemocyanin, as an important component in the blood of crustaceans. The higher Fe concentration in the serum from green turtles than for H and O may be due to chlorophyll, which is an important component of chloroplasts in eel grass. Co was not found in the serum of green turtles but was found in the serum of H and O. The monitoring of important elements in sea turtles may be used as a tool to assess the levels of pollution in marine ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Poommate CHOMCHAT
- Ph.D. Program in Veterinary Clinical Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | | | - Kaitkanoke SIRINARUMITR
- Kasetsart University Veterinary Teaching Hospital, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Koichiro SERA
- Cyclotron Research Center, Iwate Medical University, Iwate, Japan
| | - Jun NODA
- Department of Veterinary Science, School of Veterinary Medicine Rakuno Gakuen University, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - Theerapol SIRINARUMITR
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
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Shaw KR, Balazs GH, Jones TT, Lynch HW, Liu J, Cobb GP, Klein DM, Lynch JM. Green Sea Turtles (Chelonia mydas) Accumulate Heavy Metals Near a Former Skeet Shooting Range in Kailua, O'ahu, Hawai'i. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2023; 42:1109-1123. [PMID: 36866800 DOI: 10.1002/etc.5601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2022] [Revised: 11/21/2022] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
The present study determined if green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas) in Kailua Bay, Oahu, in the Hawaiian Islands have elevated blood and scute lead (Pb), arsenic (As), and antimony (Sb) concentrations resulting from lead deposition at a historic skeet shooting range. Blood and scute samples were collected and analyzed for Pb, As, and Sb via inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry. Prey, water, and sediment samples were also analyzed. Turtle samples in Kailua Bay (45) have blood Pb concentrations (328 ± 195 ng/g) greater than a reference population (Howick Group of Islands, 29.2 ± 17.1 ng/g). Compared with other green turtle populations, only turtles in Oman, Brazil, and San Diego, CA have blood Pb concentrations greater than turtles in Kailua Bay. The estimated daily exposure of Pb from algae sources in Kailua Bay (0.12 mg/kg/day) was significantly lower than the no observed adverse effect level (100 mg/kg) of red-eared slider turtles. However, the chronic effects of Pb on sea turtles is poorly understood and continued monitoring of this population will increase our understanding of the Pb and As loads of sea turtles in Kailua Bay. Environ Toxicol Chem 2023;42:1109-1123. © 2023 SETAC. This article has been contributed to by U.S. Government employees and their work is in the public domain in the USA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine R Shaw
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas, USA
| | | | - T Todd Jones
- Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA
| | | | - Jing Liu
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao, China
| | - George P Cobb
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Baylor University, Waco, Texas, USA
| | - David M Klein
- Department of Civil Engineering, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas, USA
| | - Jennifer M Lynch
- Chemical Sciences Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Waimānalo, Hawaii, USA
- Center for Marine Debris Research, Hawai'i Pacific University, Waimānalo, Hawaii, USA
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Orós J, Camacho M, Calabuig P, Rial-Berriel C, Montesdeoca N, Déniz S, Luzardo OP. Postmortem investigations on leatherback sea turtles (Dermochelys coriacea) stranded in the Canary Islands (Spain) (1998-2017): Evidence of anthropogenic impacts. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2021; 167:112340. [PMID: 33866202 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2021.112340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2020] [Revised: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 04/05/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Opportunities for postmortem studies on leatherback sea turtles (Dermochelys coriacea) are infrequent due to their predominantly pelagic life history. In this study, the pathological findings and causes of mortality of 13 leatherback turtles stranded in the Canary Islands, Spain, from 1998 to 2017, are described. In addition, concentrations of Se, As, Cd, Pb, Hg, 15 rare earth elements (REE) and other 4 minor elements (ME), 41 persistent organic pollutants, and 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in hepatic samples from 5 leatherbacks were determined. 84.62% of the turtles died possibly due to anthropogenic causes (entanglement/fishing interaction - 46.15%; boat strike - 23.07%; plastic ingestion - 15.38%). Although Se, As, and Cd were found at higher hepatic concentrations than those reported for leatherbacks from other locations, no acute lesions were detected. This is the first report of exposure to REE-ME in sea turtles. Organic contaminant hepatic concentrations were generally low or undetectable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge Orós
- Veterinary Faculty, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Trasmontana s/n, 35413 Arucas, Las Palmas, Spain.
| | - María Camacho
- Toxicology Unit, Department of Clinical Sciences, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, P. O. Box 550, 35080 Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain
| | - Pascual Calabuig
- Tafira Wildlife Rehabilitation Center, Tafira Baja, 35017 Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain
| | - Cristian Rial-Berriel
- Toxicology Unit, Department of Clinical Sciences, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, P. O. Box 550, 35080 Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain
| | - Natalia Montesdeoca
- Veterinary Faculty, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Trasmontana s/n, 35413 Arucas, Las Palmas, Spain
| | - Soraya Déniz
- Veterinary Faculty, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Trasmontana s/n, 35413 Arucas, Las Palmas, Spain
| | - Octavio P Luzardo
- Toxicology Unit, Department of Clinical Sciences, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, P. O. Box 550, 35080 Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain; Spanish Biomedical Research Center in Physiopathology of Obesity and Nutrition (CIBERObn), Paseo Blas Cabrera Felipe s/n, 35016 Las Palmas, Spain
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Haskins DL, Brown MK, Qin C, Xu X, Pilgrim MA, Tuberville TD. Multi-decadal trends in mercury and methylmercury concentrations in the brown watersnake (Nerodia taxispilota). ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2021; 276:116722. [PMID: 33640654 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2021.116722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2020] [Revised: 01/19/2021] [Accepted: 02/08/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Mercury (Hg) is an environmental contaminant that poses a threat to aquatic systems globally. Temporal evaluations of Hg contamination have increased in recent years, with studies focusing on how anthropogenic activities impact Hg bioavailability in a variety of aquatic systems. While it is common for these studies and ecological risk assessments to evaluate Hg bioaccumulation and effects in wildlife, there is a paucity of information regarding Hg dynamics in reptiles. The goal of this study was to investigate temporal patterns in total mercury (THg) and methylmercury (MeHg) concentrations across a 36-year period, as well as evaluate relationships among and between destructive (kidney, liver, muscle) and non-destructive (blood, tail) tissue types in a common watersnake species. To accomplish this, we measured THg and MeHg concentrations in multiple tissues from brown watersnakes (Nerodia taxispilota) collected from Steel Creek on the Savannah River Site (SRS; Aiken, SC, USA) from two time periods (1983-1986 and 2019). We found significant and positive relationships between tail tips and destructive tissues. In both time periods, THg concentrations varied significantly by tissue type, and destructive tissues exhibited higher but predictable THg values relative to tail tissue. Methylmercury concentrations did not differ among tissues from the 1980s but was significantly higher in muscle compared to other tissues from snakes collected in 2019. Percent MeHg of THg in N. taxispilota tissues mirrored patterns reported in other reptiles, although the range of % MeHg in liver and kidney differed between time periods. Both THg and MeHg concentrations in N. taxispilota declined significantly from the 1980s to 2019, with average values 1.6 to 4-fold lower in contemporary samples. Overall, our data add further evidence to the utility of watersnakes to monitor Hg pollution in aquatic environments and suggest attenuation of this contaminant in watersnakes in our study system.
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Affiliation(s)
- David L Haskins
- Interdisciplinary Toxicology Program, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30605, USA; Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30605, USA; Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, University of Georgia, Aiken, SC, 29802, USA.
| | - M Kyle Brown
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30605, USA; Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, University of Georgia, Aiken, SC, 29802, USA
| | - Chongyang Qin
- Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, University of Georgia, Aiken, SC, 29802, USA
| | - Xiaoyu Xu
- Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, University of Georgia, Aiken, SC, 29802, USA
| | - Melissa A Pilgrim
- Division of Natural Sciences and Engineering, University of South Carolina Upstate, Spartanburg, SC, 29303, USA
| | - Tracey D Tuberville
- Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, University of Georgia, Aiken, SC, 29802, USA
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Shaw KR, Lynch JM, Balazs GH, Jones TT, Pawloski J, Rice MR, French AD, Liu J, Cobb GP, Klein DM. Trace Element Concentrations in Blood and Scute Tissues from Wild and Captive Hawaiian Green Sea Turtles (Chelonia mydas). ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2021; 40:208-218. [PMID: 33103806 PMCID: PMC8452040 DOI: 10.1002/etc.4911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2020] [Revised: 07/06/2020] [Accepted: 10/16/2020] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Sea turtles are exposed to trace elements through water, sediment, and food. Exposure to these elements has been shown to decrease immune function, impair growth, and decrease reproductive output in wildlife. The present study compares trace element concentrations in green turtles in captivity at Sea Life Park Hawaii (n = 6) to wild green turtles in Kapoho Bay, Hawaii, USA (n = 5-7). Blood and scute samples were collected and analyzed for 11 elements via inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Selenium was significantly greater (p < 0.05) in the blood of captive turtles compared with wild turtles, whereas V, Ni, and Pb were significantly greater in the blood of wild turtles. In scute, V, Cu, Se, and Cr were significantly greater in captive turtles, whereas As was significantly greater in wild turtles. Pelleted food fed to the captive turtles and representative samples of the wild turtle diet were analyzed via ICP-MS to calculate trophic transfer factors and daily intake values. Wild turtles had greater estimated daily intake than captive turtles for all elements except Cu and Se. Because captive turtles are fed a diet very different from that of their wild counterparts, captive turtles do not represent control or reference samples for chemical exposure studies in wild turtles. No toxic thresholds are known for sea turtles, but rehabilitation and managed care facilities should monitor sea turtle elemental concentrations to ensure the animals' health. Environ Toxicol Chem 2021;40:208-218. © 2020 SETAC. This article has been contributed to by US Government employees and their work is in the public domain in the USA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine R. Shaw
- Texas Tech University, Department of Environmental Toxicology, Lubbock, TX 79416, USA
- Address correspondence to
| | - Jennifer M. Lynch
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Chemical Sciences Division, Waimanalo, HI 96744, USA
| | | | - T. Todd Jones
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center, Honolulu, HI 96818, USA
| | | | - Marc R. Rice
- Hawaii Preparatory Academy, Kamuela, HI 96743, USA
| | - Amanda D. French
- Texas Tech University, Department of Environmental Toxicology, Lubbock, TX 79416, USA
| | - Jing Liu
- Baylor University, Department of Environmental Sciences, Waco, TX 76706, USA
| | - George P. Cobb
- Baylor University, Department of Environmental Sciences, Waco, TX 76706, USA
| | - David M. Klein
- Texas Tech University, Department of Environmental Toxicology, Lubbock, TX 79416, USA
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Dennis MM, Poppenga R, Conan A, Hill K, Hargrave S, Maroun V, Stewart KM. Leatherback sea turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) hatch success and essential and nonessential metals in eggs and embryos from nests in St. Kitts (2015). MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2020; 161:111726. [PMID: 33045529 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2020] [Revised: 09/05/2020] [Accepted: 09/26/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Northwest Atlantic leatherback sea turtles (Dermochelys coriacea) are endangered and low hatch success limits potential for population recovery. We examined essential and nonessential metal concentrations in 43 eggs from nests on St. Kitts to determine if there was a relationship with hatch success. Whole homogenized embryos and undeveloped eggs contained detectable concentrations of arsenic, barium, copper, iron, selenium, vanadium, and zinc, but not beryllium, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, lead, mercury, molybdenum, and thallium. Of detected metals, only vanadium concentrations negatively correlated with hatch success (P = 0.01). Manganese and vanadium were associated with pneumonia occurring in the nest, and arsenic with renal mineralization. This study adds to the knowledge regarding baseline values for environmental contaminants in sea turtles, supporting the trend that leatherback eggs have relatively low concentrations of toxic metals, lacking a strong relationship with hatch success, and normally contain the essential elements copper, iron, selenium, and zinc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle M Dennis
- Center for Conservation Medicine and Ecosystem Health, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, Camps, St. Kitts, West Indies, Saint Kitts and Nevis; Department of Biomedical and Diagnostic Sciences, University of Tennessee College of Veterinary Medicine, Knoxville, TN, USA.
| | - Robert Poppenga
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Toxicology Laboratory, University of California, School of Veterinary Medicine, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Anne Conan
- Center for Conservation Medicine and Ecosystem Health, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, Camps, St. Kitts, West Indies, Saint Kitts and Nevis; Center for One Health Research and Policy Advice, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong, SAR, PR China
| | - Kristine Hill
- Center for Conservation Medicine and Ecosystem Health, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, Camps, St. Kitts, West Indies, Saint Kitts and Nevis; St. Kitts Sea Turtle Monitoring Network, P.O. Box 2298, Basseterre, St. Kitts, Saint Kitts and Nevis
| | - Sabine Hargrave
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Toxicology Laboratory, University of California, School of Veterinary Medicine, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Victoria Maroun
- Center for Conservation Medicine and Ecosystem Health, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, Camps, St. Kitts, West Indies, Saint Kitts and Nevis; St. Kitts Sea Turtle Monitoring Network, P.O. Box 2298, Basseterre, St. Kitts, Saint Kitts and Nevis
| | - Kimberly M Stewart
- Center for Conservation Medicine and Ecosystem Health, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, Camps, St. Kitts, West Indies, Saint Kitts and Nevis; St. Kitts Sea Turtle Monitoring Network, P.O. Box 2298, Basseterre, St. Kitts, Saint Kitts and Nevis
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Lima SR, Barbosa JMDS, Saracchini PGV, Padilha FGF, Leite JDS, Ferreira AMR. Gastric lesions in free-living sea turtles: An underestimated disease that reflects the health of the ecosystem. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 697:133970. [PMID: 31476501 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.133970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2019] [Revised: 07/25/2019] [Accepted: 08/17/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Free-living marine turtles are constantly exposed to aggression factors and the gastrointestinal tract is one of the main gateways of entry. The objective of this study was to identify, and describe the anatomopathological alterations in the stomach of free-living marine turtles found dead on the beaches of the Microrregião dos Lagos, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Twenty-two sea turtles were necropsied, and stomach fragments were collected, fixed, and processed routinely. The presence of gastritis, parasitism, and adaptative morphological alteration of the cells were evaluated in a microscopic analysis. Descriptive statistics and Fisher's exact test were performed. Of the samples, 59.1% had stomach hyperemia. Microscopically, gastritis was found in 86.4% of cases, parasitism in 72.7%, and adaptive morphological alteration in 59.1%. There was an association between the presence of cellular adaptive morphological alteration and chronic inflammation. This the first report to describe the adaptive morphological changes observed in the stomach cells. The chronicity of the lesions was due to continuous aggressions to the tissue, with parasitism, garbage ingestion, and environmental pollutants as possible causes. The results obtained in this study demonstrate that the chronicity of the stomach lesions is due to continuous aggressions to this tissue, and the irritating factors have environmental origin, such as parasites, garbage, and toxic pollutants, including heavy metals, which are ingested by free-living sea turtles. This article demonstrates that stomach injuries in free-living marine turtles are frequent, severe, and possibly underdiagnosed; these lesions reflect the diseased ecosystem in which those animals live.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samara Rosolem Lima
- Programa de Pós graduação em Medicina Veterinária (área de Clínica e Reprodução Animal), Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ 24230-340, Brazil.
| | - João Marcos da Silva Barbosa
- Programa de Pós graduação em Medicina Veterinária (área de Clínica e Reprodução Animal), Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ 24230-340, Brazil
| | - Paula Gabrielle Veiga Saracchini
- Programa de Pós graduação em Medicina Veterinária (área de Clínica e Reprodução Animal), Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ 24230-340, Brazil
| | - Felipe Gomes Ferreira Padilha
- Programa de Pós graduação em Medicina Veterinária (área de Clínica e Reprodução Animal), Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ 24230-340, Brazil
| | - Juliana da Silva Leite
- Programa de Pós graduação em Medicina Veterinária (área de Clínica e Reprodução Animal), Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ 24230-340, Brazil; Departamento de Patologia e Clínica Veterinária, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ 24230-340, Brazil
| | - Ana Maria Reis Ferreira
- Programa de Pós graduação em Medicina Veterinária (área de Clínica e Reprodução Animal), Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ 24230-340, Brazil; Departamento de Patologia e Clínica Veterinária, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ 24230-340, Brazil.
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Speer RM, Wise SS, Croom-Perez TJ, Aboueissa AM, Martin-Bras M, Barandiaran M, Bermúdez E, Wise JP. A comparison of particulate hexavalent chromium cytotoxicity and genotoxicity in human and leatherback sea turtle lung cells from a one environmental health perspective. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2019; 376:70-81. [PMID: 31108106 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2019.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2019] [Revised: 05/09/2019] [Accepted: 05/14/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Evaluating health risks of environmental contaminants can be better achieved by considering toxic impacts across species. Hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)] is a marine pollutant and global environmental contaminant. While Cr(VI) has been identified as a human lung carcinogen, health effects in marine species are poorly understood. Little is known about how Cr(VI) might impact humans and marine species differently. This study used a One Environmental Health Approach to compare the cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of particulate Cr(VI) in human and leatherback sea turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) lung fibroblasts. Leatherbacks may experience prolonged exposures to environmental contaminants and provide insight to how environmental exposures affect health across species. Since humans and leatherbacks may experience prolonged exposure to Cr(VI), and prolonged Cr(VI) exposure leads to carcinogenesis in humans, in this study we considered both acute and prolonged exposures. We found particulate Cr(VI) induced cytotoxicity in leatherback cells comparable to human cell data supporting current research that shows Cr(VI) impacts health across species. To better understand mechanisms of Cr(VI) toxicity we assessed the genotoxic effects of particulate Cr(VI) in human and leatherback cells. Particulate Cr(VI) induced similar genotoxicity in both cell lines, however, human cells arrested at lower concentrations than leatherback cells. We also measured intracellular Cr ion concentrations and found after prolonged exposure human cells accumulated more Cr than leatherback cells. These data indicate Cr(VI) is a health concern for humans and leatherbacks. The data also suggest humans and leatherbacks respond to chemical exposure differently, possibly leading to the discovery of species-specific protective mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel M Speer
- Wise Laboratory of Environmental and Genetic Toxicology, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Louisville, 500 S Preston St, Rm 1422, Louisville, KY 40202, United States of America
| | - Sandra S Wise
- Wise Laboratory of Environmental and Genetic Toxicology, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Louisville, 500 S Preston St, Rm 1422, Louisville, KY 40202, United States of America
| | - Tayler J Croom-Perez
- Wise Laboratory of Environmental and Genetic Toxicology, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Louisville, 500 S Preston St, Rm 1422, Louisville, KY 40202, United States of America
| | | | - Mark Martin-Bras
- Wise Laboratory of Environmental and Genetic Toxicology, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Louisville, 500 S Preston St, Rm 1422, Louisville, KY 40202, United States of America; Vieques Conservation and Historical Trust, 138 Calle Flamboyan, Vieques 00765, Puerto Rico
| | - Mike Barandiaran
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, State Rd 997 km 3.2, Vieques 00765, Puerto Rico
| | - Erick Bermúdez
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, State Rd 997 km 3.2, Vieques 00765, Puerto Rico
| | - John Pierce Wise
- Wise Laboratory of Environmental and Genetic Toxicology, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Louisville, 500 S Preston St, Rm 1422, Louisville, KY 40202, United States of America.
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Perrault JR, Lehner AF, Buchweitz JP, Page-Karjian A. Evidence of accumulation and elimination of inorganic contaminants from the lachrymal salt glands of leatherback sea turtles (Dermochelys coriacea). CHEMOSPHERE 2019; 217:59-67. [PMID: 30408652 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.10.206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2018] [Revised: 10/23/2018] [Accepted: 10/29/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Plasma osmolalities of marine vertebrates are generally lower than the surrounding medium; therefore, marine organisms must cope with the osmoregulatory challenges of life in a salty environment. The salt glands serve to maintain osmotic and ionic homeostasis in a number of lower marine vertebrates. One marine reptile, the leatherback sea turtle (Dermochelys coriacea), ingests excessive amounts of salts due to their diet of gelatinous zooplankton. Outside of the normal osmoregulatory function of the salt gland, little research has been conducted on contaminant accumulation and excretion in this organ. Here, we established arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury, and selenium concentrations in red blood cells (RBCs) and salt gland secretions (SGSs) of nesting leatherbacks. We also collected salt glands from different life stage classes of dead stranded leatherbacks from the western Atlantic Ocean to determine if inorganic contaminants accumulate in this organ. Using non-metric multidimensional scaling and regression analyses, we determined that RBC and SGS inorganic contaminant concentrations were not correlated. Additionally, RBCs showed significantly higher concentrations of these contaminants in comparison to SGSs, likely due to the affinity of inorganic contaminants for the heme group of RBCs. Lastly, we found that salt gland cadmium and mercury concentrations tended to increase with increasing curved carapace length (CCL) in stranded leatherbacks. Our results indicate that different physiological mechanisms determine the distribution of inorganic contaminants in blood and SGSs. Increases in salt gland contaminant concentrations with increasing CCL suggest this organ as a potential target for accumulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin R Perrault
- Loggerhead Marinelife Center, 14200 U.S. Highway 1, Juno Beach, FL 33408, USA.
| | - Andreas F Lehner
- Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, Toxicology Section, Michigan State University, 4125 Beaumont Road, East Lansing, MI 48910, USA
| | - John P Buchweitz
- Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, Toxicology Section, Michigan State University, 4125 Beaumont Road, East Lansing, MI 48910, USA
| | - Annie Page-Karjian
- Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute, Florida Atlantic University, 5600 U.S. Highway 1, Fort Pierce, FL 34946, USA
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Perrault JR. Mercury and selenium concentrations in Scyphozoan jellyfishes and pyrosomes from Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2019; 138:7-10. [PMID: 30660315 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.11.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2018] [Revised: 11/08/2018] [Accepted: 11/13/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Gelatinous zooplankton including jellyfishes, pyrosomes, and salps serve as important prey items for a number of marine species; however, relatively few studies have examined contaminant concentrations in these animals. Scyphozoans (Aurelia sp., Chrysaora colorata, C. fuscescens, and Phacellophora camtschatica) and Thaliaceans (Pyrosoma sp.) were collected from 2009 to 2011 from Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary and analyzed for total mercury and selenium concentrations. In general, mercury (0.0001-0.0016 μg/g wet weight) and selenium (0.009-0.304 μg/g wet weight) concentrations of the sampled organisms were low; however, the two Pyrosoma sp. had total mercury and selenium concentrations that were one order of magnitude higher than the Scyphozoans. There was a significant positive relationship between mercury and selenium concentrations in jellyfishes and pyrosomes, suggesting a potential detoxification mechanism in these lower trophic level organisms. This study provides evidence that trophic transfer of mercury and selenium likely occurs through ingestion of gelatinous prey.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin R Perrault
- Department of Biological Sciences, Florida Atlantic University, Building 01, Sanson Science, 777 Glades Road, Boca Raton, FL 33431, United States.
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11
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Hayes F, Spurgeon DJ, Lofts S, Jones L. Evidence-based logic chains demonstrate multiple impacts of trace metals on ecosystem services. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2018; 223:150-164. [PMID: 29929071 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.05.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2018] [Revised: 04/04/2018] [Accepted: 05/16/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Trace metals can have far-reaching ecosystem impacts. In this study, we develop consistent and evidence-based logic chains to demonstrate the wider effects of trace metal contamination on a suite of ecosystem services. They demonstrate knock-on effects from an initial receptor that is sensitive to metal toxicity, along a cascade of impact, to final ecosystem services via alterations to multiple ecosystem processes. We developed logic chains to highlight two aspects of metal toxicity: for impacts of copper pollution in soil ecosystems, and for impacts of mercury in freshwaters. Each link of the chains is supported by published evidence, with an indication of the strength of the supporting science. Copper pollution to soils (134 unique chains) showed a complex network of pathways originating from direct effects on a range of invertebrate and microbial taxa and plants. In contrast, mercury pollution on freshwaters (63 unique chains) shows pathways that broadly follow the food web of this habitat, reflecting the potential for mercury bioaccumulation. Despite different pathways, there is considerable overlap in the final ecosystem services impacted by both of these metals and in both ecosystems. These included reduced human-use impacts (food, fishing), reduced human non-use impacts (amenity value) and positive or negative alterations to climate regulation (impacts on carbon sequestration). Other final ecosystem goods impacted include reduced crop production, animal production, flood regulation, drinking water quality and soil purification. Taking an ecosystem services approach demonstrates that consideration of only the direct effects of metal contamination of soils and water will considerably underestimate the total impacts of these pollutants. Construction of logic chains, evidenced by published literature, allows a robust assessment of potential impacts indicating primary, secondary and tertiary effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Hayes
- Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Environment Centre Wales, Deiniol Road, Bangor, Gwynedd, LL57 2UW, United Kingdom.
| | - D J Spurgeon
- Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Maclean Building, Benson Lane, Crowmarsh Gifford, Wallingford, OX10 8BB, United Kingdom
| | - S Lofts
- Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Lancaster Environment Centre, Lancaster, LA1 4AP, United Kingdom
| | - L Jones
- Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Environment Centre Wales, Deiniol Road, Bangor, Gwynedd, LL57 2UW, United Kingdom
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12
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Speer RM, Wise CF, Young JL, Aboueissa AM, Martin Bras M, Barandiaran M, Bermúdez E, Márquez-D'Acunti L, Wise JP. The cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of particulate and soluble hexavalent chromium in leatherback sea turtle lung cells. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2018; 198:149-157. [PMID: 29547730 PMCID: PMC5915330 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2018.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2018] [Revised: 03/02/2018] [Accepted: 03/03/2018] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)] is a marine pollution of concern as recent studies show it has a global distribution, with some regions showing high Cr concentrations in marine animal tissue, and it is extensively used. Leatherback sea turtles (Dermochelys coriacea) are an endangered marine species that may experience prolonged exposures to environmental contaminants including Cr(VI). Human activities have led to global Cr(VI) contamination of the marine environment. While Cr(VI) has been identified as a known human carcinogen, the health effects in marine species are poorly understood. In this study, we assessed the cytotoxic and genotoxic effects of particulate and soluble Cr(VI) in leatherback sea turtle lung cells. Both particulate and soluble Cr(VI) induced a concentration-dependent increase in cytotoxicity. Next, using a chromosome aberration assay, we assessed the genotoxic effects of Cr(VI) in leatherback sea turtle lung cells. Particulate and soluble Cr(VI) induced a concentration-dependent increase in clastogenicity in leatherback sea turtle lung cells. These data indicate that Cr(VI) may be a health concern for leatherback sea turtles and other long-lived marine species. Additionally, these data provide foundational support to use leatherback sea turtles as a valuable model species for monitoring the health effects of Cr(VI) in the environment and possibly as an indicator species to assess environmental human exposures and effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel M Speer
- Wise Laboratory of Environmental and Genetic Toxicology, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Louisville, CTRB rm 522, 505 S. Hancock Street, Louisville, Kentucky, 40292, USA.
| | - Catherine F Wise
- Wise Laboratory of Environmental and Genetic Toxicology, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Louisville, CTRB rm 522, 505 S. Hancock Street, Louisville, Kentucky, 40292, USA; Toxicology Program, Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Box 7633, Raleigh NC 27695-7633, 850 Main Campus Drive, Raleigh, NC 27606, USA.
| | - Jamie L Young
- Wise Laboratory of Environmental and Genetic Toxicology, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Louisville, CTRB rm 522, 505 S. Hancock Street, Louisville, Kentucky, 40292, USA.
| | - AbouEl-Makarim Aboueissa
- Department of Math and Statistics, University of Southern Maine, 96 Falmouth St, Portland, ME 04103, USA.
| | - Mark Martin Bras
- Wise Laboratory of Environmental and Genetic Toxicology, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Louisville, CTRB rm 522, 505 S. Hancock Street, Louisville, Kentucky, 40292, USA; Vieques Conservation and Historical Trust, 138 Calle Flamboyan, Vieques, Puerto Rico 00765, USA.
| | - Mike Barandiaran
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, State Rd 997 km 3.2, Vieques, Puerto Rico 00765, USA.
| | - Erick Bermúdez
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, State Rd 997 km 3.2, Vieques, Puerto Rico 00765, USA.
| | - Lirio Márquez-D'Acunti
- Vieques Conservation and Historical Trust, 138 Calle Flamboyan, Vieques, Puerto Rico 00765, USA.
| | - John Pierce Wise
- Wise Laboratory of Environmental and Genetic Toxicology, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Louisville, CTRB rm 522, 505 S. Hancock Street, Louisville, Kentucky, 40292, USA.
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13
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Perrault JR, Stacy NI, Lehner AF, Poor SK, Buchweitz JP, Walsh CJ. Toxic elements and associations with hematology, plasma biochemistry, and protein electrophoresis in nesting loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) from Casey Key, Florida. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2017; 231:1398-1411. [PMID: 28939125 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2017.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2017] [Revised: 08/30/2017] [Accepted: 09/01/2017] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Toxic elements (arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury, selenium, thallium) are a group of contaminants that are known to elicit developmental, reproductive, general health, and immune system effects in reptiles, even at low concentrations. Reptiles, including marine turtles, are susceptible to accumulation of toxic elements due to their long life span, low metabolic rate, and highly efficient conversion of prey into biomass. The objectives of this study were to (1) document concentrations of arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury, selenium, and thallium in whole blood and keratin from nesting loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) from Casey Key, Florida and document correlations thereof and (2) correlate whole blood toxic element concentrations to various hematological and plasma biochemistry analytes. Baselines for various hematological and plasma analytes and toxic elements in whole blood and keratin (i.e., scute) in nesting loggerheads are documented. Various correlations between the toxic elements and hematological and plasma biochemistry analytes were identified; however, the most intriguing were negative correlations between arsenic, cadmium, lead, and selenium with and α- and γ-globulins. Although various extrinsic and intrinsic variables such as dietary and feeding changes in nesting loggerheads need to be considered, this finding may suggest a link to altered humoral immunity. This study documents a suite of health variables of nesting loggerheads in correlation to contaminants and identifies the potential of toxic elements to impact the overall health of nesting turtles, thus presenting important implications for the conservation and management of this species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin R Perrault
- Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 Ken Thompson Parkway, Sarasota, FL 34236, USA.
| | - Nicole I Stacy
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, 2015 Southwest 16th Avenue, PO Box 100136, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1600 NW 10th Avenue, Miami, FL 33136, USA.
| | - Andreas F Lehner
- Diagnostic Center for Population and Animal Health, Michigan State University, 4125 Beaumont Road, Lansing, MI 48910, USA.
| | - Savannah K Poor
- University of South Florida, 4202 East Fowler Avenue, Tampa, FL 33620, USA.
| | - John P Buchweitz
- Diagnostic Center for Population and Animal Health, Michigan State University, 4125 Beaumont Road, Lansing, MI 48910, USA.
| | - Catherine J Walsh
- Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 Ken Thompson Parkway, Sarasota, FL 34236, USA.
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Muñoz-Vera A, Peñas Castejón JM, García G. Patterns of trace element bioaccumulation in jellyfish Rhizostoma pulmo (Cnidaria, Scyphozoa) in a Mediterranean coastal lagoon from SE Spain. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2016; 110:143-154. [PMID: 27376999 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.06.069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2016] [Revised: 06/01/2016] [Accepted: 06/20/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The effects of an abandoned mining area, exploited for centuries in the mining district of Cartagena-La Union, result in a continuous supply of heavy metals into the Mar Menor coastal lagoon after rain episodes. As a consequence, concentration of trace elements in water column and sediments of this ecosystem is usually higher than in other areas. For monitoring ecosystem health, this study assessed the ability of Rhizostoma pulmo to bioaccumulate trace elements. A total of 57 individuals were sampled at eight different sampling stations during the summer of 2012. Although the concentrations of different analyzed elements (Al, Ti, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Cd, Sn, and Pb) were moderate, bioconcentration levels in relation to seawater metal concentration were extremely high. In any case, the use or disposal of these organisms should consider their metal content, because of their potential environmental and health implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Muñoz-Vera
- Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología Agraria Área de Edafología, Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingeniería Agronómica, Technical University of Cartagena (UPCT), Paseo de Alfonso XIII, 48, E-30203 Cartagena, SPAIN.
| | - Jose Matías Peñas Castejón
- Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología Agraria Área de Edafología, Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingeniería Agronómica, Technical University of Cartagena (UPCT), Paseo de Alfonso XIII, 48, E-30203 Cartagena, SPAIN.
| | - Gregorio García
- Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología Agraria Área de Edafología, Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingeniería Agronómica, Technical University of Cartagena (UPCT), Paseo de Alfonso XIII, 48, E-30203 Cartagena, SPAIN.
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da Silva CC, Klein RD, Barcarolli IF, Bianchini A. Metal contamination as a possible etiology of fibropapillomatosis in juvenile female green sea turtles Chelonia mydas from the southern Atlantic Ocean. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2016; 170:42-51. [PMID: 26615366 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2015.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2015] [Revised: 11/03/2015] [Accepted: 11/09/2015] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Environmental contaminants have been suggested as a possible cause of fibropapillomatosis (FP) in green sea turtles. In turn, a reduced concentration of serum cholesterol has been indicated as a reliable biomarker of malignancy in vertebrates, including marine turtles. In the present study, metal (Ag, Cd, Cu, Fe, Ni, Pb and Zn) concentrations, oxidative stress parameters [antioxidant capacity against peroxyl radicals (ACAP), protein carbonyls (PC), lipid peroxidation (LPO), frequency of micronucleated cells (FMC)], water content, cholesterol concentration and 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase (HMGR) activity were analyzed in the blood/serum of juvenile (29.3-59.5cm) female green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas) with FP (n=14) and without FP (n=13) sampled at Ubatuba coast (São Paulo State, southeastern Brazil). Green sea turtles were grouped and analyzed according to the severity of tumors. Individuals heavily afflicted with FP showed significantly higher blood Cu, Pb and Fe concentrations, blood LPO levels, as well as significantly lower serum cholesterol concentrations and HMGR activity than turtles without FP. Significant and positive correlations were observed between HMGR activity and cholesterol concentrations, as well as LPO levels and Fe and Pb concentrations. In turn, Cu and Pb concentrations were significantly and negatively correlated with HMGR activity and cholesterol concentration. Furthermore, Cu, Fe and Pb were positively correlated with each other. Therefore, the reduced concentration of serum cholesterol observed in green sea turtles heavily afflicted with FP is related to a Cu- and Pb-induced inhibition of HMGR activity paralleled by a higher LPO rate induced by increased Fe and Pb concentrations. As oxidative stress is implicated in the pathogenesis of viral infections, our findings support the idea that metal contamination, especially by Cu, Fe and Pb, may be implicated in the etiology of FP in green sea turtles through oxidative stress generation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cinthia Carneiro da Silva
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Fisiológicas - Fisiologia Animal Comparada, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande, 96.203-900, Rio Grande, RS, Brazil
| | - Roberta Daniele Klein
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Fisiológicas - Fisiologia Animal Comparada, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande, 96.203-900, Rio Grande, RS, Brazil
| | - Indianara Fernanda Barcarolli
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Fisiológicas - Fisiologia Animal Comparada, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande, 96.203-900, Rio Grande, RS, Brazil
| | - Adalto Bianchini
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Fisiológicas - Fisiologia Animal Comparada, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande, 96.203-900, Rio Grande, RS, Brazil.
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Muñoz-Vera A, García G, García-Sánchez A. Metal bioaccumulation pattern by Cotylorhiza tuberculata (Cnidaria, Scyphozoa) in the Mar Menor coastal lagoon (SE Spain). ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2015; 22:19157-19169. [PMID: 26250818 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-015-5119-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2015] [Accepted: 07/22/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Coastal lagoons are ecosystems highly vulnerable to human impacts because of their situation between terrestrial and marine environment. Mar Menor coastal lagoon is one of the largest lagoons of the Mediterranean Sea, placed in SE Spain and subjected to major human impacts, in particular the mining of metal sulphides. As a consequence, metal concentration in water column and sediments of this ecosystem is usually higher than in other areas. For monitoring ecosystem health, the present study has assessed the ability of Cotylorhiza tuberculata for bioaccumulating metals from sea water. Up to 65 individuals were sampled at 8 different sampling stations during the summer of 2012. Although the concentration values for different elements considered were moderate (Pb: 0.04-29.50 ppm, Zn: 2.27-93.44 ppm, Cd: 0-0.67 ppm, As: 0.56-130.31 ppm) by dry weight of the jellyfish tissues (bell and oral arms combined), bioconcentration levels in relation to seawater metal concentration were extremely high. In any case, the use or disposal of these organisms should consider their metal content because of their potential environmental and health implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Muñoz-Vera
- Área de Edafología y Química Agrícola, Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología Agraria, Technical University of Cartagena (UPCT), Paseo Alfonso XIII 48, 30203, Cartagena, Spain.
| | - Gregorio García
- Área de Edafología y Química Agrícola, Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología Agraria, Technical University of Cartagena (UPCT), Paseo Alfonso XIII 48, 30203, Cartagena, Spain.
| | - Antonio García-Sánchez
- Área de Tecnología del Medio Ambiente, Departamento de Ingeniería Química y Ambiental, Technical University of Cartagena (UPCT), Calle Doctor Fleming s/n. 30203, Cartagena, Spain.
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