Differences in the molecular mechanisms of adrenocortical tumorigenesis between children and adults

Consensus statement by the French Society of Endocrinology (SFE) and French Society of Pediatric Endocrinology & Diabetology (SFEDP) for the diagnosis of Cushing's syndrome: Genetics of Cushing's syndrome

Cushing's syndrome is due to overproduction of cortisol, leading to abnormal and prolonged exposure to cortisol. The most common etiology is Cushing disease, while adrenal causes are rarer. Knowledge of the genetics of Cushing's syndrome, and particularly the adrenal causes, has improved considerably over the last 10 years, thanks in particular to technical advances in high-throughput sequencing. The present study, by a group of experts from the French Society of Endocrinology and the French Society of Pediatric Endocrinology and Diabetology, reviewed the literature on germline genetic alterations leading to a predisposition to develop Cushing's syndrome. The review led to a consensus statement on genetic screening for Cushing disease and adrenal Cushing's syndrome.

Presentation and Care for Children with Peripheral Precocious Puberty

Peripheral precocious puberty (PPP) refers to the early onset of sexual maturation that is independent of central nervous system control. The extensive differential diagnosis includes congenital and acquired causes. Presenting features depend on which class of sex steroids is involved, and diagnosis rests on hormonal and, if indicated, imaging and/or genetic studies. Effective treatment exists for nearly all causes of PPP. Ongoing research will advance our therapeutic armamentarium and understanding of the pathophysiologic basis of these conditions.

Advances in translational research of the rare cancer type adrenocortical carcinoma

Adrenocortical carcinoma is a rare malignancy with an annual worldwide incidence of 1-2 cases per 1 million and a 5-year survival rate of <60%. Although adrenocortical carcinoma is rare, such rare cancers account for approximately one third of patients diagnosed with cancer annually. In the past decade, there have been considerable advances in understanding the molecular basis of adrenocortical carcinoma. The genetic events associated with adrenocortical carcinoma in adults are distinct from those of paediatric cases, which are often associated with germline or somatic TP53 mutations and have a better prognosis. In adult primary adrenocortical carcinoma, the main somatic genetic alterations occur in genes that encode proteins involved in the WNT-β-catenin pathway, cell cycle and p53 apoptosis pathway, chromatin remodelling and telomere maintenance pathway, cAMP-protein kinase A (PKA) pathway or DNA transcription and RNA translation pathways. Recently, integrated molecular studies of adrenocortical carcinomas, which have characterized somatic mutations and the methylome as well as gene and microRNA expression profiles, have led to a molecular classification of these tumours that can predict prognosis and have helped to identify new therapeutic targets. In this Review, we summarize these recent translational research advances in adrenocortical carcinoma, which it is hoped could lead to improved patient diagnosis, treatment and outcome.

Retrospective Analysis of Prognostic Factors in Pediatric Patients with Adrenocortical Tumor from Unique Tertiary Center with Long-Term Follow-Up

Pediatric adrenocortical tumors (PACTs) represent rare causes of malignancies. However, the south/southeast regions of Brazil are known to have a high incidence of PACTs because of the founder effect associated with a germline pathogenic variant of tumor suppressor gene TP53. We aimed to retrospectively analyze the types of variables among hormone production, radiological imaging, tumor staging, histological and genetic features that were associated with the occurrence of malignancy in 95 patients (71% females) with PACTs from a unique center. The worst prognosis was associated with those aged > 3 years (p < 0.05), high serum levels of 11-desoxicortisol (p < 0.001), tumor weight ≥ 200 g (p < 0.001), tumor size ≥ 5 cm (p < 0.05), Weiss score ≥ 5 (p < 0.05), Wieneke index ≥ 3 (p < 0.001) and Ki67 ≥ 15% (p < 0.05). Furthermore, patients with MacFarlane stage IV had an overall survival rate almost two times shorter than patients with other stages (p < 0.001). Additionally, the subtractions of BUB1B-PINK1 (<6.95) expression (p < 0.05) and IGF-IR overexpression (p = 0.0001) were associated with malignant behavior. These results helped identify patients who are likely to have an aggressive course; further multicenter prospective studies are required to confirm our results. In conclusion, PACTs with these patterns of prognostic factors could be treated using an adjuvant approach that may improve the overall survival in such patients.

Key factors for effective mitotane therapy in children with adrenocortical carcinoma

Adjuvant treatment with mitotane and chemotherapy is recommended for paediatric advanced and metastatic adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC). Yet, questions on the indication, dosage, and length of therapy are unanswered. Data from the German Paediatric Oncology Haematology-Malignant Endocrine Tumour studies were analysed retrospectively for patients receiving mitotane during first- and/or second-line therapy. Forty-three patients were identified (median age: 7.5 years (range: 0.2-17.8); 29 female) with median follow-up of 2.2 years (range: 0.04-12.71). Three-year overall (OS) and progression-free survival (PFS) were 44.9% and 28.5%, respectively. Eleven of 43 patients received mitotane as neoadjuvant treatment, and 4/11 tumours reached partial remission (PR). Twenty-seven of 43 patients received mitotane combined with chemotherapy in an adjuvant setting resulting in PR of measurable target lesions in 5/13 patients. Metastatic disease (hazard ratio (HR): 3.2; 95% CI: 1.2-18.6; P = 0.018), duration of mitotane treatment <9 months (HR: 5.6; 95% CI: 1.9-16.9; P = 0.002), and not achieving drug target range (TR) (HR: 28.5; 95% CI: 5.4-150.3; P < 0.001) significantly impacted as negative prognostic factors upon PFS and OS (metastatic disease: HR: 4.9; 95% CI: 1.6-15.5; P = 0.006; duration of mitotane treatment: HR: 7.0: 95% CI 1.9-26.0; P = 0.004; TR not reached: HR: 13.5; 95% CI 3.6-50.3; P < 0.001). Cox regression determined the risk of event decreasing by 10.4% for each month of mitotane treatment (P = 0.015). Re-treatment with mitotane after first-line treatment proved ineffective. The duration of mitotane treatment and reaching mitotane TR significantly impacted survival. Improving the efficacy of mitotane, including appropriate indications, needs to be evaluated in prospective randomized trials.

Surgical outcomes and survival of adrenocortical carcinoma between children and adults

INTRODUCTION

Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is associated with poor outcomes. We compared surgical outcomes between children and adult; and identified factors independently associated with survival.

METHODS

Using the National Cancer Database, children and adults with ACC who underwent surgery between 2004 and 2016 were identified. We compared outcomes and survival between groups. Cox regression analysis was performed to identify predictors of survival.

RESULTS

Of 2553 patients, 2.8% were children. A higher proportion of children were Hispanic (19.1%vs.6.6%) and covered by government insurance (45.1%vs.35.8%) than adults. More pediatric patients received lymphadenectomy and chemotherapy than adults. Pediatric patients had better survival at 1 -(91.4%; 95%CI: 81.2%-96.0% vs.79.6%; 95%CI: 77.9%-81.1%) and 5-years (60.6%; 95%CI:47.5%-71.3% vs.44.9%; 95%CI 42.7%- 47.0) (p = 0.0016). Age≥18 (HR: 2.21(1.50-3.27)), metastatic disease at diagnosis (HR: 3.51(3.04-4.04)), and receipt of lymphadenectomy (HR: 1.30(1.14-1.48)) were independently associated with worse survival.

CONCLUSIONS

Children with ACC had better survival than adults. Factors independently associated with worse survival included older age, metastatic disease, and receipt of lymph node surgery.

Consensus statement by the French Society of Endocrinology (SFE) and French Society of Pediatric Endocrinology & Diabetology (SFEDP) on diagnosis of Cushing's syndrome

Cushing's syndrome is defined by prolonged exposure to glucocorticoids, leading to excess morbidity and mortality. Diagnosis of this rare pathology is difficult due to the low specificity of the clinical signs, the variable severity of the clinical presentation, and the difficulties of interpretation associated with the diagnostic methods. The present consensus paper by 38 experts of the French Society of Endocrinology and the French Society of Pediatric Endocrinology and Diabetology aimed firstly to detail the circumstances suggesting diagnosis and the biologic diagnosis tools and their interpretation for positive diagnosis and for etiologic diagnosis according to ACTH-independent and -dependent mechanisms. Secondly, situations making diagnosis complex (pregnancy, intense hypercortisolism, fluctuating Cushing's syndrome, pediatric forms and genetically determined forms) were detailed. Lastly, methods of surveillance and diagnosis of recurrence were dealt with in the final section.

Pediatric adrenocortical carcinoma

Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is a rare endocrine malignancy of the adrenal gland with an unfavorable prognosis. It is rare in the pediatric population, with an incidence of 0.2-0.3 patients per million in patients under 20 years old. It is primarily associated with Li-Fraumeni and Beckwith-Wiedemann tumor predisposition syndromes in children. The incidence of pediatric ACC is 10-15fold higher in southern Brazil due to a higher prevalence of TP53 mutation associated with Li-Fraumeni syndrome in that population. Current treatment protocols are derived from adult ACC and consist of surgery and/or chemotherapy with etoposide, doxorubicin, and cisplatin (EDP) with mitotane. Limited research has been reported on other treatment modalities for pediatric ACC, including mitotane, pembrolizumab, cabozantinib, and chimeric antigen receptor autologous cell (CAR-T) therapy.

Adrenocortical Carcinoma in Childhood: A Systematic Review

Adrenocortical tumors are rare in children. This systematic review summarizes the published evidence on pediatric adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) to provide a basis for a better understanding of the disease, investigate new molecular biomarkers and therapeutic targets, and define which patients may benefit from a more aggressive therapeutic approach. We included 137 studies with 3680 ACC patients (~65% female) in our analysis. We found no randomized controlled trials, so this review mainly reflects retrospective data. Due to a specific mutation in the TP53 gene in ~80% of Brazilian patients, that cohort was analyzed separately from series from other countries. Hormone analysis was described in 2569 of the 2874 patients (89%). Most patients were diagnosed with localized disease, whereas 23% had metastasis at primary diagnosis. Only 72% of the patients achieved complete resection. In 334 children (23%), recurrent disease was reported: 81%-local recurrence, 19% (n = 65)-distant metastases at relapse. Patients < 4 years old had a different distribution of tumor stages and hormone activity and better overall survival (p < 0.001). Although therapeutic approaches are typically multimodal, no consensus is available on effective standard treatments for advanced ACC. Thus, knowledge regarding pediatric ACC is still scarce and international prospective studies are needed to implement standardized clinical stratifications and risk-adapted therapeutic strategies.

A molecular link between diabetes and breast cancer: Therapeutic potential of repurposing incretin-based therapies for breast cancer

Female breast cancer recently surpassed lung cancer and became the most commonly diagnosed cancer worldwide. As per the recent data from WHO, breast cancer accounts for one out of every 8 cancer cases diagnosed among an estimated 2.3 million new cancer cases. Breast cancer is the most prevailing cancer type among women causing the highest number of cancer-related mortality. It has been estimated that in 2020, 68,5000 women died due to this disease. Breast cancers have varying degrees of molecular heterogeneity; therefore, they are divided into various molecular clinical sub types. Recent reports suggest that type 2 diabetes (one of the common chronic diseases worldwide) is linked to the higher incidence, accelerated progression, and aggressiveness of different cancers; especially breast cancer. Breast cancer is hormone-dependent in nature and has a cross-talk with metabolism. A number of antidiabetic therapies are known to exert beneficial effects on various types of cancers, including breast cancer. However, only a few reports are available on the role of incretin-based antidiabetic therapies in cancer as a whole and in breast cancer in particular. The present review sheds light on the potential of incretin based therapies on breast cancer and explores the plausible underlying mechanisms. Additionally, we have also discussed the sub types of breast cancer as well as the intricate relationship between diabetes and breast cancer.

Clinical Impact of Pathological Features Including the Ki-67 Labeling Index on Diagnosis and Prognosis of Adult and Pediatric Adrenocortical Tumors

Adrenocortical tumors (ACT) in the adult and pediatric population are generally considered distinct entities due to differences in molecular events related to tumorigenesis, clinical presentation, and outcome. Furthermore, pathological criteria used for diagnosis and prognostication of ACT in adults are usually inadequate for predicting the biological behavior of ACT in children. Here, we analyzed 146 adult and 44 pediatric (< 15y/o) ACT with long-term clinical follow-up and furthered current evidence on the clinical and pathological differences between pediatric and adult tumors. Predilection for female over male gender was observed in both cohorts, but more so in adults (84% vs. 61%, p = 0.003). Cushing syndrome was more frequent in adults (p < 0.001), whereas virilization, either isolated (p < 0.001) or combined to Cushing (p = 0.047), was more common in children. The Ki67 labelling index (LI) of pediatric adenomas and carcinomas was much higher than their corresponding tumors in adults (p < 0.001). Despite these differences, pathological analyses including the evaluation of Ki67 greatly improved patient prognostication in both age cohorts. Indeed, increased Weiss scores and Ki67 indexes correlated with poor overall- and disease-free survival in adult patients with carcinoma. Among the proliferative indexes tested, Ki67 LI ≥ 10% showed the highest hazard ratio (HR) for recurrence and the Ki67 LI ≥ 3% showed the highest HR for survival. In pediatric tumors, the Wieneke score (p < 0.001) and the Ki67 LI (p < 0.001) showed high accuracy for predicting biological behavior, and increased scores/indexes correlated with worse overall and disease-free survival. In this age cohort, Ki67 LI < 10% was able to rule out malignant behavior, whereas Ki67 LI ≥ 15% may be used to predict the patients with higher risks of recurrence and/or poor outcome.

Role of the Mevalonate Pathway in Adrenocortical Tumorigenesis

3-Hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase (HMGCR) is the rate-limiting enzyme of the mevalonate pathway, which generates cholesterol and non-sterol compounds such as isoprenoid, which are involved in key steps of tumorigenesis such as cell growth and proliferation. Our aim was to evaluate the role of the mevalonate pathway in adrenocortical tumors (ACTs). Expression pattern of HMGCR, FDFT1, LDLR, SCARB1, StAR, TSPO, CYP11A1, CYP11B1, CYP17A1, CYP21A1, and HSD3B1 genes, involved in the mevalonate pathway and steroidogenesis, was quantified by real-time RT-PCR in 46 ACT [14 adenomas (ACA) and 11 carcinomas (ACC) from adults and 13 ACA and 8 ACC from pediatric patients]. Effects of the mevalonate pathway inhibition on NCI-H295A cell viability was assessed by colorimetric assay. HMGCR was overexpressed in most adult ACT. The expression of TSPO, STAR, CYP11B1, CYP21A1, and HSD3B1 in adult ACC was significantly lower than in ACA (p<0.05). Regarding pediatric ACT, the expression of genes involved in steroidogenesis was not different between ACA and ACC. Inhibition of isoprenoid production significantly decreased the viability of NCI-H295A cells (p<0.05). However, cholesterol synthesis blockage did not show the same effect on cell viability. Low expression of TSPO ,: StAR, CYP11B1, CYP21A1, and HSD3B1 characterized a signature of adult ACCs. Our data suggest that HMGCR overexpression in adult ACC might lead to intracellular isoprenoid accumulation and cell proliferation. Therefore, the mevalonate pathway is a potential target for ACC treatment.

New Prognostic Indicators in Pediatric Adrenal Tumors: Neuroblastoma and Adrenal Cortical Tumors, Can We Predict When These Will Behave Badly?

Pediatric adrenal tumors are unique entities with specific diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic challenges. The adrenal medulla gives rise to peripheral neuroblastic tumors (pNTs), pathologically defined by their architecture, stromal content, degree of differentiation, and mitotic-karyorrhectic index. Successful risk stratification of pNTs uses patient age, stage, tumor histology, and molecular/genetic aberrations. The adrenal cortex gives rise to adrenocortical tumors (ACTs), which present diagnostic and prognostic challenges. Histologic features that signify poor prognosis in adults can be meaningless in children, who have superior outcomes. The key clinical, pathologic, and molecular findings of pediatric ACTs have yet to be completely identified.

Pediatric adrenocortical tumor - review and management update

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Adrenocortical tumor (ACT) is a rare disease with an annual worldwide incidence of 0.3-0.38/million children below 15 years old, and Brazilian population presents the highest incidence because of germline mutation in the TP53. Pediatric ACT is associated with virilizing features and hypercortisolism in most cases. Malignancy is defined when local invasion or metastasis is found, and it is associated with a poor prognosis. However, the correct and early diagnosis and treatment may impact on overall and disease-free survival.

RECENT FINDINGS

A complete understanding of the disease and its singularities facilitates the assistance to the pediatric patient with ACT. The new insights about adrenal tumorigenesis have provided a better understanding of this disease. In this scenario, the era of molecular studies is leading to the refinement of the taxonomy, and it is offering the opportunity to discover new biomarkers and pathways of tumorigenesis, beyond the knowing β-catenin, Insulin-like growth factor-II/IGF-IR, and the p53/Rb signaling.

SUMMARY

The rarity of this disease makes it a real challenge. Here, we present a review focusing on clinical practice. A methodic approach aiming to clarify the diagnosis and a follow-up are suggested to guide physicians in the assistance of pediatrics patients, improving the prognosis.

MicroRNA dysregulation interplay with childhood abdominal tumors

Abdominal tumors (AT) in children account for approximately 17% of all pediatric solid tumor cases, and frequently exhibit embryonal histological features that differentiate them from adult cancers. Current molecular approaches have greatly improved the understanding of the distinctive pathology of each tumor type and enabled the characterization of novel tumor biomarkers. As seen in abdominal adult tumors, microRNAs (miRNAs) have been increasingly implicated in either the initiation or progression of childhood cancer. Moreover, besides predicting patient prognosis, they represent valuable diagnostic tools that may also assist the surveillance of tumor behavior and treatment response, as well as the identification of the primary metastatic sites. Thus, the present study was undertaken to compile up-to-date information regarding the role of dysregulated miRNAs in the most common histological variants of AT, including neuroblastoma, nephroblastoma, hepatoblastoma, hepatocarcinoma, and adrenal tumors. Additionally, the clinical implications of dysregulated miRNAs as potential diagnostic tools or indicators of prognosis were evaluated.

Childhood adrenocortical tumor: A clinical and immunohistochemical study of 13 cases

The aim of the study was to investigate the molecular mechanisms in childhood adrenocortical tumors (ACTs), which is still unclear.A total of 9 girls and 4 boys with ACTs were enrolled. Relevant clinical features were obtained from records. Immunohistochemistry of vimentin, chromogranin A, S100, synaptophysin, cytokeratin (CK), type 2 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3βHSD), cytochrome P45017α, p53, p21, p27, cyclin D1, Ki-67, insulin growth facter-2 (IGF-2), and β-catenin were undertaken for 13 tumors and 3 adjacent normal tissues. TP53 mutations in exon 2-11 were analyzed for 6 tumors and 3 blood samples.Virilization was the most common presentation (8/13, 61.5%). Immunohistochemically, p53 was positive in 8 of 13 ACTs and none in controls while p21 was positive in 12 of 13 ACTs and none in controls (P = .0036). Ki-67 was positive in 10 of 13 ACTs, but not in normal tissues (P = .0089). Although the expression of p27, cyclin D1, IGF-2 and β-catenin were similar between the ACTs and controls, β-catenin was noted in nuclear of 3 ACTs but not in controls. The difference of type 2 3βHSD and P450c17α was not significant (P > .05, respectively). Four variants of TP53 were identified in the 6 tumors. C215G variant was found in 5 of 6 while A701G and G743A variants were found in 1 case, respectively. A novel C680G variant was also noted in 1 case. It was notable that C215G variant was found in the blood mononuclear cell of 3 patients.In conclusion, p53 variant and p21 overexpression, and abnormal β-catenin distribution may be involved in the etiology and mechanism of childhood ACTs.

Clinical spectrum of Li-Fraumeni syndrome/Li-Fraumeni-like syndrome in Brazilian individuals with the TP53 p.R337H mutation

BACKGROUND

The TP53 p.R337H germline mutation is highly prevalent among children with adrenocortical tumors (ACTs) from South and Southeast Brazil. However, the prevalence of other tumors of the Li-Fraumeni syndrome (LFS) and Li-Fraumeni-like syndrome (LFL) spectrum, the clinical outcomes and the potential tumor occurrence in relatives carrying this distinct TP53 mutation were not fully investigated.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We investigated tumor profile data and outcomes of individuals and their close relatives with the TP53 p.R337H germline mutation. A questionnaire and the Toronto protocol were used for evaluation of asymptomatic carriers of this TP53 mutation.

RESULTS

The cohort of this study comprised 51 patients from 46 different families; 67% were female. All but one harbored the TP53 p.R337H mutation in heterozygous state; only one child was homozygous for this variant. Maternal allele inheritance occurred in 72% of the cases (p= 0,002). In pediatric group, ACT was the most common primary tumor at the diagnosis (55%; median age= 2 years). No patient of the pediatric group who initially presented with ACT developed a second primary tumor and 11% (n= 3) died due to complications related to the primary tumor (median follow-up time of 81.5 months, range= 3-378 months). In adult group, the main tumors at diagnosis were: adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) (23%; median age= 29.5 years), breast cancer (12%; median age= 38.5 years), soft tissue sarcoma (8%; median age= 50.3 years) and choroid plexus carcinoma (CPC) (2%; median age= 18 years). Among adult patients who were diagnosed with ACC as the first primary tumor, all presented with aggressive disease as per histologic and clinical criteria at diagnosis, and 75% of patients died (median follow-up time of 19 months, range= 1-69 months). Five adult patients (22%) had a second primary tumor, including bronchoalveolar lung cancer (2 cases), ACC, uterine cervical carcinoma and fibrosarcoma. The diagnosis of these tumors was established from 8 to 36 months after the first primary tumor. Three families presented more than one case of ACT. Nine malignant neoplasms were diagnosed in asymptomatic carriers using Toronto protocol.

CONCLUSIONS

This study confirms a high frequency of TP53 p.R337H mutation in pediatric group with ACT. In addition, we observed the occurrence of other tumors of LFS/LFL spectrum and a difference in the aggressiveness of ACTs depending on the age group in which they were diagnosed. The predominance of maternal mutated allele inheritance was first demonstrated in the affected Brazilian's families.

Adrenocortical Carcinoma in Children: A Clinicopathological Analysis of 41 Patients at the Mayo Clinic from 1950 to 2017

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is an aggressive childhood cancer. Limited evidence exists on a definite histopathological criterion to differentiate ACC from adrenocortical adenoma. The aim of this study was to investigate the clinicopathological data of children with ACC, identify prognostic factors, and validate a histopathological criterion to differentiate ACC from adrenocortical adenoma.

METHODS

This retrospective cohort included 41 children, followed at the Mayo Clinic from 1950 to 2017 (onset of symptoms ≤21 years). Outcomes of interest were: alive with no evidence of disease, alive with evidence of disease, and dead of disease.

RESULTS

Median age at onset of symptoms was 15.7 years (n = 41; range, 0.2-21 years). Female:male ratio was 3.6: 1. Mixed symptomatology (> 1 hormone abnormality) was the most common presentation (54%, n = 22). Sixty-six percent of patients (n = 27 out of 41) underwent total adrenalectomy. Metastatic disease was more common in children aged > 12 years (p = 0.002 compared to < 4 years). The most common sites of metastases were the liver and lungs. Overall 2-year and 5-year survival rates were 61% (95% CI 45-77) and 46% (95% CI 30-62), respectively. Metastasis at the time of diagnosis was independently associated with poor prognosis (risk ratio 13.7%; 95% CI 3.9-87.7). Weiss criteria (29%) and modified Weiss criteria (33%) were less accurate in younger patients (< 12 years), compared to the Wieneke index (100%).

CONCLUSION

The presence of metastases was an independent prognostic factor. The Wieneke index was the most accurate in predicting clinical outcomes in younger children.

Primary malignant tumors of the adrenal glands

Malignancy must be considered in the management of adrenal lesions, including those incidentally identified on imaging studies. Adrenocortical carcinomas (ACCs) are rare tumors with an estimated annual incidence of 0.7-2 cases per year and a worldwide prevalence of 4-12 cases per million/year. However, a much higher incidence of these tumors (>15 times) has been demonstrated in south and southeastern Brazil. Most ACCs cause hypersecretion of steroids including glucocorticoids and androgens. ACC patients have a very poor prognosis with a 5-year overall survival (OS) below 30% in most series. Pheochromocytoma or paraganglioma (PPGL) is a metabolically active tumor originating from the chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla. The incidence of PPGL is 0.2 to 0.9 cases per 100,000 individuals per year. Pheochromocytomas are present in approximately 4-7% of patients with adrenal incidentalomas. Classically, PPGL manifests as paroxysmal attacks of the following 4 symptoms: headaches, diaphoresis, palpitations, and severe hypertensive episodes. The diagnosis of malignant PPGL relies on the presence of local invasion or metastasis. In this review, we present the clinical and biochemical characteristics and pathogenesis of malignant primary lesions that affect the cortex and medulla of human adrenal glands.

Challenges in surgical pathology of adrenocortical tumours

Adrenocortical carcinomas are rare tumours that can be diagnostically challenging. Numerous multiparametric scoring systems and diagnostic algorithms have been proposed to differentiate adrenocortical adenoma from adrenocortical carcinoma. Adrenocortical neoplasms must also be differentiated from other primary adrenal tumours, such as phaeochromocytoma and unusual primary adrenal tumours, as well as metastases to the adrenal gland. Myxoid, oncocytic and sarcomatoid variants of adrenocortical tumours must be recognized so that they are not confused with other tumours. The diagnostic criteria for oncocytic adrenocortical carcinoma are different from those for conventional adrenocortical carcinomas. Adrenocortical neoplasms in children are particularly challenging to diagnose, as histological features of malignancy in adrenocortical neoplasms in adults may not be associated with aggressive disease in the tumours of children. Recent histological and immunohistochemical studies and more comprehensive and integrated genomic characterizations continue to advance our understanding of the tumorigenesis of these aggressive neoplasms, and may provide additional diagnostic and prognostic utility and guide the development of therapeutic targets.

The role of epithelial growth factors and insulin growth factors in the adrenal neoplasms

Human fetal and adult adrenal gland express both insulin growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and IGF-2, their receptors (IGF-Rs) and a variety of specific IGF binding proteins suggesting their potential role in the regulation of adrenal growth and function. IGF-2 overexpression is essential for the growth of monoclonal lesions, such as large benign adenomas (ACA) and adrenocortical carcinomas (ACC) and has been found to contribute to tumorigenesis in Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome. IGF-2 is the most highly expressed gene observed in more than 85% of ACCs. However, no significant differences in clinical, biological and transcriptomic traits were found between tumors with high and low expression of IGF-2. On the contrary, the expression of IGF-1R, mediating the IGF-2 effects in vivo, was more discriminant between malignant (overexpression) and benign tumors. Data on the role of epithelial growth factor (EGF) and its receptor (EGF-R) in adrenocortical tumorigenesis are controversial. Several studies have shown EGF-R overexpression in ACCs but not in benign ACAs, suggesting that EGF-R could potentially be used as a marker for the differential diagnosis of ACAs and ACCs. Although, in vitro and animal studies provide promising results in the therapeutic role of IGF and EGF pathway inhibitors, the available data in humans are still not encouraging. Herein, we aim to present recent data on the role of IGF and EGF pathways in adrenal development and tumorigenesis and their potential implication in the treatment of the ACC, a rare malignancy with very poor prognosis.

Genetics of tumors of the adrenal cortex

This review describes the molecular alterations observed in the various types of tumors of the adrenal cortex, excluding Conn adenomas, especially the alterations identified by genomic approaches these last five years. Two main forms of bilateral adrenocortical tumors can be distinguished according to size and aspect of the nodules: primary pigmented nodular adrenal disease (PPNAD), which can be sporadic or part of Carney complex and primary bilateral macro nodular adrenal hyperplasia (PBMAH). The bilateral nature of the tumors suggests the existence of an underlying genetic predisposition. PPNAD and Carney complex are mainly due to germline-inactivating mutations of PRKAR1A, coding for a regulatory subunit of PKA, whereas PBMAH genetic seems more complex. However, genome-wide approaches allowed the identification of a new tumor suppressor gene, ARMC5, whose germline alteration could be responsible for at least 25% of PBMAH cases. Unilateral adrenocortical tumors are more frequent, mostly adenomas. The Wnt/beta-catenin pathway can be activated in both benign and malignant tumors by CTNNB1 mutations and by ZNRF3 inactivation in adrenal cancer (ACC). Some other signaling pathways are more specific of the tumor dignity. Thus, somatic mutations of cAMP/PKA pathway genes, mainly PRKACA, coding for the catalytic alpha-subunit of PKA, are found in cortisol-secreting adenomas, whereas IGF-II overexpression and alterations of p53 signaling pathway are observed in ACC. Genome-wide approaches including transcriptome, SNP, methylome and miRome analysis have identified new genetic and epigenetic alterations and the further clustering of ACC in subgroups associated with different prognosis, allowing the development of new prognosis markers.

The aurora kinase inhibitor AMG 900 increases apoptosis and induces chemosensitivity to anticancer drugs in the NCI-H295 adrenocortical carcinoma cell line

Adrenocortical tumor (ACT) is a malignancy with a low incidence rate and the current therapy for advanced disease has a limited impact on overall patient survival. A previous study from our group suggested that elevated expression of aurora-A and aurora-B is associated with poor outcome in childhood ACT. Similar results were also reported for adult ACTs. The present in-vitro study shows that AMG 900 inhibits aurora kinases in adrenocortical carcinoma cells. AMG 900 inhibited cell proliferation in NCI-H295 cells as well as in the ACT primary cultures and caused apoptosis in the cell line NCI-H295. Furthermore, it potentialized the mitotane, doxorubicin, and etoposide effects on apoptosis induction and acted synergistically with mitotane and doxorubicin in the inhibition of proliferation. In addition, we found that AMG 900 activated Notch signaling and rendered the cells sensitive to the combination of AMG 900 and Notch signaling inhibition. Altogether, these data show that aurora kinases inhibition using AMG 900 may be an adjuvant therapy to treat patients with invasive or recurrent adrenocortical carcinomas.

Androgen production in pediatric adrenocortical tumors may occur via both the classic and/or the alternative backdoor pathway

Children with adrenocortical tumors (ACTs) often present with virilization due to high tumoral androgen production, with dihydrotestosterone (DHT) as most potent androgen. Recent work revealed two pathways for DHT biosynthesis, the classic and the backdoor pathway. Usage of alternate routes for DHT production has been reported in castration-resistant prostate cancer, CAH and PCOS. To assess whether the backdoor pathway may contribute to the virilization of pediatric ACTs, we investigated seven children suffering from androgen producing tumors using steroid profiling and immunohistochemical expression studies. All cases produced large amounts of androgens of the classic and/or backdoor pathway. Variable expression of steroid enzymes was observed in carcinomas and adenomas. We found no discriminative pattern. This suggests that enhanced androgen production in pediatric ACTs is the result of deregulated steroidogenesis through multiple steroid pathways. Thus future treatments of ACTs targeting androgen overproduction should consider these novel steroid production pathways.

GLUT1 expression in pediatric adrenocortical tumors: a promising candidate to predict clinical behavior

Background

Discrimination between benign and malignant tumors is a challenging process in pediatric adrenocortical tumors. New insights in the metabolic profile of pediatric adrenocortical tumors may contribute to this distinction, predict prognosis, as well as identify new molecular targets for therapy. The aim of this work is to characterize the expression of the metabolism-related proteins MCT1, MCT2, MCT4, CD147, CD44, GLUT1 and CAIX in a series of pediatric adrenocortical tumors.

Methods

A total of 50 pediatric patients presenting adrenocortical tumors, including 41 clinically benign and 9 clinically malignant tumors, were included. Protein expression was evaluated using immunohistochemistry in samples arranged in tissue microarrays.

Results

The immunohistochemical analysis showed a significant increase in plasma membrane expression of GLUT1 in malignant lesions, when compared to benign lesions (p=0.004), being the expression of this protein associated with shorter overall and disease-free survival (p=0.004 and p=0.001, respectively). Although significant differences were not observed for proteins other than GLUT1, MCT1, MCT4 and CD147 were highly expressed in pediatric adrenocortical neoplasias (around 90%).

Conclusion

GLUT1 expression was differentially expressed in pediatric adrenocortical tumors, with higher expression in clinically malignant tumors, and associated with shorter survival, suggesting a metabolic remodeling towards a hyperglycolytic phenotype in this malignancy.

Management and prognosis of adrenocortical tumors in children: can we find out an appropriate points-scoring system to predict prognosis?

BACKGROUND/PURPOSE

Adrenocortical tumors (ACTs) are rare in childhood. There are no recognized criteria to exactly distinguish between benign and malignant forms, or predict prognosis. The incidence of tumor varies across geographic regions or ethnicities, as well as malignant proportion. The aim of this study is to examine a single institution's experience with pediatric ACTs and to validate the prognostic value of the biologic/pathologic criteria of Wienecke.

METHODS

Records of 26 pediatric ACTs between 1994 and 2016 in our center were reviewed retrospectively. The data recorded of each patient included clinical characteristics, treatment, pathologic findings, disease stating, and outcome. Tumors were categorized according to the Wienecke criteria.

RESULTS

All patients underwent primary surgical excision, including negative margins in 20 cases. Stage distribution at diagnosis was: ST I 12, ST II 8, ST III 5, and ST IV 1. According to Wienecke scoring system, 13 cases were <3 criteria, 6 cases were =3 criteria, and 7 cases were >3 criteria. At median follow-up of 34.5 months, 18 patients survived without evidence of disease and 8 patients had lethal outcome. There was a strong association between high Wienecke score and both high stage and adverse outcome.

CONCLUSIONS

Wienecke criteria can be an appropriate points-scoring system to predict prognosis for adrenocortical tumors in children. Complete surgical resection with negative margins is optimal for survival.

Adrenocortical neoplasms in adulthood and childhood: distinct presentation. Review of the clinical, pathological and imaging characteristics

Adrenocortical tumors (ACT) in adulthood and childhood vary in clinical, histopathological, molecular, prognostic, and imaging aspects. ACT are relatively common in adults, as adenomas are often found incidentally on imaging. ACT are rare in children, though they have a significantly higher prevalence in the south and southeast regions of Brazil. In clinical manifestation, adults with ACT present more frequently with glucocorticoid overproduction (Cushing syndrome), mineralocorticoid syndromes (Conn syndrome), or the excess of androgens in women. Subclinical tumors are frequently diagnosed late, associated with compression symptoms of abdominal mass. In children, the usual presentation is the virilizing syndrome or virilizing association and hypercortisolism. Histopathological grading and ACT classification in malignant and benign lesions are different for adults and children. In adults, the described criteria are the Hough, Weiss, modified Weiss, and Van Slooten. These scores are not valid for children; there are other criteria, such as proposed by Wieneke and colleagues. In molecular terms, there is also a difference related to genetic alterations found in these two populations. This review discusses the imaging findings of ACT, aiming to characterize the present differences between ACT found in adults and children. We listed several differences between magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computed tomography (CT), and positron emission tomography-computed (PET-CT) and also performed a literature review, which focuses on studied age groups of published articles in the last 10 years regarding cortical neoplasm and imaging techniques. Published studies on ACT imaging in children are rare. It is important to stress that the majority of publications related to the differentiation of malignant and benign tumors are based almost exclusively on studies in adults. A minority of articles, however, studied adults and children together, which may not be appropriate.

Pediatric adrenocortical neoplasms: immunohistochemical expression of p57 identifies loss of heterozygosity and abnormal imprinting of the 11p15.5

BACKGROUND

Diagnosis of adrenocortical neoplasms (ACN), in pediatric age, is based on Wieneke criteria. The p57, a cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor, acts to negatively regulate cell proliferation and is frequently found dysregulated in cancer. The identification of loss of heterozygosity (LOH) of 11p15, containing the p57 gene, could be a tool for differential diagnosis of benign and malignant ACN.

METHODS

Immunohistochemistry with anti-p57 and microsatellite markers analysis of 11p15 region to value LOH were made in both ACN and surrounded normal adrenal cortex.

RESULTS

Nine ACN, two clinically benign, two uncertain, and five malignant, were diagnosed. Positive p57 cells were evident in normal adrenal cortex and in one histologically benign ACN. A low/absent expression of p57 was documented in eight ACN independently from the classification on the basis of pathological and clinical criteria. Microsatellite marker analysis confirmed the LOH of 11p15 region in the same ACN.

CONCLUSION

LOH of 11p15 has a high prognostic value suggesting the p57 gene is important in ACN pathogenesis. Immunohistochemistry for p57 is a simple and cheap tool that can be used to quickly identify LOH of 11p15 in ACN.

Metabolic reprogramming: a new relevant pathway in adult adrenocortical tumors

Adrenocortical carcinomas (ACCs) are complex neoplasias that may present unexpected clinical behavior, being imperative to identify new biological markers that can predict patient prognosis and provide new therapeutic options. The main aim of the present study was to evaluate the prognostic value of metabolism-related key proteins in adrenocortical carcinoma. The immunohistochemical expression of MCT1, MCT2, MCT4, CD147, CD44, GLUT1 and CAIX was evaluated in a series of 154 adult patients with adrenocortical neoplasia and associated with patients' clinicopathological parameters. A significant increase in was found for membranous expression of MCT4, GLUT1 and CAIX in carcinomas, when compared to adenomas. Importantly MCT1, GLUT1 and CAIX expressions were significantly associated with poor prognostic variables, including high nuclear grade, high mitotic index, advanced tumor staging, presence of metastasis, as well as shorter overall and disease free survival. In opposition, MCT2 membranous expression was associated with favorable prognostic parameters. Importantly, cytoplasmic expression of CD147 was identified as an independent predictor of longer overall survival and cytoplasmic expression of CAIX as an independent predictor of longer disease-free survival. We provide evidence for a metabolic reprogramming in adrenocortical malignant tumors towards the hyperglycolytic and acid-resistant phenotype, which was associated with poor prognosis.

Low DICER1 expression is associated with poor clinical outcome in adrenocortical carcinoma

Low DICER1 expression was associated with poor outcome in several cancers. Recently, hot-spot DICER1 mutations were found in ovarian tumors, and TARBP2 truncating mutations in tumor cell lines with microsatellite instability. In this study, we assessed DICER1 e TRBP protein expression in 154 adult adrenocortical tumors (75 adenomas and 79 carcinomas). Expression of DICER1 and TARBP2 gene was assessed in a subgroup of 61 tumors. Additionally, we investigated mutations in metal biding sites located at the RNase IIIb domain of DICER1 and in the exon 5 of TARBP2 in 61 tumors. A strong DICER1 expression was demonstrated in 32% of adenomas and in 51% of carcinomas (p = 0.028). Similarly, DICER1 gene overexpression was more frequent in carcinomas (60%) than in adenomas (23%, p = 0.006). But, among adrenocortical carcinomas, a weak DICER1 expression was significantly more frequent in metastatic than in non-metastatic adrenocortical carcinomas (66% vs. 31%; p = 0.002). Additionally, a weak DICER1 expression was significantly correlated with a reduced overall (p = 0.004) and disease-free (p = 0.005) survival. In the multivariate analysis, a weak DICER1 expression (p = 0.048) remained as independent predictor of recurrence. Regarding TARBP2 gene, its protein and gene expression did not correlate with histopathological and clinical parameters. No variant was identified in hot spot areas of DICER1 and TARBP2. In conclusion, a weak DICER1 protein expression was associated with reduced disease-free and overall survival and was a predictor of recurrence in adrenocortical carcinomas.

Recurrence and mortality prognostic factors in childhood adrenocortical tumors: Analysis from the Brazilian National Institute of Cancer experience

Prognostic markers that can help identifying precocious risk of unfavorable outcomes in patients with childhood adrenocortical tumors (ACTs) are still unclear. This observational and retrospective study aimed to identify clinical and pathology prognostic factors of recurrence and death in a tertiary cancer center population. Clinical, pathology, demographic, staging, and therapy data from patients with childhood ACT (median age: 3.6 years) treated at the Brazilian National Institute of Cancer between 1997 and 2015 were assessed. Univariate and bivariate analyses were used to study the association of clinical and pathology characteristics with recurrence and mortality. Recurrence and disease-related mortality were the main outcomes. Twenty-seven patients were included. Complete tumor resection was performed in 21 cases. The median tumor size was 8.2 cm. Mitotane was the most common adjuvant/palliative therapy (n = 13). Recurrence occurred in 6 patients, after a median time of 7.2 months, and was more common among those with larger tumors (P =.008), higher Weiss score (P =.001), and microscopic tumoral necrosis (P =.002). Ten patients died from the disease. Older age (P =.04), larger tumor size (P =.002), metastatic disease (P =.003), previous recurrence (P =.003), incomplete resection (P =.002), intraoperative tumor spillage (P =.005), higher Weiss score (P =.03), microscopic necrosis (P =.005), and capsular invasion (P =.02) were all associated with increased death risk. Even though complete tumor resection was performed in most cases, a considerable number of cases of childhood ACT resulted in recurrence and death. Early identification of unfavorable outcomes is essential to determine ideal therapy and appropriate surveillance.

Mouse Models Recapitulating Human Adrenocortical Tumors: What Is Lacking?

Adrenal cortex tumors are divided into benign forms, such as primary hyperplasias and adrenocortical adenomas (ACAs), and malignant forms or adrenocortical carcinomas (ACCs). Primary hyperplasias are rare causes of adrenocorticotropin hormone-independent hypercortisolism. ACAs are the most common type of adrenal gland tumors and they are rarely "functional," i.e., producing steroids. When functional, adenomas result in endocrine disorders, such as Cushing's syndrome (hypercortisolism) or Conn's syndrome (hyperaldosteronism). By contrast, ACCs are extremely rare but highly aggressive tumors that may also lead to hypersecreting syndromes. Genetic analyses of patients with sporadic or familial forms of adrenocortical tumors (ACTs) led to the identification of potentially causative genes, most of them being involved in protein kinase A (PKA), Wnt/β-catenin, and P53 signaling pathways. Development of mouse models is a crucial step to firmly establish the functional significance of candidate genes, to dissect mechanisms leading to tumors and endocrine disorders, and in fine to provide in vivo tools for therapeutic screens. In this article, we will provide an overview on the existing mouse models (xenografted and genetically engineered) of ACTs by focusing on the role of PKA and Wnt/β-catenin pathways in this context. We will discuss the advantages and limitations of models that have been developed heretofore and we will point out necessary improvements in the development of next generation mouse models of adrenal diseases.

The genetics of adrenocortical tumors

Advances in genomics accelerated greatly progress in the study of the genetics adrenocortical tumors. Bilateral nodular hyperplasias causing Cushing's syndrome are frequently caused by germline alterations leading to cAMP/PKA pathway activation (micronodular) and ARMC5 inactivation (macronodular). Somatic mutations of β-catenin and PRKACA are observed in non secreting or cortisol producing adenomas, respectively. Alterations of the β-catenin (CTNN1B, ZNFR3) or TP53 pathways are found in carcinomas. Mutations in cancers are more common in aggressive tumors and correlate with transcriptome or methylation profiles. Identification of these alterations helps to refine the molecular classification of these tumors and to develop molecular diagnostic tools.

Expression of LIN28 and its regulatory microRNAs in adult adrenocortical cancer

OBJECTIVE

LIN28 control cells reprogramming and pluripotency mainly through miRNA regulation and has been overexpressed in many advanced cancers. In this study, we evaluated the prognostic role of LIN28 and its regulatory miRNAs in a large cohort of adrenocortical tumours (ACTs).

PATIENTS AND METHODS

LIN28 protein expression was assessed in 266 adults ACTs (78 adenomas and 188 carcinomas) from Brazil and Germany. LIN28A and LIN28B gene expression was analysed in 59 ACTs (31 adenomas and 28 carcinomas) and copy number variation in 39 ACTs. In addition, we determined the expression of let-7 family, mir-9, mir-30 and mir-125 in 28 carcinomas.

RESULTS

LIN28A gene was overexpressed in aggressive ACCs when compared with adenomas and nonaggressive ACCs, but no LIN28A copy number variation was found in ACTs. Unexpectedly, weak LIN28 protein expression was significantly associated with reduced disease-free survival in ACC patients (P = 0·01), but for overall survival only a trend was detectable (P = 0·117). In the multivariate analysis, only Ki67 index ≥10% (HR 4·6, P = 0·000) and weak LIN28 protein expression (HR 2·0, P = 0·03) were independent predictors of recurrence in ACC patients. Interestingly, mir-9 expression, a negative LIN28A/B regulator, was significantly higher in aggressive than in nonaggressive ACCs [2076 (from 36 to 9307) vs 133·4 (from 2·4 to 5193); P = 0·011] and was highly associated with reduced overall (P = 0·01) and disease-free survival (P = 0·01). However, mir-9 prognostic role should be further evaluated in a larger cohort.

CONCLUSION

Weak LIN28 protein expression was associated with recurrence in ACCs. Additionally, overexpression of mir-9, a negative LIN28A regulator, was associated with poor outcome.

Diagnostic and prognostic features in adrenocortical carcinoma: a single institution case series and review of the literature

Background

Adrenocortical carcinoma is a rare cancer, with an incidence in the literature of 0.5 to 2 cases per million population per year. Adult adrenocortical carcinoma has a poor prognosis, underscoring the importance of identifying diagnostic and prognostic markers.

Methods

We searched our laboratory database for all cases in the past 15 years with a diagnosis of adrenocortical carcinoma. The original slides were then reviewed for their histopathological features. A representative paraffin block was subjected to further immunohistochemical staining for Ki-67, inhibin, steroidogenic factor-1 (SF-1), p53, and Β-catenin. These slides were scored by the study pathologist who was blinded to all clinicopathological data. In addition, a comprehensive review of the relevant English literature in the past 15 years was conducted.

Results

Eight cases were identified, including two adrenal sarcomatoid carcinomas. Seven of the eight cases had a disrupted reticulin network. Six of the eight tumors had >10% Ki-67 expression. Five of the eight tumors had >10% p53 expression. Positive inhibin immunohistochemical staining was seen in three of the eight tumors, and positive SF-1 staining was seen in five of the seven stained tumors. Abnormal Β-catenin intracellular accumulation was noted in four of the eight tumors. The two tumors in our series with sarcomatoid histology did not stain positively for SF-1 or inhibin.

Conclusions

Eight cases of adrenocortical carcinoma, including two with sarcomatoid features are presented. The two sarcomatoid adrenocortical carcinomas in our series did not stain for SF-1 which suggests a possible de novo pathway of tumorigenesis for this rare variant. The reticulin staining method was a useful tool for rapid differentiation of adrenocortical adenomas and carcinomas. Diffuse p53 staining showed a trend for positive correlation with increased Ki-67 expression. Inhibin staining was inconsistently expressed in our cases of adrenocortical carcinoma. In conclusion, as adrenocortical carcinoma is a rare disease, we recommend future multicenter studies with appropriate sample sizes to further evaluate the efficacy of these diagnostic and prognostic markers.

Prevalence and functional consequence of TP53 mutations in pediatric adrenocortical carcinoma: a children's oncology group study

PURPOSE

Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is a rare pediatric malignancy. It occurs in excess among individuals with the Li-Fraumeni syndrome, which results primarily from germline mutations in the TP53 gene. Prior series exploring frequencies of germline TP53 mutation among children with ACC have been small, geographically limited, or subject to referral bias. The functional consequence of mutations has not been related to phenotype. We provide a genotype-phenotype analysis of TP53 mutations in pediatric ACC and propose a model for tissue-specific effects based on adrenocortical ontogeny.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Eighty-eight consecutive, unrelated children with ACC, unselected for family history, underwent germline TP53 sequencing. Rate and distribution of mutations were identified. Functional analysis was performed for novel TP53 variants. Correlation with the International Agency for Research on Cancer p53 database further delineated mutational distribution, association with family history, and risk for multiple primary malignancies (MPMs).

RESULTS

Germline mutations were present in 50% of children. These mutations did not correspond to the conventional hotspot mutations. There was a wide range of mutant protein function. Patients bearing alleles encoding protein with higher functionality were less likely to have a strong family cancer history, whereas those with greater loss of function had MPMs and/or positive family history. In patients with MPMs, ACC was the most frequent initial malignancy. Finally, we demonstrated age-dependent rates of TP53 mutation positivity.

CONCLUSION

TP53 mutations are prevalent in children with ACC but decline with age. Mutations result in a broad spectrum of functional loss. Effect of individual mutations may predict carrier and familial disease penetrance with potentially broad implications for clinical surveillance and counseling.

Low expression of HLA-DRA, HLA-DPA1, and HLA-DPB1 is associated with poor prognosis in pediatric adrenocortical tumors (ACT)

BACKGROUND

Low expression of HLA class II antigens has been associated with more aggressive disease in several human malignancies including adult adrenocortical tumors (ACT), but their clinical relevance in pediatric ACT needs to be investigated.

PROCEDURE

This study analyzed the expression profile of three class II histocompatibility genes (HLA-DRA, HLA-DPA1, and HLA-DPB1) in 58 consecutive pediatric ACT (13 adenomas and 45 carcinomas) by quantitative real time PCR and their association with clinical and biological features. HLA-DPA1 protein level was determined by immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

A significant association (P < 0.01) was observed between lower expression levels of the three genes analyzed and poor prognostic factors such as age ≥ 4 years, tumor size ≥ 200 cm(3), tumor weight ≥ 100 g, and metastatic disease; the presence of an unfavorable event and death. Underexpression of the HLA-DRA, HLA-DPA1, and HLA-DPB1 genes were associated with lower 5-year event-free survival (EFS) (P = 0.017, P < 0.001, and P = 0.017, respectively). Cox multivariate analysis showed that HLA-DPA1 was an independent prognostic factor (P = 0.029) when analyzed in association with stage IV, age and tumor size. Significantly lower EFS was also observed in patients with negative/weak immunostaining for HLA-DPA1 (P = 0.002). Similar results were observed when only patients classified as having carcinomas were analyzed.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that lower expression of HLA-DRA, HLA-DPA1, and HLA-DPB1 genes may contribute to more aggressive disease in pediatric ACT. HLA-DPA1 immunostaining may represent potential aggressiveness marker in this tumor.

Adrenocortical carcinoma in children: first population-based clinicopathological study with long-term follow-up

Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is rare in both adult and pediatric populations. Literature suggests significant differences between children and adults in presentation, histological properties and outcome. The aim of this first nationwide study on pediatric ACC was to describe the incidence, presentation, pathological characteristics, treatment and survival in The Netherlands. All ACC patients aged <20 years at diagnosis and registered in the population-based Netherlands Cancer Registry between 1993 and 2010 were included. Clinical data were extracted from medical records. Archival histological slides were collected via the Dutch Pathology Registry (PALGA). We compared our findings to all clinical studies on pediatric ACC that were found on PubMed. Based on the results, 12 patients were identified: 8 females and 4 males. The median age was 4.1 years (range 1.1-18.6). The population-based age-standardized incidence rate for patients <20 years was 0.18 per million person-years. Autonomous hormonal secretion was present in 10 patients. Seven patients were aged ≤4 years at diagnosis, 5 presented with localized disease and 2 with locally advanced disease. Five patients were aged ≥5 years, 3 presented with distant metastases and 1 with locally advanced disease. For all patients, histological examination displayed malignant characteristics. All patients aged ≤4 years at diagnosis survived; the median follow-up was 97 months (57-179 months). All patients aged ≥5 years died; the median survival was 6 months (0-38 months). Pediatric ACC is extremely rare in the Western world. The clinical outcome was remarkably better in patients aged ≤4 years. This is in accordance with less advanced stage of disease at presentation, yet contrasts with the presence of adverse histological characteristics. Clinical management in advanced disease is adapted from adult practice in the absence of evidence regarding pediatric ACC.

Adrenocortical tumors in Italian children: analysis of clinical characteristics and P53 status. Data from the national registries

AIM

Adrenocortical tumors are very rare in children. The distinction between adenoma and carcinoma is complex because of their clinical/histological characteristics. The analysis of the cases registered in two consecutive Italian Studies is described, in order to provide additional insight into their nature and possibly identify benign and malignant lesions.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The analysis includes patients registered from?? 1.1982 to 6.2011 into two consecutive Italian protocols.

RESULTS

Fifty-eight children (age 2-210months) were evaluated. Endocrine manifestations were the most frequent symptoms. Stage distribution at diagnosis was: ST I 35, ST II 17, ST III 1, ST IV 5. Treatment consisted in mitotane for ST II, mitotane+chemotherapy for ST III/IV. Forty-four patients are alive without evidence of disease, 1 is alive with disease, 12 died of disease and 1 because of cardiomyopathy. The Wienecke score system was applied in 24 patients with good significance. A p53 mutation was found in 7 cases, and it was diagnostic for Li-Fraumeni syndrome in 2 benign tumors.

CONCLUSIONS

The results highlight the importance of a complete excision to obtain the cure of patients. The efficacy of chemotherapy is controversial, however it was able to control the disease in 4 patients in ST II. The value of the Wienecke score system in predicting patients' outcome was confirmed. p53 mutation was more frequent in malignant tumors and represented the sentinel of the Li-Fraumeni syndrome.

Pediatric adrenocortical tumors: diagnosis, management and advancements in the understanding of the genetic basis and therapeutic implications

Adrenocortical tumors (ACTs) may be sporadic or related to inherited genetic syndromes. Uncovering the molecular defects underlying these genetic syndromes has revealed key signaling pathways involved in adrenocortical tumorigenesis. Although the understanding of ACT biology has improved, to date, very few potential prognostic molecular markers of childhood ACTs have been identified. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge of the epidemiology, clinical presentation, diagnosis, prognosis and treatment options for pediatric patients with ACTs. A review of the genetic basis of adrenocortical tumorigenesis is presented, focusing on the main molecular abnormalities involved in the tumorigenic process and potential novel therapy targets that have been generated, or are being generated, with the discovery of these molecular defects.

Sonic hedgehog signaling is active in human adrenal cortex development and deregulated in adrenocortical tumors

BACKGROUND

The sonic hedgehog (SHH) pathway plays a key role in rodent adrenal cortex development and is involved in tumorigenesis in several human tissues, but data in human adrenal glands are limited.

OBJECTIVES

The objectives of the study were to analyze the involvement of the SHH pathway in human adrenal development and tumorigenesis and the effects of SHH inhibition on an adrenocortical tumor (ACT) cell line.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Expression of SHH pathway components was evaluated by immunohistochemistry in 51 normal adrenals (33 fetal) and 34 ACTs (23 pediatric) and by quantitative PCR in 81 ACTs (61 pediatric) and 19 controls (10 pediatric). The effects of SHH pathway inhibition on gene expression and cell viability in the NCI-H295A adrenocortical tumor cell line after cyclopamine treatment were analyzed.

RESULTS

SHH pathway proteins were present in fetal and postnatal normal adrenals and showed distinct patterns of spatiotemporal expression throughout development. Adult adrenocortical carcinomas presented with higher expression of PTCH1, SMO, GLI3, and SUFU compared with normal adult adrenal cortices. Conversely, pediatric ACTs showed lower mRNA expression of SHH, PTCH1, SMO, GLI1, and GLI3 compared with normal pediatric adrenal cortices. In vitro treatment with cyclopamine resulted in decreased GLI3, SFRP1, and CTNNB1 mRNA expression and β-catenin staining as well as decreased cell viability.

CONCLUSIONS

The SHH pathway is active in human fetal and postnatal adrenals, up-regulated in adult adrenocortical carcinomas, and down-regulated in pediatric ACTs. SHH pathway antagonism impaired cell viability. The SHH pathway is deregulated in ACTs and might provide a new target therapy to be explored.

MicroRNA era: the importance for diagnosis and prognosis of adrenocortical tumors

MicroRNAs play an essential role in posttranscriptional regulation of gene expression. They are evolutionary conserved, small, noncoding, 19–22-nucleotide RNAs, whose abnormalities, such as up- or downregulated expression, have been associated with several neoplasms, including adrenocortical tumors. Expression levels of distinct microRNAs can distinguish benign from malignant adrenal tumors. This current review provides recent data on the miRNAs profile in benign and malignant adrenocortical tumors diagnosed in adult and pediatric patients.

Adrenocortical carcinoma: review and update

Adrenocortical carcinoma is a rare endocrine tumor with a poor prognosis. These tumors can be diagnostically challenging, and diagnostic algorithms and criteria continue to be suggested. Myxoid and oncocytic variants are important to recognize to not confuse with other tumors. In addition, the diagnostic criteria are different for oncocytic adrenal carcinomas than conventional carcinomas. Adrenocortical carcinomas usually occur in adults, but can also occur in children. In children these tumors are diagnostically challenging as the histologic features of malignancy seen in an adult tumor may not be associated with aggressive disease in a child. Adrenocortical carcinomas occur with increased frequency in Beckwith-Wiedemann and Li-Fraumeni syndromes, but most occur sporadically. Gene expression profiling by transcriptome analysis can discriminate adrenocortical carcinomas from adenomas and divide carcinomas into prognostic groups. The increasing understanding of the pathogenesis of these tumors may provide increasing treatment targets for this aggressive tumor.

Adrenocortical carcinoma

Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is a rare endocrine malignancy, often with an unfavorable prognosis. Here we summarize the knowledge about diagnosis, epidemiology, pathophysiology, and therapy of ACC. Over recent years, multidisciplinary clinics have formed and the first international treatment trials have been conducted. This review focuses on evidence gained from recent basic science and clinical research and provides perspectives from the experience of a large multidisciplinary clinic dedicated to the care of patients with ACC.

Surgery for adrenocortical carcinoma in The Netherlands: analysis of the national cancer registry data

OBJECTIVE

Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is a rare disease with an estimated incidence of one to two cases per 1 million inhabitants. The Dutch Adrenal Network (DAN) was initiated with the aim to improve patient care and to stimulate scientific research on ACC. Currently, not all patients with ACC are treated in specialized DAN hospitals. The objective of the current investigation was to determine whether there are differences in survival between patients operated on in DAN hospitals and those operated on in non-DAN hospitals.

DESIGN

The study was set up as a retrospective and population-based survival analysis.

METHODS

Data on all adult ACC patients diagnosed between 1999 and 2009 were obtained from The Netherlands Cancer Registry (NCR). Overall survival was calculated and a comparison was made between DAN and non-DAN hospitals.

RESULTS

The NCR contained data of 189 patients. The median survival of patients with European Network for the Study of Adrenal Tumors stages I-III disease was significantly longer for patients operated on in a DAN hospital (n=46) than for those operated on in a non-DAN hospital (n=37, 5-year survival 63 vs 42%). Survival remained significantly different after correction for sex, age, year of diagnosis, and stage of disease in the multivariate analysis (hazard ratio 1.96 (95% CI 1.01-3.81), P=0.047).

CONCLUSION

The results associate surgery in a DAN center with a survival benefit for patients with local or locally advanced ACC. We hypothesize that a multidisciplinary approach for these patients explains the observed survival benefit. These findings should be carefully considered in view of the aim for further centralization of ACC treatment.

Predictors of survival in pediatric adrenocortical carcinoma: a Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) program study

BACKGROUND

Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is rarely described in children. There is variation in incidence worldwide. This study sought to identify national incidence rates and independent prognostic indicators for children.

METHODS

The SEER database was queried for the years 1973 through 2008 for all patients with ACC less than 20 years of age. Incidence rates and survival were analyzed accounting for clinical and demographic factors. Cox proportional-hazards regression was used to identify factors associated with disease-specific survival.

RESULTS

Eighty-five patients (57 F: 28 M) were identified. Annual ACC incidence was 0.21 per million. Young patients (≤ 4 years) were noted to have more favorable features than older patients (5-19 years) and more likely to have local disease (76% vs. 31%, p < 0.001), tumor size < 10 cm (69% vs. 31%, p = 0.007), and better 5-year survival (91.1% vs. 29.8%, p < 0.001). After adjustment, the most significant predictors of cancer-specific death were age 5-19 years (HR 8.6, p = 0.001) and distant disease (HR 3.3, p = 0.01). After accounting for tumor size, only age maintained statistical significance (HR 9.9, p = 0.009).

CONCLUSIONS

Our study represents one of the largest reviews of pediatric ACC. An age of ≤ 4 years was associated with better outcome. Potential factors responsible for this include patient and tumor related factors.

Insulin resistance and cancer: the role of insulin and IGFs

Insulin, IGF1, and IGF2 are the most studied insulin-like peptides (ILPs). These are evolutionary conserved factors well known as key regulators of energy metabolism and growth, with crucial roles in insulin resistance-related metabolic disorders such as obesity, diseases like type 2 diabetes mellitus, as well as associated immune deregulations. A growing body of evidence suggests that insulin and IGF1 receptors mediate their effects on regulating cell proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, glucose transport, and energy metabolism by signaling downstream through insulin receptor substrate molecules and thus play a pivotal role in cell fate determination. Despite the emerging evidence from epidemiological studies on the possible relationship between insulin resistance and cancer, our understanding on the cellular and molecular mechanisms that might account for this relationship remains incompletely understood. The involvement of IGFs in carcinogenesis is attributed to their role in linking high energy intake, increased cell proliferation, and suppression of apoptosis to cancer risks, which has been proposed as the key mechanism bridging insulin resistance and cancer. The present review summarizes and discusses evidence highlighting recent advances in our understanding on the role of ILPs as the link between insulin resistance and cancer and between immune deregulation and cancer in obesity, as well as those areas where there remains a paucity of data. It is anticipated that issues discussed in this paper will also recover new therapeutic targets that can assist in diagnostic screening and novel approaches to controlling tumor development.