FLRG, member of the follistatin family, a new player in hematopoiesis

Whole genome resequencing-based analysis of plateau adaptation in Meiren yak (Bos grunniens)

The Meiren yak is an important genetic resource in Gansu Province, China. In this study, we aimed to explore the evolutionary history and population structure of the genetic resource of Meiren yak and to mine the characteristic genes of Meiren yak. We analysed a total of 93 yaks of eight yak breeds based on whole genome resequencing combined with population genomics and used θπ ratio and Fst method to screen the selected sites in the genome region. The results proved that Meiren yak can be used as a potential genetic resource in Gansu Province. The genes in Meiren yak with positive selection in selection signal analysis were subjected to the Gene ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) functional enrichment analyses, which indicated that the genes were related to the adaptability to high altitude and hypoxic environment. By analysing the genetic variation of Meiren yak at the genome-wide level, this study provided a theoretical basis for genetic improvement of Meiren yak and for the development of high-quality yak resources.

The cytoplasmic expression of FSTL3 correlates with colorectal cancer progression, metastasis status and prognosis

Follistatin-like (FSTL) family members are associated with cancer progression. However, differences between FSTL members with identical cancer types have not been systematically investigated. Among the most malignant tumours worldwide, colorectal cancer (CRC) has high metastatic potential and chemoresistance, which makes it challenging to treat. A systematic examination of the relationship between the expression of FSTL family members in CRC will provide valuable information for prognosis and therapeutic development. Based on large cohort survival analyses, we determined that FSTL3 was associated with a significantly worse prognosis in CRC at the RNA and protein levels. Immunohistochemistry staining of CRC specimens revealed that FSTL3 expression levels in the cytosol were significantly associated with a poor prognosis in terms of overall and disease-free survival. Molecular simulation analysis showed that FSTL3 participated in multiple cell motility signalling pathways via the TGF-β1/TWIST1 axis to control CRC metastasis. The findings provide evidence of the significance of FSTL3 in the oncogenesis and metastasis of CRC. FSTL3 may be useful as a diagnostic or prognostic biomarker, and as a potential therapeutic target.

Roles of follistatin-like protein 3 in human non-tumor pathophysiologies and cancers

Follistatin-like protein 3 (FSTL3) is a type of FSTLs. By interacting with a disintegrin and metalloproteinase 12 (ADAM12), transforming growth factor-β ligands (activin, myostatin and growth differentiation factor (GDF) 11), FSTL3 can either activate or inhibit these molecules in human non-tumor pathophysiologies and cancers. The FSTL3 gene was initially discovered in patients with in B-cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia, and subsequent studies have shown that the FSTL3 protein is associated with reproductive development, insulin resistance, and hematopoiesis. FSTL3 reportedly contributes to the development and progression of many cancers by promoting tumor metastasis, facilitating angiogenesis, and inducing stem cell differentiation. This review summarizes the current pathophysiological roles of FSTL3, which may be a putative prognostic biomarker for various diseases and serve as a potential therapeutic target.

Follistatin dysregulation impaired trophoblast biological functions by GDF11-Smad2/3 axis in preeclampsia placentas

INTRODUCTION

Preeclampsia (PE) is one of the main causes of maternal, fetal, and neonatal mortality. So far, the underlying mechanism of this pregnancy-specific syndrome remains unelucidated. The expression of Follistatin (FST) decreased in maternal serum (especially early onset severe PE) and placental trophoblasts of PE patients. However, whether FST-deficiency in preeclamptic placentas alters trophoblast function remains to be determined.

METHODS

Trophoblast cell lines were cultured in vitro and LV3 short hairpin RNA (shRNA) was used to silence FST. Growth and differentiation factor 11 (GDF11) expression level in placentas and serum were detected by immunohistochemistry and enzyme-linked immune-sorbent assay, respectively. To verify the effect of reduced FST expression on trophoblasts, microRNA-24-3p, which was predicted to target the 3'-untranslated region (3'-UTR) of FST, was screened out, and miR-24-3p mimic, inhibitor was used to regulate FST expression in trophoblasts.

RESULTS

Downregulation of FST significantly enhanced the apoptosis and impaired migration and invasion of trophoblast. Reduced FST caused the upregulation of GDF11 in trophoblasts. Interestingly, GDF11 reduced in preeclamptic placental microvascular endothelial cells. Dysregulation of FST-GDF11-Smad2/3 signaling pathway, leading to increased apoptosis of trophoblast. Expression levels of miR-24-3p, was significantly elevated in preeclamptic placentas. Trophoblast cells transfected with miR-24-3p mimics displayed impaired migration and invasion and increased apoptosis. Treated by miR-24-3p inhibitor, trophoblast cells exhibited rescued function.

DISCUSSION

FST-deficiency impaired trophoblast function by upregulating GDF11 levels in trophoblasts. The regulation of FST-GDF11-Smad2/3 axis by microRNAs mimic or inhibitor may be critical to trophoblast function regulation and helps to deepen our understanding of the molecular mechanism of PE.

Altered BMP2/4 Signaling in Stem Cells and Their Niche: Different Cancers but Similar Mechanisms, the Example of Myeloid Leukemia and Breast Cancer

Understanding mechanisms of cancer development is mandatory for disease prevention and management. In healthy tissue, the microenvironment or niche governs stem cell fate by regulating the availability of soluble molecules, cell-cell contacts, cell-matrix interactions, and physical constraints. Gaining insight into the biology of the stem cell microenvironment is of utmost importance, since it plays a role at all stages of tumorigenesis, from (stem) cell transformation to tumor escape. In this context, BMPs (Bone Morphogenetic Proteins), are key mediators of stem cell regulation in both embryonic and adult organs such as hematopoietic, neural and epithelial tissues. BMPs directly regulate the niche and stem cells residing within. Among them, BMP2 and BMP4 emerged as master regulators of normal and tumorigenic processes. Recently, a number of studies unraveled important mechanisms that sustain cell transformation related to dysregulations of the BMP pathway in stem cells and their niche (including exposure to pollutants such as bisphenols). Furthermore, a direct link between BMP2/BMP4 binding to BMP type 1 receptors and the emergence and expansion of cancer stem cells was unveiled. In addition, a chronic exposure of normal stem cells to abnormal BMP signals contributes to the emergence of cancer stem cells, or to disease progression independently of the initial transforming event. In this review, we will illustrate how the regulation of stem cells and their microenvironment becomes dysfunctional in cancer via the hijacking of BMP signaling with main examples in myeloid leukemia and breast cancers.

Bioinformatic Analyses and Experimental Verification Reveal that High FSTL3 Expression Promotes EMT via Fibronectin-1/α5β1 Interaction in Colorectal Cancer

Background: Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a typical cancer prevalent worldwide. Despite the conventional treatments, CRC has a poor prognosis due to relapse and metastasis. Moreover, there is a dearth of sensitive biomarkers for predicting prognosis in CRC.

Methods: This study used a bioinformatics approach combining validation experiments to examine the value of follistatin-like 3 (FSTL3) as a prognostic predictor and therapeutic target in CRC.

Results:FSTL3 was remarkably upregulated in the CRC samples. FSTL3 overexpression was significantly associated with a poor prognosis. FSTL3 was found to activate the epithelial-mesenchymal transition by promoting the binding of FN1 to α5β1. FSTL3 expression was also positively correlated with the abundance of the potent immunosuppressors, M2 macrophages.

Conclusion:FSTL3 overexpression affects CRC prognosis and thus, FSTL3 can be a prognostic biomarker and therapeutic target with potential applications in CRC.

Dual Roles of the Activin Signaling Pathway in Pancreatic Cancer

Activin, a member of the TGF-β superfamily, is involved in many physiological processes, such as embryonic development and follicle development, as well as in multiple human diseases including cancer. Genetic mutations in the activin signaling pathway have been reported in many cancer types, indicating that activin signaling plays a critical role in tumorigenesis. Recent evidence reveals that activin signaling may function as a tumor-suppressor in tumor initiation, and a promoter in the later progression and metastasis of tumors. This article reviews many aspects of activin, including the signaling cascade of activin, activin-related proteins, and its role in tumorigenesis, particularly in pancreatic cancer development. The mechanisms regulating its dual roles in tumorigenesis remain to be elucidated. Further understanding of the activin signaling pathway may identify potential therapeutic targets for human cancers and other diseases.

Can Blood-Circulating Factors Unveil and Delay Your Biological Aging?

According to the World Health Organization, the population of over 60 will double in the next 30 years in the developed countries, which will enforce a further raise of the retirement age and increase the burden on the healthcare system. Therefore, there is an acute issue of maintaining health and prolonging active working longevity, as well as implementation of early monitoring and prevention of premature aging and age-related disorders to avoid early disability. Traditional indicators of biological age are not always informative and often require extensive and expensive analysis. The study of blood factors is a simple and easily accessible way to assess individual health and supplement the traditional indicators of a person's biological age with new objective criteria. With age, the processes of growth and development, tissue regeneration and repair decline; they are gradually replaced by enhanced catabolism, inflammatory cell activity, and insulin resistance. The number of senescent cells supporting the inflammatory loop rises; cellular clearance by autophagy and mitophagy slows down, resulting in mitochondrial and cellular damage and dysfunction. Monitoring of circulated blood factors not only reflects these processes, but also allows suggesting medical intervention to prevent or decelerate the development of age-related diseases. We review the age-related blood factors discussed in recent publications, as well as approaches to slowing aging for healthy and active longevity.

A comparative study on normal and obese mice indicates that the secretome of mesenchymal stromal cells is influenced by tissue environment and physiopathological conditions

Background

The term mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) designates an assorted cell population comprised of stem cells, progenitor cells, fibroblasts, and stromal cells. MSCs contribute to the homeostatic maintenance of many organs through paracrine and long-distance signaling.

Tissue environment, in both physiological and pathological conditions, may affect the intercellular communication of MSCs.

Methods

We performed a secretome analysis of MSCs isolated from subcutaneous adipose tissue (sWAT) and visceral adipose tissue (vWAT), and from bone marrow (BM), of normal and obese mice.

Results

The MSCs isolated from tissues of healthy mice share a common core of released factors: components of cytoskeletal and extracellular structures; regulators of basic cellular functions, such as protein synthesis and degradation; modulators of endoplasmic reticulum stress; and counteracting oxidative stress. It can be hypothesized that MSC secretome beneficially affects target cells by the horizontal transfer of many released factors. Each type of MSC may exert specific signaling functions, which could be determined by looking at the many factors that are exclusively released from every MSC type.

The vWAT-MSCs release factors that play a role in detoxification activity in response to toxic substances and drugs. The sWAT-MSC secretome contains proteins involved in in chondrogenesis, osteogenesis, and angiogenesis. Analysis of BM-MSC secretome revealed that these cells exert a signaling function by remodeling extracellular matrix structures, such as those containing glycosaminoglycans. Obesity status profoundly modified the secretome content of MSCs, impairing the above-described activity and promoting the release of inflammatory factors.

Conclusion

We demonstrated that the content of MSC secretomes depends on tissue microenvironment and that pathological condition may profoundly alter its composition.

MLLT10 in benign and malignant hematopoiesis

Non-random chromosomal translocations involving the putative transcription factor Mixed Lineage Leukemia Translocated to 10 (MLLT10, also known as AF10) are commonly observed in both acute myeloid and lymphoid leukemias and are indicative of a poor prognosis. Despite the well-described actions of oncogenic MLLT10 fusion proteins, the role of wild-type MLLT10 in hematopoiesis is not well characterized. The protein structure and several interacting partners have been described and provide indications as to the potential functions of MLLT10. This review examines these aspects of MLLT10, contextualizing its function in benign and malignant hematopoiesis.

MLLT10 promotes tumor migration, invasion, and metastasis in human colorectal cancer

OBJECTIVES

Colorectal cancer (CRC), one of the most aggressive gastrointestinal malignancies, is a frequently diagnosed life-threatening cancer worldwide. Most CRC patients have poor prognosis mainly because of frequent metastasis and recurrence. Thus, it is crucial to find out some new biomarkers and to show deeper insights into the mechanisms of CRC. MLLT10, Myeloid/lymphoid or mixed-lineage leukemia translocated to 10, also known as AF10, a recurrent MLL partner. In this study, we found that MLLT10 promotes CRC tumor invasion and metastasis both in vitro and in vivo.

METHODS

Here, the expression of MLLT10 was evaluated by immunohistochemistry. Then, the plasmid and lentivirus particles for MLLT10 overexpression or knockdown were designed and constructed into SW620 and HT29 cells. Finally, cell proliferation assay, cell adhesion assay, transwell migration, and invasion assay were used to detect the migration and invasion ability of MLLT10 in CRC cells. A tail vein injection assay was employed to evaluate the role of MLLT10 in tumor metastases.

RESULTS

MLLT10 expression was significantly higher in CRC tissues than in noncancerous tissues and was associated with some clinicopathological factors. In vitro, the overexpression of MLLT10 promoted CRC cell migration and invasion, while after MLLT10 was knocked down, the opposite results were observed. Furthermore, we used animal metastasis models to detect the function of MLLT10 in vivo, the results are same with the outcomes in vitro. In lung metastasis sites, the knockdown of MLLT10 in SW620 cells significantly inhibited Vimentin expression, whereas the E-Cadherin was increased.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that MLLT10 regulates the metastasis of CRC cells via EMT.

Follistatin-Like 3 Enhances the Function of Endothelial Cells Derived from Pluripotent Stem Cells by Facilitating β-Catenin Nuclear Translocation Through Inhibition of Glycogen Synthase Kinase-3β Activity

The fight against vascular disease requires functional endothelial cells (ECs) which could be provided by differentiation of induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPS Cells) in great numbers for use in the clinic. However, the great promise of the generated ECs (iPS-ECs) in therapy is often restricted due to the challenge in iPS-ECs preserving their phenotype and function. We identified that Follistatin-Like 3 (FSTL3) is highly expressed in iPS-ECs, and, as such, we sought to clarify its possible role in retaining and improving iPS-ECs function and phenotype, which are crucial in increasing the cells' potential as a therapeutic tool. We overexpressed FSTL3 in iPS-ECs and found that FSTL3 could induce and enhance endothelial features by facilitating β-catenin nuclear translocation through inhibition of glycogen synthase kinase-3β activity and induction of Endothelin-1. The angiogenic potential of FSTL3 was also confirmed both in vitro and in vivo. When iPS-ECs overexpressing FSTL3 were subcutaneously injected in in vivo angiogenic model or intramuscularly injected in a hind limb ischemia NOD.CB17-Prkdcscid/NcrCrl SCID mice model, FSTL3 significantly induced angiogenesis and blood flow recovery, respectively. This study, for the first time, demonstrates that FSTL3 can greatly enhance the function and maturity of iPS-ECs. It advances our understanding of iPS-ECs and identifies a novel pathway that can be applied in cell therapy. These findings could therefore help improve efficiency and generation of therapeutically relevant numbers of ECs for use in patient-specific cell-based therapies. In addition, it can be particularly useful toward the treatment of vascular diseases instigated by EC dysfunction. Stem Cells 2018;36:1033-1044.

The BMP pathway: A unique tool to decode the origin and progression of leukemia

The microenvironment (niche) governs the fate of stem cells (SCs) by balancing self-renewal and differentiation. Increasing evidence indicates that the tumor niche plays an active role in cancer, but its important properties for tumor initiation progression and resistance remain to be identified. Clinical data show that leukemic stem cell (LSC) survival is responsible for disease persistence and drug resistance, probably due to their sustained interactions with the tumor niche. Bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling is a key pathway controlling stem cells and their niche. BMP2 and BMP4 are important in both the normal and the cancer context. Several studies have revealed profound alterations of the BMP signaling in cancer SCs, with major deregulations of the BMP receptors and their downstream signaling elements. This was illustrated in the hematopoietic system by pioneer studies in chronic myelogenous leukemia that may now be expanded to acute myeloid leukemia and lymphoid leukemia, as reviewed here. At diagnosis, cells from the leukemic microenvironment are the major providers of soluble BMPs. Conversely, LSCs display altered receptors and downstream BMP signaling elements accompanied by altered functional responses to BMPs. These studies reveal the role of BMPs in tumor initiation, in addition to their known effects in later stages of transformation and progression. They also reveal the importance of BMPs in fueling cell transformation and expansion by overamplifying a natural SC response. This mechanism may explain the survival of LSCs independently of the initial oncogenic event and therefore may be involved in resistance processes.

Angiogenic factors in chronic lymphocytic leukaemia (CLL): Where do we stand?

The role of angiogenesis in haematological malignancies such as chronic lymphocytic leukaemia (CLL) is difficult to envision, because leukaemia cells are not dependent on a network of blood vessels to support basic physiological requirements. Regardless, CLL cells secrete high levels of major angiogenic factors, such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), and platelet derived growth factor (PDGF). Nonetheless, it remains unclear how most angiogenic factors regulate accumulation and delayed apoptosis of CLL cells. Angiogenic factors such as leptin, granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF), follistatin, angiopoietin-1 (Ang1), angiogenin (ANG), midkine (MK), pleiotrophin (PTN), progranulin (PGRN), proliferin (PLF), placental growth factor (PIGF), and endothelial locus-1 (Del-1), represent novel therapeutic targets of future CLL research but have remained widely overlooked. This review aims to outline our current understanding of angiogenic growth factors and their relationship with CLL, a still uncured haematopoietic malignancy.

The ESA scenario gets complex: from biosimilar epoetins to activin traps

Recombinant human erythropoietin (rhEpo, epoetin) has proved beneficial in preventing transfusion-dependent anaemia in patients with chronic kidney disease. Apart from copied epoetins distributed in less regulated markets, 'biosimilar' epoetins have gained currency in many regions, where they compete with the originals and with rhEpo analogues with prolonged survival in circulation ('biobetter'). Recombinant erythropoiesis stimulating agents are potent and well tolerated. However, their production is costly, and they must be administered by the parenteral route. Hence, other anti-anaemia treatments are being evaluated. Clinical trials are being performed with stabilizers of the hypoxia-inducible transcription factors (HIFs), which increase endogenous Epo production. HIF stabilizers are chemical drugs and they are active on oral administration. However, there is fear that they may promote tumour growth. Epo mimetic peptides have also raised expectations. Yet the prototype peginesatide was recalled after just 1 year of its widespread use in the USA because of serious side-effects including cases of death. Most recently, clinical trials have been initiated with sotatercept, a recombinant soluble activin receptor type 2A IgG-Fc fusion protein. Sotatercept binds distinct members of the transforming growth factor-β family, thereby preventing the inhibitory action of these factors in erythropoiesis. Taken together, rhEpo and its long-acting recombinant analogues will likely remain mainstay of anti-anaemia therapies in the near future.

Follistatin-like 3 across gestation in preeclampsia and uncomplicated pregnancies among lean and obese women

The purpose of this study was to examine circulating maternal follistatin-like 3 (FSTL-3) by gestational age and obesity in pregnancy and preeclampsia. FSTL-3 was quantified in maternal plasma collected in each trimester from prepregnancy body mass index-determined groups: 15 lean and 24 obese controls and 20 obese women who developed preeclampsia. Repeated measures mixed models and logistic regression were conducted (P ≤ .05). FSTL-3 was not related to maternal adiposity. FSTL-3 changed across pregnancy in lean controls and obese preeclampsia but not in obese controls. FSTL-3 was higher in preeclampsia in the second trimester compared to lean controls and in the third trimester compared to both control groups. Elevated FSTL-3 at mid-gestation was associated with an increased odds of preeclampsia (odds ratio 3.15; 95% confidence interval 1.19-8.36; P = .02). Elevated FSTL-3 concentrations were attributable to preeclampsia and were associated with increased likelihood of later developing preeclampsia, suggesting further study as a biomarker prior to clinically evident disease.

Modulators of erythropoiesis: emerging therapies for hemoglobinopathies and disorders of red cell production

Use of new compound such as inhibitors of JAK2 or transforming growth factor β-like molecules might soon revolutionize the treatment of β-thalassemia and related disorders. However, this situation requires careful optimization, noting the potential for off-target immune suppression for JAK2 inhibitors and the lack of mechanistic insights for the use of the ligand trap soluble molecules that sequester ligands of activin receptor IIA and B.

Primitive CML cell expansion relies on abnormal levels of BMPs provided by the niche and on BMPRIb overexpression

Leukemic stem cells in chronic phase chronic myelogenous leukemia (CP-CML) are responsible for disease persistence and eventual drug resistance, most likely because they survive, expand, and are sustained through interactions with their microenvironment. Bone morphogenetic proteins 2 (BMP2) and 4 (BMP4) regulate the fate and proliferation of normal hematopoietic stem cells, as well as interactions with their niche. We show here that the intrinsic expression of members of the BMP response pathway are deregulated in CML cells with differences exhibited in mature (CD34(-)) and immature (CD34(+)) compartments. These changes are accompanied by altered functional responses of primitive leukemic cells to BMP2 and BMP4 and strong increases in soluble BMP2 and BMP4 in the CML bone marrow. Using primary cells and a cell line mimicking CP-CML, we found that myeloid progenitor expansion is driven by the exposure of immature cells overexpressing BMP receptor Ib to BMP2 and BMP4. In summary, we demonstrate that deregulation of intracellular BMP signaling in primary CP-CML samples corrupts and amplifies their response to exogenous BMP2 and BMP4, which are abnormally abundant within the tumor microenvironment. These results provide new insights with regard to leukemic stem cell biology and suggest possibilities for the development of novel therapeutic tools specifically targeting the CML niche.

AF10 plays a key role in the survival of uncommitted hematopoietic cells

Hematopoiesis is a complex process regulated by both cell intrinsic and cell extrinsic factors. Alterations in the expression of critical genes during hematopoiesis can modify the balance between stem cell differentiation and proliferation, and may ultimately give rise to leukemia and other diseases. AF10 is a transcription factor that has been implicated in the development of leukemia following chromosomal rearrangements between the AF10 gene and one of at least two other genes, MLL and CALM. The link between AF10 and leukemia, together with the known interactions between AF10 and hematopoietic regulators, suggests that AF10 may be important in hematopoiesis and in leukemic transformation. Here we show that AF10 is important for proper hematopoietic differentiation. The induction of hematopoietic differentiation in both human hematopoietic cell lines and murine total bone marrow cells triggers a decrease of AF10 mRNA and protein levels, particularly in stem cells and multipotent progenitors. Gain- and loss-of-function studies demonstrate that over- or under-expression of AF10 leads to apoptotic cell death in stem cells and multipotent progenitors. We conclude that AF10 plays a key role in the maintenance of multipotent hematopoietic cells.

Activin A induction of erythroid differentiation through MKK6-p38alpha/p38beta pathway is inhibited by follistatin

Activin A is a member of the transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta superfamily that regulates cell proliferation and differentiation. Using the p38 inhibitor SB203580, our previous studies demonstrated that p38 was involved in activin A-mediated hemoglobin (Hb) synthesis in K562 cells. SB203580 is an inhibitor of p38alpha and p38beta isoforms. In this study, we show that p38alpha and p38beta mRNA were expressed in K562 cells and that activin A activated the kinase activities of these isoforms. To investigate the roles of p38alpha and p38beta isoforms in activin A-mediated erythroid differentiation, we generated stable clones that over-expressed the dominant negative p38 isoforms p38alpha(AF) and p38beta(AF) in K562 cells. The expressions of either p38alpha(AF) or p38beta(AF) reduced activin A-induced p38 activation, Hb synthesis, and zeta-globin promoter activity. Similarly, down-regulation of either p38alpha or p38beta by isoform-specific siRNAs also reduced activin A-induced zeta-globin promoter activity. Co-expressions of p38alpha(AF) and p38beta(AF), together, greatly inhibited the transcription activity of the zeta-globin promoter. Conversely, expression of mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MKK) 6b(E), a constitutive activator of p38, significantly activated zeta-globin promoter. Co-expressions of either p38alpha or p38beta with MKK6b had a similar activation of zeta-globin promoter. Activin A induction of erythroid differentiation was inhibited by follistatin. Activin A-induced phosphorylation of MKK6 and p38 was also inhibited by follistatin. Moreover, over-expression of MKK6b(E) reverted follistatin inhibition of activin A-induced zeta-globin promoter activity. These results demonstrate that activin A induces erythroid differentiation of K562 cells through activation of MKK6-p38alpha/p38beta pathway and follistatin inhibits those effects.

BMP4 regulation of human megakaryocytic differentiation is involved in thrombopoietin signaling

Activin A, BMP2, and BMP4, 3 members of the transforming growth factor-beta family, are involved in the regulation of hematopoiesis. Here, we explored the role of these molecules in human megakaryopoiesis using an in vitro serum-free assay. Our results highlight for the first time that, in the absence of thrombopoietin, BMP4 is able to induce CD34(+) progenitor differentiation into megakaryocytes through all stages. Although we have previously shown that activin A and BMP2 are involved in erythropoietic commitment, these molecules have no effect on human megakaryopoietic engagement and differentiation. Using signaling pathway-specific inhibitors, we show that BMP4, like thrombopoietin, exerts its effects on human megakaryopoiesis through the JAK/STAT and mTor pathways. Inhibition of the BMP signaling pathway with blocking antibodies, natural soluble inhibitors (FLRG or follistatin), or soluble BMP receptors reveals that thrombopoietin uses the BMP4 pathway to induce megakaryopoiesis, whereas the inverse is not occurring. Finally, we show that thrombopoietin up-regulates the BMP4 autocrine loop in megakaryocytic progenitors by inducing their production of BMP4 and up-regulating BMP receptor expression. In summary, this work indicates that BMP4 plays an important role in the control of human megakaryopoiesis.

AF10-dependent transcription is enhanced by its interaction with FLRG

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

FLRG (follistatin-related gene) is a secreted glycoprotein which is very similar to follistatin. As observed for follistatin, FLRG is involved in the regulation of various biological processes through its binding to members of the TGFbeta (transforming growth factor beta) superfamily, activin, BMPs (bone morphogenetic proteins) and myostatin. Unlike follistatin, FLRG has been found to be both secreted and localized within the nucleus of many FLRG-producing cells, suggesting the existence of specific intracellular functions of the protein.

RESULTS

In order to analyse the function of the nuclear form of FLRG, we performed a yeast two-hybrid screen, in which we identified AF10 [ALL1 (acute lymphoblastic leukaemia) fused gene from chromosome 10], a translocation partner of the MLL (mixed-lineage leukaemia) oncogene in human leukaemia, as a FLRG-interacting protein. This interaction was confirmed by far-Western-blot analysis and co-immunoprecipitation with transfected COS-7 cells. The N-terminal region of AF10, including the PHD (plant homeodomain), is sufficient to mediate this interaction, and has been shown to be involved in AF10 homo-oligomerization. By immunoprecipitation experiments, we showed that FLRG enhances the homo-oligomerization of AF10. Functional studies demonstrated that FLRG enhances the transactivation properties of the AF10 protein fused to Gal4 DNA-binding domains in transient transfection assays.

CONCLUSIONS

Our present study provides novel insights into the function of the nuclear form of the FLRG protein, which is revealed as a novel regulator of transcription. The nuclear isoform of FLRG lacks an intrinsic transactivation domain, but enhances AF10-mediated transcription, probably through promoting the homo-oligomerization of AF10, thus facilitating the recruitment of co-activators.

Hypoxia enhances the expression of follistatin-like 3 in term human trophoblasts

Hypoxic injury hinders placental differentiation and alters trophoblast gene expression. We tested the hypothesis that the expression of follistatin-like 3 (FSTL3), a member of the follistatin family of proteins, is modulated by hypoxia in primary human trophoblast (PHT). Using immunofluorescence of human term placental villi we detected the expression of FSTL3 protein in placental villi, primarily in trophoblasts. We verified this finding in cultured term PHT cells. Basal expression of FSTL3 transcript in cultured PHT cells, determined using quantitative PCR, was stable over the culture period. Importantly, when compared to culture in FiO(2)=20% or FiO(2)=8%, PHT cells cultured in FiO(2) <1% exhibited a 4-6 fold increase in FSTL3 mRNA expression as early as 4h in hypoxia. Whereas cellular FSTL3 protein was unchanged in hypoxia, we found that hypoxia increased the level of FSTL3 in the medium. Lastly, the exposure of PHT cells to either the hypoxia-mimetic cobalt chloride or the proline hydroxylase inhibitor dimethyloxaloylglycine upregulated the expression of FSTL3 transcript. Our data indicate that hypoxia enhances the expression of FSTL3 and its release from PHT cells. Our finding that hypoxia-mimetic agents enhance FSTL3 expression implicates HIF1alpha in this process.

Silencing of FLRG, an antagonist of activin, inhibits human breast tumor cell growth

Activin, a member of the transforming growth factor beta (TGFbeta) superfamily, regulates diverse processes, such as cellular growth and differentiation. There is increasing evidence that TGFbeta and its signaling effectors are key determinants of tumor cell behavior. Loss of sensitivity to TGFbeta-induced growth arrest is an important step toward malignancy. We previously characterized FLRG as an extracellular antagonist of activin. Here, we show that activin-induced growth inhibition is altered in FLRG-expressing breast cancer lines. Silencing FLRG induced growth inhibition, which is reversible upon addition of exogenous FLRG. We showed that FLRG silencing effects resulted from restoration of endogenous activin functions as shown by increased levels of phosphorylated smad2 and up-regulation of activin target gene transcripts. Furthermore, the growth inhibition induced by FLRG silencing was reversible by treatment with a soluble form of type II activin receptor. Finally, a strong expression of FLRG was observed in invasive breast carcinomas in contrast with the normal luminal epithelial cells in which FLRG was not detected. Our data provide strong evidence that endogenous FLRG contributes to tumor cell proliferation through antagonizing endogenous activin effects.

Differential gene expression in human hematopoietic stem cells specified toward erythroid, megakaryocytic, and granulocytic lineage

To better understand the transcriptional program that accompanies orderly lineage-specific hematopoietic differentiation, we analyzed expression changes during the lineage-specific differentiation of human hematopoietic stem cells (HSC; CD34+/CD38-/CD33-); HSC and multipotent myeloid progenitors (MMP; CD34+/CD38-/CD33+) were isolated from the bone marrow of healthy individuals by MACS. CD34+ cells in semi-solid culture were stimulated with the cytokines erythropoietin, IL-6, and G-CSF to promote differentiation to committed erythroid, megakaryocytic, and granulocytic clones, respectively. Differential display RT-PCR analysis was performed to compare the mRNA transcripts in HSC, MMP, and the committed lineage-specific clones derived from these committed lineage-specific progenitors. Expressed sequence tags (n=256), which were differentially expressed, were identified. One hundred ninety-four were homologous to known genes, and some were associated with hematopoiesis. These known genes were classified as involved in transcription/translation, signal transduction, cell surface receptors/ligands, cell signaling, cell metabolism, cell cycle, cell apoptosis, and oncogenesis. We identified genes, which were up- or down-regulated specifically in the lineage-committed clones compared with HSC or/and MMP, suggesting that specific gene activation and repression might be necessary for specific lineage commitment and differentiation. Our data provide an extensive transcriptional profile of human hematopoiesis during in vitro, lineage-specific differentiation.

Identification of NF-kappaB responsive elements in follistatin related gene (FLRG) promoter

Follistatin related gene (FLRG) has been previously identified from a chromosomal translocation observed in a B-cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia (B-CLL). FLRG (alternative names: follistatin-related protein, FSRP/follistatin-like-3, FSTL3) is a secreted glycoprotein highly similar to follistatin. Like follistatin, FLRG is involved in the regulation of various biological effects through its binding to members of the transforming growth factor beta (TGFbeta) superfamily such as activin A and myostatin. We have previously shown that TGFbeta and activin A are potent inducers of FLRG transcriptional activation through the Smad proteins. Using a biochemical approach, we investigated whether tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha) could regulate FLRG expression since TNFalpha plays a critical role in hematopoietic malignancies. We demonstrate that TNFalpha activates FLRG expression at the transcriptional level. This activation depends on a promoter region containing four 107-108 bp DNA repeats, which are evolutionary conserved in primates. These repeats carry a strong phylogenetic signal, which is not common among non-coding sequences. Each DNA repeat contains one TNFalpha responsive element (5'-GGGAGAG/TTCC-3') able to bind nuclear factor kappaB (NF-kappaB) transcription factors. We also show that TGFbeta, through the Smad proteins, potentates the effect of TNFalpha on FLRG expression. This cooperation is unexpected since TGFbeta and TNFalpha usually have opposite biological effects. In all, this work brings new insights in the understanding of FLRG regulation by cytokines and growth factors. It opens attractive perspectives of research that should allow us to better understand the role of FLRG during tumorigenesis.

A novel role for fibronectin type I domain in the regulation of human hematopoietic cell adhesiveness through binding to follistatin domains of FLRG and follistatin

FLRG and follistatin belong to the family of follistatin proteins involved in the regulation of various biological effects, such as hematopoiesis, mediated by their binding to activin and BMP, both members of the TGFbeta family. To further characterize the function of FLRG, we searched for other possible functional partners using a yeast two-hybrid screen. We identified human fibronectin as a new partner for both FLRG and follistatin. We also demonstrated that their physical interaction is mediated by type I motifs of fibronectin and follistatin domains. We then analyzed the biological consequences of these protein interactions on the regulation of hematopoiesis. For the first time, we associated a biological effect with the regulation of human hematopoietic cell adhesiveness of both the type I motifs of fibronectin and the follistatin domains of FLRG and follistatin. Indeed, we observed a significant and specific dose-dependent increase of cell adhesion to fibronectin in the presence of FLRG or follistatin, using either a human hematopoietic cell line or primary cells. In particular, we observed a significantly increased adhesion of immature hematopoietic precursors (CFC, LTC-IC). Altogether these results highlight a new mechanism by which FLRG and follistatin regulate human hematopoiesis.

FLRG, a new ADAM12-associated protein, modulates osteoclast differentiation

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

FLRG (follistatin-related gene) is a secreted glycoprotein that is highly homologous with follistatin. These proteins are involved in the regulation of various biological effects mediated by their binding to TGF-beta (transforming growth factor-beta) superfamily members, activin A and bone morphogenetic proteins. To characterize further the function of FLRG, we used a yeast two-hybrid screen to look for other possible functional partners.

RESULTS

We report a direct interaction between the cysteine-rich domain of FLRG and ADAM12 (a disintegrin and metalloprotease 12). ADAMs are metalloprotease-disintegrin proteins that have been implicated in cell adhesion, protein ectodomain shedding, matrix protein degradation and cell fusion. Several studies have reported that ADAM12 protein, as well as activin A, are important regulators of osteoclast differentiation. We observed that the expressions of ADAM12 and activin A are modulated during osteoclast formation, whereas the FLRG expression seemed to remain quite constant. We showed that the FLRG protein inhibits osteoclast differentiation from murine primary spleen cells and macrophage RAW264.7 cells cultured in the presence of RANK-L (receptor activator of nuclear factor kappaB ligand) and M-CSF (macrophage colony-stimulating factor). Addition of FLRG protein to precursors significantly reduces the number of osteoclasts, as well as the average number of nuclei in each osteoclast.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study indicates that the FLRG protein may contribute to bone formation by inhibiting osteoclast differentiation.