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Yoon MC, Ames J, Mosier C, Jiang Z, Podvin S, O’Donoghue AJ, Hook V. Distinct Dibasic Cleavage Specificities of Neuropeptide-Producing Cathepsin L and Cathepsin V Cysteine Proteases Compared to PC1/3 and PC2 Serine Proteases. ACS Chem Neurosci 2022; 13:245-256. [PMID: 34986304 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.1c00653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuropeptides, functioning as peptide neurotransmitters and hormones, are generated from proneuropeptide precursors by proteolytic processing at dibasic residue sites (i.e., KR, RK, KK, RR). The cysteine proteases cathepsin L and cathepsin V, combined with the serine proteases proprotein convertases 1 and 2 (PC1/3 and PC2), participate in proneuropeptide processing to generate active neuropeptides. To compare the dibasic cleavage properties of these proteases, this study conducted global, unbiased substrate profiling of these processing proteases using a diverse peptide library in multiplex substrate profiling by mass spectrometry (MSP-MS) assays. MSP-MS utilizes a library of 228 14-mer peptides designed to contain all possible protease cleavage sites, including the dibasic residue sites of KR, RK, KK, and RR. The comprehensive MSP-MS analyses demonstrated that cathepsin L and cathepsin V cleave at the N-terminal side and between the dibasic residues (e.g., ↓K↓R, ↓R↓K, and K↓K), with a preference for hydrophobic residues at the P2 position of the cleavage site. In contrast, the serine proteases PC1/3 and PC2 displayed cleavage at the C-terminal side of dibasic residues of a few peptide substrates. Further analyses with a series of dipeptide-AMC and tripeptide-AMC substrates containing variant dibasic sites with hydrophobic P2 residues indicated the preferences of cathepsin L and cathepsin V to cleave between dibasic residue sites with preferences for flanking hydrophobic residues at the P2 position consisting of Leu, Trp, Phe, and Tyr. Such hydrophobic amino acids reside in numerous proneuropeptides such as pro-NPY and proenkephalin that are known to be processed by cathepsin L. Notably, cathepsin L displayed the highest specific activity that was 10-, 64-, and 1268-fold greater than cathepsin V, PC1/3, and PC2, respectively. Peptide-AMC substrates with dibasic residues confirmed that PC1/3 and P2 cleaved almost exclusively at the C-terminal side of dibasic residues. These data demonstrate distinct dibasic cleavage site properties and a broad range of proteolytic activities of cathepsin L and cathepsin V, compared to PC1/3 and PC2, which participate in producing neuropeptides for cell-cell communication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael C. Yoon
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr. MC0657, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Janneca Ames
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr. MC0657, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Charles Mosier
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr. MC0657, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Zhenze Jiang
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr. MC0657, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Sonia Podvin
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr. MC0657, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Anthony J. O’Donoghue
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr. MC0657, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Vivian Hook
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr. MC0657, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
- Department of Neurosciences and Department of Pharmacology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
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2
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Jiang Z, Lietz CB, Podvin S, Yoon MC, Toneff T, Hook V, O’Donoghue AJ. Differential Neuropeptidomes of Dense Core Secretory Vesicles (DCSV) Produced at Intravesicular and Extracellular pH Conditions by Proteolytic Processing. ACS Chem Neurosci 2021; 12:2385-2398. [PMID: 34153188 PMCID: PMC8267839 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.1c00133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
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Neuropeptides mediate
cell–cell signaling in the nervous
and endocrine systems. The neuropeptidome is the spectrum of peptides
generated from precursors by proteolysis within dense core secretory
vesicles (DCSV). DCSV neuropeptides and contents are released to the
extracellular environment where further processing for neuropeptide
formation may occur. To assess the DCSV proteolytic capacity for production
of neuropeptidomes at intravesicular pH 5.5 and extracellular pH 7.2,
neuropeptidomics, proteomics, and protease assays were conducted using
chromaffin granules (CG) purified from adrenal medulla. CG are an
established model of DCSV. The CG neuropeptidome consisted of 1239
unique peptides derived from 15 proneuropeptides that were colocalized
with 64 proteases. Distinct CG neuropeptidomes were generated at the
internal DCSV pH of 5.5 compared to the extracellular pH of 7.2. Class-specific
protease inhibitors differentially regulated neuropeptidome production
involving aspartic, cysteine, serine, and metallo proteases. The substrate
cleavage properties of CG proteases were assessed by multiplex substrate
profiling by mass spectrometry (MSP-MS) that uses a synthetic peptide
library containing diverse cleavage sites for endopeptidases and exopeptidases.
Parallel inhibitor-sensitive cleavages for neuropeptidome production
and peptide library proteolysis led to elucidation of six CG proteases
involved in neuropeptidome production, represented by cathepsins A,
B, C, D, and L and carboxypeptidase E (CPE). The MSP-MS profiles of
these six enzymes represented the majority of CG proteolytic cleavages
utilized for neuropeptidome production. These findings provide new
insight into the DCSV proteolytic system for production of distinct
neuropeptidomes at the internal CG pH of 5.5 and at the extracellular
pH of 7.2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenze Jiang
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Christopher B. Lietz
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Sonia Podvin
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Michael C. Yoon
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Thomas Toneff
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Vivian Hook
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
- Department of Neuroscience and Department of Pharmacology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Anthony J. O’Donoghue
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
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3
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Boutté AM, Hook V, Thangavelu B, Sarkis GA, Abbatiello BN, Hook G, Jacobsen JS, Robertson CS, Gilsdorf J, Yang Z, Wang KKW, Shear DA. Penetrating Traumatic Brain Injury Triggers Dysregulation of Cathepsin B Protein Levels Independent of Cysteine Protease Activity in Brain and Cerebral Spinal Fluid. J Neurotrauma 2020; 37:1574-1586. [PMID: 31973644 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2019.6537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cathepsin B (CatB), a lysosomal cysteine protease, is important to brain function and may have dual utility as a peripheral biomarker of moderate-severe traumatic brain injury (TBI). The present study determined levels of pro- and mature (mat) CatB protein as well as cysteine protease activity within the frontal cortex (FC; proximal injury site), hippocampus (HC; distal injury site), and cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) collected 1-7 days after craniotomy and penetrating ballistic-like brain injury (PBBI) in rats. Values were compared with naïve controls. Further, the utility of CatB protein as a translational biomarker was determined in CSF derived from patients with severe TBI. Craniotomy increased matCatB levels in the FC and HC, and led to elevation of HC activity at day 7. PBBI caused an even greater elevation in matCatB within the FC and HC within 3-7 days. After PBBI, cysteine protease activity peaked at 3 days in the FC and was elevated at 1 day and 7 days, but not 3 days, in the HC. In rat CSF, proCatB, matCatB, and cysteine protease activity peaked at 3 days after craniotomy and PBBI. Addition of CA-074, a CatB-specific inhibitor, confirmed that protease activity was due to active matCatB in rat brain tissues and CSF at all time-points. In patients, CatB protein was detectable from 6 h through 10 days after TBI. Notably, CatB levels were significantly higher in CSF collected within 3 days after TBI compared with non-TBI controls. Collectively, this work indicates that CatB and its cysteine protease activity may serve as collective molecular signatures of TBI progression that differentially vary within both proximal and distal brain regions. CatB and its protease activity may have utility as a surrogate, translational biomarker of acute-subacute TBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela M Boutté
- Brain Trauma Neuroprotection Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Vivian Hook
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Neurosciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Bharani Thangavelu
- Brain Trauma Neuroprotection Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - George Anis Sarkis
- Program for Neurotrauma, Neuroproteomics and Biomarkers Research, Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA.,Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachussets, USA
| | - Brittany N Abbatiello
- Brain Trauma Neuroprotection Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Gregory Hook
- American Life Science Pharmaceuticals, Inc., La Jolla, California, USA
| | - J Steven Jacobsen
- American Life Science Pharmaceuticals, Inc., La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Claudia S Robertson
- The Center for Neurosurgical Intensive Care, Ben Taub General Hospital Baylor College of Medicine, Department of Neurosurgery, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Janice Gilsdorf
- Brain Trauma Neuroprotection Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Zhihui Yang
- Program for Neurotrauma, Neuroproteomics and Biomarkers Research, Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Kevin K W Wang
- Program for Neurotrauma, Neuroproteomics and Biomarkers Research, Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Deborah A Shear
- Brain Trauma Neuroprotection Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
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4
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Dynorphin/kappa-opioid receptor control of dopamine dynamics: Implications for negative affective states and psychiatric disorders. Brain Res 2019; 1713:91-101. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2018.09.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2018] [Revised: 09/12/2018] [Accepted: 09/19/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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5
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Dana D, Garcia J, Bhuiyan AI, Rathod P, Joo L, Novoa DA, Paroly S, Fath KR, Chang EJ, Pathak SK. Cell penetrable, clickable and tagless activity-based probe of human cathepsin L. Bioorg Chem 2019; 85:505-514. [PMID: 30802807 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2019.02.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2018] [Revised: 01/12/2019] [Accepted: 02/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Human cathepsin L is a ubiquitously expressed endopeptidase and is known to play critical roles in a wide variety of cellular signaling events. Its overexpression has been implicated in numerous human diseases, including highly invasive forms of cancer. Inhibition of cathepsin L is therefore considered a viable therapeutic strategy. Unfortunately, several redundant and even opposing roles of cathepsin L have recently emerged. Selective cathepsin L probes are therefore needed to dissect its function in context-specific manner before significant resources are directed into drug discovery efforts. Herein, the development of a clickable and tagless activity-based probe of cathepsin L is reported. The probe is highly efficient, active-site directed and activity-dependent, selective, cell penetrable, and non-toxic to human cells. Using zebrafish model, we demonstrate that the probe can inhibit cathepsin L function in vivo during the hatching process. It is anticipated that the probe will be a highly effective tool in dissecting cathepsin L biology at the proteome levels in both normal physiology and human diseases, thereby facilitating drug-discovery efforts targeting cathepsin L.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dibyendu Dana
- Queens College of the City University of New York, Chemistry and Biochemistry Department, 65-30 Kissena Blvd, Flushing, NY 11367-1597, USA; Chemistry Doctoral Program, The Graduate Center of the City University of New York, 365 5th Ave, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - Jeremy Garcia
- Queens College of the City University of New York, Department of Biology, 65-30 Kissena Blvd, Flushing, NY 11367-1597, USA
| | - Ashif I Bhuiyan
- Queens College of the City University of New York, Chemistry and Biochemistry Department, 65-30 Kissena Blvd, Flushing, NY 11367-1597, USA; Biochemistry Doctoral Program, The Graduate Center of the City University of New York, 365 5th Ave, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - Pratikkumar Rathod
- York College of the City University of New York, Department of Chemistry, 94-20 Guy R. Brewer Blvd, Jamaica, NY 11451-0001, USA; Laguardia Community College, 31-10 Thomson Ave, Long Island City, NY 11101, USA
| | - Laura Joo
- Queens College of the City University of New York, Chemistry and Biochemistry Department, 65-30 Kissena Blvd, Flushing, NY 11367-1597, USA
| | - Daniel A Novoa
- Queens College of the City University of New York, Chemistry and Biochemistry Department, 65-30 Kissena Blvd, Flushing, NY 11367-1597, USA
| | - Suneeta Paroly
- Bard High School Early College Queens, 30-20 Thomson Avenue, Long Island City, NY 11101, USA
| | - Karl R Fath
- Queens College of the City University of New York, Department of Biology, 65-30 Kissena Blvd, Flushing, NY 11367-1597, USA; Biochemistry Doctoral Program, The Graduate Center of the City University of New York, 365 5th Ave, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - Emmanuel J Chang
- York College of the City University of New York, Department of Chemistry, 94-20 Guy R. Brewer Blvd, Jamaica, NY 11451-0001, USA; Chemistry Doctoral Program, The Graduate Center of the City University of New York, 365 5th Ave, New York, NY 10016, USA; Biochemistry Doctoral Program, The Graduate Center of the City University of New York, 365 5th Ave, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - Sanjai K Pathak
- Queens College of the City University of New York, Chemistry and Biochemistry Department, 65-30 Kissena Blvd, Flushing, NY 11367-1597, USA; Chemistry Doctoral Program, The Graduate Center of the City University of New York, 365 5th Ave, New York, NY 10016, USA; Biochemistry Doctoral Program, The Graduate Center of the City University of New York, 365 5th Ave, New York, NY 10016, USA.
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6
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Salem JB, Nkambeu B, Arvanitis DN, Beaudry F. Deciphering the Role of EGL-3 for Neuropeptides Processing in Caenorhabditis elegans Using High-Resolution Quadrupole–Orbitrap Mass Spectrometry. Neurochem Res 2018; 43:2121-2131. [DOI: 10.1007/s11064-018-2636-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2018] [Revised: 09/07/2018] [Accepted: 09/10/2018] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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7
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Podvin S, Wojnicz A, Hook V. Human brain gene expression profiles of the cathepsin V and cathepsin L cysteine proteases, with the PC1/3 and PC2 serine proteases, involved in neuropeptide production. Heliyon 2018; 4:e00673. [PMID: 29998195 PMCID: PMC6037879 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2018.e00673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2018] [Revised: 06/06/2018] [Accepted: 06/26/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Proteases are required to generate active peptide neurotransmitters, known as neuropeptides, from pro-neuropeptides. Model animal systems have recently illustrated roles for the cathepsin V (CTSV) and cathepsin L (CTSL) cysteine proteases, combined with the serine proteases PC1/3 (PCSK1) and PC2 (PCSK2), and exopeptidases in the production of neuropeptides. There is notable interest in the human-specific cathepsin V gene which is not present in rodent and other animal models used in prior studies of neuropeptide production. A gap in the field is knowledge of the human brain gene expression patterns of these neuropeptide-producing protease systems. Therefore, the goal of this study was to characterize the expression profiles of these pro-neuropeptide processing proteases in human brain. Quantitative gene expression microarray data for 169 human brain regions was obtained from the Allen Institute Human Brain Atlas resource, analyzed as log2 of gene expression intensity normalized to the mean of human genes (21,245 genes) expressed in human brain. These proteases had log2 values of 2–12, indicating expression levels above the average of all genes in the human brain, with varying expression levels among the 169 brain regions. CTSV and CTSL displayed moderate to high expression values of 1.9–8.6 and 7.1–10.6, respectively. Interestingly, CTSV and CTSL showed high expression in white matter composed of myelinated axons, consistent with the knowledge that neuropeptide production occurs in axons within transported neuropeptide secretory vesicles to nerve terminals. PCSK1 had a broad range of moderate to very high expression with log2 of 2–12. PCSK2 had somewhat lower expression levels than PCSK1. The exopeptidase genes RNPEP, CTSH, and CPE each showed fairly even levels of expression throughout the brain, with CPE displaying high expression. The prevalence of these processing proteases throughout human brain regions, including areas rich in neuropeptides such as hypothalamus, is consistent with their roles for neuropeptide production. Further, proenkephalin and NPY precursors, substrates of CTSV and CTSL shown in prior model animal studies, were co-expressed with CTSV and CTSL. These data demonstrate that the human brain expresses the neuropeptide-producing cysteine and serine proteases, with exopeptidases, throughout a multitude of brain regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Podvin
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Aneta Wojnicz
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Vivian Hook
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA.,School of Medicine, Dept. of Neurosciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA.,School of Medicine, Dept. of Pharmacology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
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8
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Lee CW, Stankowski JN, Chew J, Cook CN, Lam YW, Almeida S, Carlomagno Y, Lau KF, Prudencio M, Gao FB, Bogyo M, Dickson DW, Petrucelli L. The lysosomal protein cathepsin L is a progranulin protease. Mol Neurodegener 2017; 12:55. [PMID: 28743268 PMCID: PMC5526245 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-017-0196-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2017] [Accepted: 07/18/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Haploinsufficiency of GRN, the gene encoding progranulin (PGRN), causes frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD), the second most common cause of early-onset dementia. Receptor-mediated lysosomal targeting has been shown to regulate brain PGRN levels, and complete deficiency of PGRN is a direct cause of neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis (NCL), a lysosomal storage disease. Here we show that the lysosomal cysteine protease cathepsin L (Cat L) can mediate the proteolytic cleavage of intracellular PGRN into poly-granulin and granulin fragments. Further, PGRN and Cat L co-localize in lysosomes of HEK293 cells, iPSC-derived neurons and human cortical neurons from human postmortem tissue. These data identify Cat L as a key intracellular lysosomal PGRN protease, and provides an intriguing new link between lysosomal dysfunction and FTLD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris W Lee
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, Florida, 32224, USA. .,Present Address: Atlantic Health System, Morristown, NJ, USA. .,Present Address: Biomedical Research Institute of New Jersey, Cedar Knolls, NJ, USA.
| | | | - Jeannie Chew
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, Florida, 32224, USA
| | - Casey N Cook
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, Florida, 32224, USA
| | - Ying-Wai Lam
- Vermont Genetics Network Proteomics Facility, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, USA.,Department of Biology, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, USA
| | - Sandra Almeida
- Department of Neurology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
| | - Yari Carlomagno
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, Florida, 32224, USA
| | - Kwok-Fai Lau
- School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong SAR
| | - Mercedes Prudencio
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, Florida, 32224, USA
| | - Fen-Biao Gao
- Department of Neurology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
| | - Matthew Bogyo
- Department of Chemical and Systems Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Dennis W Dickson
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, Florida, 32224, USA
| | - Leonard Petrucelli
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, Florida, 32224, USA.
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9
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Li TF, Wu HY, Wang YR, Li XY, Wang YX. Molecular signaling underlying bulleyaconitine A (BAA)-induced microglial expression of prodynorphin. Sci Rep 2017; 7:45056. [PMID: 28327597 PMCID: PMC5361206 DOI: 10.1038/srep45056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2016] [Accepted: 02/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Bulleyaconitine (BAA) has been shown to possess antinociceptive activities by stimulation of dynorphin A release from spinal microglia. This study investigated its underlying signal transduction mechanisms. The data showed that (1) BAA treatment induced phosphorylation of CREB (rather than NF-κB) and prodynorphin expression in cultured primary microglia, and antiallodynia in neuropathy, which were totally inhibited by the CREB inhibitor KG-501; (2) BAA upregulated phosphorylation of p38 (but not ERK or JNK), and the p38 inhibitor SB203580 (but not ERK or JNK inhibitor) and p38β gene silencer siRNA/p38β (but not siRNA/p38α) completely blocked BAA-induced p38 phosphorylation and/or prodynorphin expression, and antiallodynia; (3) BAA stimulated cAMP production and PKA phosphorylation, and the adenylate cyclase inhibitor DDA and PKA inhibitor H-89 entirely antagonized BAA-induced prodynorphin expression and antiallodynia; (4) The Gs-protein inhibitor NF449 completely inhibited BAA-increased cAMP level, prodynorphin expression and antiallodynia, whereas the antagonists of noradrenergic, corticotrophin-releasing factor, A1 adenosine, formyl peptide, D1/D2 dopamine, and glucagon like-peptide-1 receptors failed to block BAA-induced antiallodynia. The data indicate that BAA-induced microglial expression of prodynorphin is mediated by activation of the cAMP-PKA-p38β-CREB signaling pathway, suggesting that its possible target is a Gs-protein-coupled receptor - "aconitine receptor", although the chemical identity is not illustrated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teng-Fei Li
- King’s Lab, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Pharmacy, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Hai-Yun Wu
- King’s Lab, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Pharmacy, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Yi-Rui Wang
- King’s Lab, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Pharmacy, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Xin-Yan Li
- King’s Lab, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Pharmacy, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Yong-Xiang Wang
- King’s Lab, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Pharmacy, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200240, China
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10
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Benedet T, Gonzalez P, Oliveros JC, Dopazo JM, Ghimire K, Palczewska M, Mellstrom B, Naranjo JR. Transcriptional repressor DREAM regulates trigeminal noxious perception. J Neurochem 2017; 141:544-552. [DOI: 10.1111/jnc.13584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2015] [Revised: 02/04/2016] [Accepted: 02/10/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tomaso Benedet
- National Centre for Biotechnology; C.S.I.C.; Madrid Spain
| | - Paz Gonzalez
- National Centre for Biotechnology; C.S.I.C.; Madrid Spain
- CIBERNED; Madrid Spain
| | | | - Jose M. Dopazo
- National Centre for Biotechnology; C.S.I.C.; Madrid Spain
- CIBERNED; Madrid Spain
| | - Kedar Ghimire
- National Centre for Biotechnology; C.S.I.C.; Madrid Spain
| | | | - Britt Mellstrom
- National Centre for Biotechnology; C.S.I.C.; Madrid Spain
- CIBERNED; Madrid Spain
| | - Jose R. Naranjo
- National Centre for Biotechnology; C.S.I.C.; Madrid Spain
- CIBERNED; Madrid Spain
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11
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Li TF, Gong N, Wang YX. Ester Hydrolysis Differentially Reduces Aconitine-Induced Anti-hypersensitivity and Acute Neurotoxicity: Involvement of Spinal Microglial Dynorphin Expression and Implications for Aconitum Processing. Front Pharmacol 2016; 7:367. [PMID: 27761113 PMCID: PMC5051147 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2016.00367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2016] [Accepted: 09/26/2016] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Aconitines, including bulleyaconitine A, probably the most bioactive and abundant alkaloids in Aconitum plant, are a group of diester C19-diterpenoid alkaloids with one acetylester group attached to C8 of the diterpenoid skeleton and one benzoylester group to C14. Hydrolysis of both groups is involved in the processing of Aconitum, a traditional Chinese medicinal approach. We recently demonstrated that bulleyaconitine A produced anti-hypersensitivity, which was mediated by stimulation of spinal microglial dynorphin A expression. This study aimed to elucidate whether the acetylester and benzoylester groups are involved in aconitine-induced dynorphin A expression, anti-hypersensitivity, neurotoxicity in neuropathic rats. Intrathecal administration of aconitine and benzoylaconine (but not aconine) attenuated mechanical allodynia and heat hyperalgesia, with normalized ED50 values of 35 pmol and 3.6 nmol, respectively. Aconitine and benzoylaconine anti-allodynia was completely blocked by the microglial inhibitor, dynorphin A antiserum, and κ-opioid receptor antagonist. Aconitine and benzoylaconine, but not aconine, stimulated dynorphin A expression in cultured primary spinal microglia, with EC50 values of 32 nM and 3 μM, respectively. Intrathecal aconitine, benzoylaconine and aconine induced flaccid paralysis and death, with normalized TD50 values of 0.5 nmol, 0.2 μmol, and 1.6 μmol, respectively. The TD50/ED50 ratios of aconitine and benzolyaconine were 14:1 and 56:1. Our results suggest that both the C8-acetyl and C14-benzoyl groups are essential for aconitine to stimulate spinal microglial dynorphin A expression and subsequent anti-hypersensitivity, which can be separated from neurotoxicity, because both benzoylaconine and aconine differentially produced anti-hypersensitivity and neurotoxicity due to their different stimulatory ability on dynorphin A expression. Our results support the scientific rationale for Aconitum processing, but caution should be taken to avoid overprocessing and excess hydrolysis of benzolyaconine to aconine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teng-Fei Li
- King's Lab, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Pharmacy Shanghai, China
| | - Nian Gong
- King's Lab, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Pharmacy Shanghai, China
| | - Yong-Xiang Wang
- King's Lab, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Pharmacy Shanghai, China
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12
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Podvin S, Yaksh T, Hook V. The Emerging Role of Spinal Dynorphin in Chronic Pain: A Therapeutic Perspective. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 2016; 56:511-33. [PMID: 26738478 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-010715-103042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Notable findings point to the significance of the dynorphin peptide neurotransmitter in chronic pain. Spinal dynorphin neuropeptide levels are elevated during development of chronic pain and sustained during persistent chronic pain. Importantly, knockout of the dynorphin gene prevents development of chronic pain in mice, but acute nociception is unaffected. Intrathecal (IT) administration of opioid and nonopioid dynorphin peptides initiates allodynia through a nonopioid receptor mechanism; furthermore, antidynorphin antibodies administered by the IT route attenuate chronic pain. Thus, this review presents the compelling evidence in the field that supports the role of dynorphin in facilitating the development of a persistent pain state. These observations illustrate the importance of elucidating the control mechanisms responsible for the upregulation of spinal dynorphin in chronic pain. Also, spinal dynorphin regulation of downstream signaling molecules may be implicated in hyperpathic states. Therapeutic strategies to block the upregulation of spinal dynorphin may provide a nonaddictive approach to improve the devastating condition of chronic pain that occurs in numerous human diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Podvin
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093;
| | | | - Vivian Hook
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093; .,Department of Neurosciences, and.,Department of Pharmacology, University of California, San Diego School of Medicine, La Jolla, California 92093
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13
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Huang Q, Mao XF, Wu HY, Li TF, Sun ML, Liu H, Wang YX. Bullatine A stimulates spinal microglial dynorphin A expression to produce anti-hypersensitivity in a variety of rat pain models. J Neuroinflammation 2016; 13:214. [PMID: 27577933 PMCID: PMC5006272 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-016-0696-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2016] [Accepted: 08/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Aconiti brachypodi Radix (Xue-shang-yi-zhi-hao) has been prescribed to manage chronic pain, arthritis, and traumatic injuries. Bullatine A, a C20-diterpenoid alkaloid, is one of its principle effective compounds. This study aimed to investigate the anti-hypersensitivity of bullatine A in a variety of rat pain models and explore its mechanisms of action. Methods Rat neuropathic pain, inflammatory pain, diabetic neuropathic pain, and bone cancer pain models were used. Dynorphin A and pro-inflammatory cytokines were measured in the spinal cord and cultured primary microglia. Double immunofluorescence staining of dynorphin A and glial and neuronal cellular markers was also measured in the spinal cord. Results Subcutaneous and intrathecal injection of bullatine A dose-dependently attenuated spinal nerve ligation-, complete Freud’s adjuvant-, diabetes-, and bone cancer-induced mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia, with the efficacies of 45–70 % inhibition, and half-effective doses of 0.9–1.9 mg/kg for subcutaneous injection. However, bullatine A was not effective in blocking acute nociceptive response in the normal condition. Bullatine A specifically stimulated dynorphin A expression in microglia in the spinal cord in vivo and cultured primary microglia in vitro; the stimulatory effects were completely inhibited by the microglial inhibitor minocycline. In contrast, bullatine A did not have an inhibitory effect on peripheral nerve injury- or lipopolysaccharide-induced pro-inflammatory cytokine expression. The spinal anti-allodynic effects of bullatine A were entirely blocked by intrathecal injection of minocycline, the specific dynorphin A antiserum, and the selective k-opioid receptor antagonist. Conclusions We, for the first time, demonstrate that bullatine A specifically attenuates pain hypersensitivity, regardless of the pain models employed. The results also suggest that stimulation of spinal microglial dynorphin A expression mediates bullatine A anti-nociception in pain hypersensitivity conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Huang
- King's Lab, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Pharmacy, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai, 200240, China
| | - Xiao-Fang Mao
- King's Lab, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Pharmacy, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai, 200240, China
| | - Hai-Yun Wu
- King's Lab, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Pharmacy, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai, 200240, China
| | - Teng-Fei Li
- King's Lab, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Pharmacy, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai, 200240, China
| | - Ming-Li Sun
- King's Lab, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Pharmacy, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai, 200240, China
| | - Hao Liu
- King's Lab, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Pharmacy, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai, 200240, China
| | - Yong-Xiang Wang
- King's Lab, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Pharmacy, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai, 200240, China.
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Orduna AR, Beaudry F. Characterization of endoproteolytic processing of dynorphins by proprotein convertases using mouse spinal cord S9 fractions and mass spectrometry. Neuropeptides 2016; 57:85-94. [PMID: 26578270 DOI: 10.1016/j.npep.2015.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2015] [Revised: 10/09/2015] [Accepted: 10/11/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Dynorphins are important neuropeptides with a central role in nociception and pain alleviation. Many mechanisms regulate endogenous dynorphin concentrations, including proteolysis. Proprotein convertases (PCs) are widely expressed in the central nervous system and specifically cleave at C-terminal of either a pair of basic amino acids, or a single basic residue. The proteolysis control of endogenous big dynorphin (BDyn) and dynorphin A (Dyn A) levels has a profound impact on pain perception and the role of PCs remain unclear. The objective of this study was to decipher the role of PC1 and PC2 in the proteolysis control of BDyn and Dyn A levels using cellular fractions of spinal cords from wild-type (WT), PC1(-/+) and PC2(-/+) animals and mass spectrometry. Our results clearly demonstrate that both PC1 and PC2 are involved in the proteolysis regulation of BDyn and Dyn A with a more important role for PC1. C-terminal processing of BDyn generates specific peptide fragments dynorphin 1-19, dynorphin 1-13, dynorphin 1-11 and dynorphin 1-7, and C-terminal processing of Dyn A generates dynorphin 1-13, dynorphin 1-11 and dynorphin 1-7, all these peptide fragments are associated with PC1 or PC2 processing. Moreover, the proteolysis of BDyn leads to the formation of Dyn A and Leu-Enk, two important opioid peptides. The rate of formation of both is significantly reduced in cellular fractions of spinal cord mutant mice. As a consequence, even the partial inhibition of PC1 or PC2 may impair the endogenous opioid system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Ruiz Orduna
- Groupe de Recherche en Pharmacologie Animal du Québec (GREPAQ), Faculté de Médecine Vétérinaire, Département de Biomédecine Vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada
| | - Francis Beaudry
- Groupe de Recherche en Pharmacologie Animal du Québec (GREPAQ), Faculté de Médecine Vétérinaire, Département de Biomédecine Vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada.
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15
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Li TF, Fan H, Wang YX. Aconitum-Derived Bulleyaconitine A Exhibits Antihypersensitivity Through Direct Stimulating Dynorphin A Expression in Spinal Microglia. THE JOURNAL OF PAIN 2016; 17:530-48. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpain.2015.12.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2015] [Revised: 12/10/2015] [Accepted: 12/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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16
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Cynis H, Funkelstein L, Toneff T, Mosier C, Ziegler M, Koch B, Demuth HU, Hook V. Pyroglutamate-amyloid-β and glutaminyl cyclase are colocalized with amyloid-β in secretory vesicles and undergo activity-dependent, regulated secretion. NEURODEGENER DIS 2014; 14:85-97. [PMID: 24943989 DOI: 10.1159/000358430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2013] [Accepted: 01/07/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS N-truncated pyroglutamate (pGlu)-amyloid-β [Aβ(3-40/42)] peptides are key components that promote Aβ peptide accumulation, leading to neurodegeneration and memory loss in Alzheimer's disease. Because Aβ deposition in the brain occurs in an activity-dependent manner, it is important to define the subcellular organelle for pGlu-Aβ(3-40/42) production by glutaminyl cyclase (QC) and their colocalization with full-length Aβ(1-40/42) peptides for activity-dependent, regulated secretion. Therefore, the objective of this study was to investigate the hypothesis that pGlu-Aβ and QC are colocalized with Aβ in dense-core secretory vesicles (DCSV) for activity-dependent secretion with neurotransmitters. METHODS Purified DCSV were assessed for pGlu-Aβ(3-40/42), Aβ(1-40/42), QC, and neurotransmitter secretion. Neuron-like chromaffin cells were analyzed for cosecretion of pGlu-Aβ, QC, Aβ, and neuropeptides. The cells were treated with a QC inhibitor, and pGlu-Aβ production was measured. Human neuroblastoma cells were also examined for pGlu-Aβ and QC secretion. RESULTS Isolated DCSV contain pGlu-Aβ(3-40/42), QC, and Aβ(1-40/42) with neuropeptide and catecholamine neurotransmitters. Cellular pGlu-Aβ and QC undergo activity-dependent cosecretion with Aβ and enkephalin and galanin neurotransmitters. The QC inhibitor decreased the level of secreted pGlu-Aβ. The human neuroblastoma cells displayed regulated secretion of pGlu-Aβ that was colocalized with QC. CONCLUSIONS pGlu-Aβ and QC are present with Aβ in DCSV and undergo activity-dependent, regulated cosecretion with neurotransmitters.
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17
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Bannister K, Lee YS, Goncalves L, Porreca F, Lai J, Dickenson AH. Neuropathic plasticity in the opioid and non-opioid actions of dynorphin A fragments and their interactions with bradykinin B2 receptors on neuronal activity in the rat spinal cord. Neuropharmacology 2014; 85:375-83. [PMID: 24937046 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2014.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2014] [Revised: 05/30/2014] [Accepted: 06/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Dynorphin A is an endogenous opioid peptide derived from the precursor prodynorphin. The proteolytic fragment dynorphin A (1-17) exhibits inhibitory effects via opioid receptors. Paradoxically, the activity of the dynorphin system increases with chronic pain and neuropathy is associated with the up-regulation of dynorphin biosynthesis. Dynorphin A (1-17) is cleaved in vivo to produce a non-opioid fragment, dynorphin A (2-17). Previously, a mechanism by which the non-opioid fragment promotes pain through agonist action at bradykinin receptors was revealed. Bradykinin receptor expression is up-regulated after nerve injury and both a truncated version of non-opioid fragment dynorphin A (2-17), referred to as 'Ligand 10', and novel bradykinin receptor antagonist 'Ligand 14', are known to bind to the bradykinin receptor. Here we show that Ligand 10 facilitates the response of wide dynamic range (WDR) neurons to innocuous and noxious mechanical stimuli in neuropathic, but not naïve, animals, while Ligand 14 exhibits inhibitory effects in neuropathic animals only. Furthermore, we reveal an inhibitory effect of Ligand 14 in naïve animals by pre-dosing with either Ligand 10 or a 5-HT3 receptor agonist to reflect activation of descending excitatory drives. Thus remarkably, by mimicking pro-excitatory pharmacological changes that occur after nerve injury in a naïve animal, we induce a state whereby the inhibitory actions of Ligand 14 are now effective. Ultimately our data support an increasing number of studies that suggest that blocking spinal bradykinin receptors may have a therapeutic potential in chronic pain states, here, in particular, in neuropathic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsty Bannister
- Department of Neuroscience, Pharmacology and Physiology, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK.
| | - Yeon Sun Lee
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Arizona Health Sciences Center, 1501 N. Campbell Avenue, Tucson, AZ 85724, USA
| | - Leonor Goncalves
- Department of Neuroscience, Pharmacology and Physiology, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Frank Porreca
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Arizona Health Sciences Center, 1501 N. Campbell Avenue, Tucson, AZ 85724, USA
| | - Josephine Lai
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Arizona Health Sciences Center, 1501 N. Campbell Avenue, Tucson, AZ 85724, USA
| | - Anthony H Dickenson
- Department of Neuroscience, Pharmacology and Physiology, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK
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18
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Miller B, Friedman AJ, Choi H, Hogan J, McCammon JA, Hook V, Gerwick WH. The marine cyanobacterial metabolite gallinamide A is a potent and selective inhibitor of human cathepsin L. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2014; 77:92-9. [PMID: 24364476 PMCID: PMC3932306 DOI: 10.1021/np400727r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
A number of marine natural products are potent inhibitors of proteases, an important drug target class in human diseases. Hence, marine cyanobacterial extracts were assessed for inhibitory activity to human cathepsin L. Herein, we have shown that gallinamide A potently and selectively inhibits the human cysteine protease cathepsin L. With 30 min of preincubation, gallinamide A displayed an IC50 of 5.0 nM, and kinetic analysis demonstrated an inhibition constant of ki = 9000 ± 260 M(-1) s(-1). Preincubation-dilution and activity-probe experiments revealed an irreversible mode of inhibition, and comparative IC50 values display a 28- to 320-fold greater selectivity toward cathepsin L than closely related human cysteine cathepsin V or B. Molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations were used to determine the pose of gallinamide in the active site of cathepsin L. These data resulted in the identification of a pose characterized by high stability, a consistent hydrogen bond network, and the reactive Michael acceptor enamide of gallinamide A positioned near the active site cysteine of the protease, leading to a proposed mechanism of covalent inhibition. These data reveal and characterize the novel activity of gallinamide A as a potent inhibitor of human cathepsin L.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bailey Miller
- Center for Marine Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Aaron J Friedman
- Biomedical Sciences Graduate Program, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 920393
| | - Hyukjae Choi
- Center for Marine Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - James Hogan
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - J. Andrew McCammon
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
- Department of Pharmacology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA
| | - Vivian Hook
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - William H. Gerwick
- Center for Marine Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
- To whom correspondence should be addressed. Tel: (858) 534-0578. Fax: (858) 534-0529.
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Wahlert A, Funkelstein L, Fitzsimmons B, Yaksh T, Hook V. Spinal astrocytes produce and secrete dynorphin neuropeptides. Neuropeptides 2013; 47:109-15. [PMID: 23290538 PMCID: PMC3606903 DOI: 10.1016/j.npep.2012.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2012] [Revised: 08/13/2012] [Accepted: 10/02/2012] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Dynorphin peptide neurotransmitters (neuropeptides) have been implicated in spinal pain processing based on the observations that intrathecal delivery of dynorphin results in proalgesic effects and disruption of extracellular dynorphin activity (by antisera) prevents injury evoked hyperalgesia. However, the cellular source of secreted spinal dynorphin has been unknown. For this reason, this study investigated the expression and secretion of dynorphin-related neuropeptides from spinal astrocytes (rat) in primary culture. Dynorphin A (1-17), dynorphin B, and α-neoendorphin were found to be present in the astrocytes, illustrated by immunofluorescence confocal microscopy, in a discrete punctate pattern of cellular localization. Measurement of astrocyte cellular levels of these dynorphins by radioimmunoassays confirmed the expression of these three dynorphin-related neuropeptides. Notably, BzATP (3'-O-(4-benzoyl)benzoyl adenosine 5'-triphosphate) and KLA (di[3-deoxy-D-manno-octulosonyl]-lipid A) activation of purinergic and toll-like receptors, respectively, resulted in stimulated secretion of dynorphins A and B. However, α-neoendorphin secretion was not affected by BzATP or KLA. These findings suggest that dynorphins A and B undergo regulated secretion from spinal astrocytes. These findings also suggest that spinal astrocytes may provide secreted dynorphins that participate in spinal pain processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Wahlert
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA
| | - Lydiane Funkelstein
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA
| | | | - Tony Yaksh
- Dept. of Anesthesiology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA
| | - Vivian Hook
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA
- Depts. of Neurosciences, Pharmacology, and Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA
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20
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Lu WD, Funkelstein L, Toneff T, Reinheckel T, Peters C, Hook V. Cathepsin H functions as an aminopeptidase in secretory vesicles for production of enkephalin and galanin peptide neurotransmitters. J Neurochem 2012; 122:512-22. [PMID: 22582844 PMCID: PMC3417130 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2012.07788.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Peptide neurotransmitters function as key intercellular signaling molecules in the nervous system. These peptides are generated in secretory vesicles from proneuropeptides by proteolytic processing at dibasic residues, followed by removal of N- and/or C-terminal basic residues to form active peptides. Enkephalin biosynthesis from proenkephalin utilizes the cysteine protease cathepsin L and the subtilisin-like prohormone convertase 2 (PC2). Cathepsin L generates peptide intermediates with N-terminal basic residue extensions, which must be removed by an aminopeptidase. In this study, we identified cathepsin H as an aminopeptidase in secretory vesicles that produces (Met)enkephalin (ME) by sequential removal of basic residues from KR-ME and KK-ME, supported by in vivo knockout of the cathepsin H gene. Localization of cathepsin H in secretory vesicles was demonstrated by immunoelectron microscopy and immunofluorescence deconvolution microscopy. Purified human cathepsin H sequentially removes N-terminal basic residues to generate ME, with peptide products characterized by nano-LC-MS/MS tandem mass spectrometry. Cathepsin H shows highest activities for cleaving N-terminal basic residues (Arg and Lys) among amino acid fluorogenic substrates. Notably, knockout of the cathepsin H gene results in reduction of ME in mouse brain. Cathepsin H deficient mice also show a substantial decrease in galanin peptide neurotransmitter levels in brain. These results illustrate a role for cathepsin H as an aminopeptidase for enkephalin and galanin peptide neurotransmitter production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiya Douglas Lu
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA
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22
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Funkelstein L, Lu WD, Koch B, Mosier C, Toneff T, Taupenot L, O'Connor DT, Reinheckel T, Peters C, Hook V. Human cathepsin V protease participates in production of enkephalin and NPY neuropeptide neurotransmitters. J Biol Chem 2012; 287:15232-41. [PMID: 22393040 PMCID: PMC3346103 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m111.310607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2011] [Revised: 02/23/2012] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Proteases are required for processing precursors into active neuropeptides that function as neurotransmitters for cell-cell communication. This study demonstrates the novel function of human cathepsin V protease for producing the neuropeptides enkephalin and neuropeptide Y (NPY). Cathepsin V is a human-specific cysteine protease gene. Findings here show that expression of cathepsin V in neuroendocrine PC12 cells and human neuronal SK-N-MC cells results in production of (Met)enkephalin from proenkephalin. Gene silencing of cathepsin V by siRNA in human SK-N-MC cells results in reduction of (Met)enkephalin by more than 80%, illustrating the prominent role of cathepsin V for neuropeptide production. In vitro processing of proenkephalin by cathepsin V occurs at dibasic residue sites to generate enkephalin-containing peptides and an ∼24-kDa intermediate present in human brain. Cathepsin V is present in human brain cortex and hippocampus where enkephalin and NPY are produced and is present in purified human neuropeptide secretory vesicles. Colocalization of cathepsin V with enkephalin and NPY in secretory vesicles of human neuroblastoma cells was illustrated by confocal microscopy. Furthermore, expression of cathepsin V with proNPY results in NPY production. These findings indicate the unique function of human cathepsin V for producing enkephalin and NPY neuropeptides required for neurotransmission in health and neurological diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lydiane Funkelstein
- From the Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, California 92093
| | - W. Douglas Lu
- From the Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, California 92093
| | - Britta Koch
- the Institut für Molekulare Medizin und Zellforschung, Albert-Ludwigs Universitat, Freiburg, Germany D-79104 Freiburg
| | - Charles Mosier
- From the Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, California 92093
| | - Thomas Toneff
- From the Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, California 92093
| | - Laurent Taupenot
- the Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, California 92093
| | - Daniel T. O'Connor
- the Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, California 92093
| | - Thomas Reinheckel
- the Institut für Molekulare Medizin und Zellforschung, Albert-Ludwigs Universitat, Freiburg, Germany D-79104 Freiburg
- BIOSS Centre for Biological Signaling Studies, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany, and
| | - Christoph Peters
- the Institut für Molekulare Medizin und Zellforschung, Albert-Ludwigs Universitat, Freiburg, Germany D-79104 Freiburg
- BIOSS Centre for Biological Signaling Studies, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany, and
| | - Vivian Hook
- From the Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, California 92093
- the Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, California 92093
- the Departments of of Neurosciences, Pharmacology, and Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093
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Tejeda HA, Shippenberg TS, Henriksson R. The dynorphin/κ-opioid receptor system and its role in psychiatric disorders. Cell Mol Life Sci 2012; 69:857-96. [PMID: 22002579 PMCID: PMC11114766 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-011-0844-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2011] [Revised: 09/16/2011] [Accepted: 09/19/2011] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
The dynorphin/κ-opioid receptor system has been implicated in the pathogenesis and pathophysiology of several psychiatric disorders. In the present review, we present evidence indicating a key role for this system in modulating neurotransmission in brain circuits that subserve mood, motivation, and cognitive function. We overview the pharmacology, signaling, post-translational, post-transcriptional, transcriptional, epigenetic and cis regulation of the dynorphin/κ-opioid receptor system, and critically review functional neuroanatomical, neurochemical, and pharmacological evidence, suggesting that alterations in this system may contribute to affective disorders, drug addiction, and schizophrenia. We also overview the dynorphin/κ-opioid receptor system in the genetics of psychiatric disorders and discuss implications of the reviewed material for therapeutics development.
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Affiliation(s)
- H. A. Tejeda
- Integrative Neuroscience Section, Integrative Neuroscience Research Branch, NIDA-IRP, NIH, 333 Cassell Dr., Baltimore, MD 21224 USA
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Maryland, Baltimore, 20 Penn St., Baltimore, MD 21201 USA
| | - T. S. Shippenberg
- Integrative Neuroscience Section, Integrative Neuroscience Research Branch, NIDA-IRP, NIH, 333 Cassell Dr., Baltimore, MD 21224 USA
| | - R. Henriksson
- Integrative Neuroscience Section, Integrative Neuroscience Research Branch, NIDA-IRP, NIH, 333 Cassell Dr., Baltimore, MD 21224 USA
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, CMM, L8:04, 17176 Stockholm, Sweden
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24
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Abstract
This paper is the thirty-third consecutive installment of the annual review of research concerning the endogenous opioid system. It summarizes papers published during 2010 that studied the behavioral effects of molecular, pharmacological and genetic manipulation of opioid peptides, opioid receptors, opioid agonists and opioid antagonists. The particular topics that continue to be covered include the molecular-biochemical effects and neurochemical localization studies of endogenous opioids and their receptors related to behavior (Section 2), and the roles of these opioid peptides and receptors in pain and analgesia (Section 3); stress and social status (Section 4); tolerance and dependence (Section 5); learning and memory (Section 6); eating and drinking (Section 7); alcohol and drugs of abuse (Section 8); sexual activity and hormones, pregnancy, development and endocrinology (Section 9); mental illness and mood (Section 10); seizures and neurologic disorders (Section 11); electrical-related activity and neurophysiology (Section 12); general activity and locomotion (Section 13); gastrointestinal, renal and hepatic functions (Section 14); cardiovascular responses (Section 15); respiration (Section 16); and immunological responses (Section 17).
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard J Bodnar
- Department of Psychology and Neuropsychology Doctoral Sub-Program, Queens College, City University of New York, Flushing, NY 11367, USA.
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25
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Kong WJ, Wang JB, Zang QC, Jin C, Wang ZW, Xing XY, Wu YY, Zhao YL, Yang MH, Xiao XH. A novel “target constituent knock-out” strategy coupled with TLC, UPLC–ELSD and microcalorimetry for preliminary screening of antibacterial constituents in Calculus bovis. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2011; 879:3565-73. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2011.09.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2011] [Revised: 09/24/2011] [Accepted: 09/25/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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26
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Hook V, Funkelstein L, Wegrzyn J, Bark S, Kindy M, Hook G. Cysteine Cathepsins in the secretory vesicle produce active peptides: Cathepsin L generates peptide neurotransmitters and cathepsin B produces beta-amyloid of Alzheimer's disease. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2011; 1824:89-104. [PMID: 21925292 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2011.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2011] [Revised: 08/26/2011] [Accepted: 08/29/2011] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Recent new findings indicate significant biological roles of cysteine cathepsin proteases in secretory vesicles for production of biologically active peptides. Notably, cathepsin L in secretory vesicles functions as a key protease for proteolytic processing of proneuropeptides (and prohormones) into active neuropeptides that are released to mediate cell-cell communication in the nervous system for neurotransmission. Moreover, cathepsin B in secretory vesicles has been recently identified as a β-secretase for production of neurotoxic β- amyloid (Aβ) peptides that accumulate in Alzheimer's disease (AD), participating as a notable factor in the severe memory loss in AD. These secretory vesicle functions of cathepsins L and B for production of biologically active peptides contrast with the well-known role of cathepsin proteases in lysosomes for the degradation of proteins to result in their inactivation. The unique secretory vesicle proteome indicates proteins of distinct functional categories that provide the intravesicular environment for support of cysteine cathepsin functions. Features of the secretory vesicle protein systems insure optimized intravesicular conditions that support the proteolytic activity of cathepsins. These new findings of recently discovered biological roles of cathepsins L and B indicate their significance in human health and disease. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Proteolysis 50 years after the discovery of lysosome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vivian Hook
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dept. of Neurosciences, Univ. of Calif., San Diego, USA.
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27
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Funkelstein L, Hook V. The novel role of cathepsin L for neuropeptide production illustrated by research strategies in chemical biology with protease gene knockout and expression. Methods Mol Biol 2011; 768:107-125. [PMID: 21805239 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-61779-204-5_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Neuropeptides are essential for cell-cell communication in the nervous and endocrine systems. Production of active neuropeptides requires proteolytic processing of proneuropeptide precursors in secretory vesicles that produce, store, and release neuropeptides that regulate physiological functions. This review describes research strategies utilizing chemical biology combined with protease gene knockout and expression to demonstrate the key role of cathepsin L for production of neuropeptides in secretory vesicles. Cathepsin L was discovered using activity-based probes and mass spectrometry to identify proenkephalin cleaving activity as cathepsin L. Significantly, in vivo protease gene knockout and expression approaches illustrate the key role of cathepsin L for neuropeptide production. Notably, cathepsin L is colocalized with neuropeptide secretory vesicles, the major site of proteolytic processing of proneuropeptides to generate active neuropeptides. Cathepsin L participates in producing opioid neuropeptides consisting of enkephalin, β-endorphin, and dynorphin, as well as in generating the POMC-derived peptide hormones ACTH and α-MSH. In addition, NPY, CCK, and catestatin neuropeptides utilize cathepsin L for their biosynthesis. The role of cathepsin L for neuropeptide production indicates its unique biological role in secretory vesicles, which contrasts with its role in lysosomes for protein degradation. Interesting evaluations of protease gene knockout studies in mice that lack cathepsin L compared to the PC1/3 and PC2 (PC, prohormone convertase) indicate the significant role of cathepsin L in neuropeptide production. Thus, dual cathepsin L and prohormone convertase protease pathways participate in neuropeptide production. These recent new findings indicate cathepsin L as a novel 'proprotein convertase' for production of neuropeptides that mediate cell-cell communication in health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lydiane Funkelstein
- Department of Neuroscience, Pharmacology, and Medicine, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, CA 93093, USA.
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28
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Funkelstein L, Beinfeld M, Minokadeh A, Zadina J, Hook V. Unique biological function of cathepsin L in secretory vesicles for biosynthesis of neuropeptides. Neuropeptides 2010; 44:457-66. [PMID: 21047684 PMCID: PMC3058267 DOI: 10.1016/j.npep.2010.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2010] [Revised: 08/05/2010] [Accepted: 08/30/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Neuropeptides are essential for cell-cell communication in the nervous and neuroendocrine systems. Production of active neuropeptides requires proteolytic processing of proneuropeptide precursors in secretory vesicles that produce, store, and release neuropeptides that regulate physiological functions. This review describes recent findings indicating the prominent role of cathepsin L in secretory vesicles for production of neuropeptides from their protein precursors. The role of cathepsin L in neuropeptide production was discovered using the strategy of activity-based probes for proenkephalin-cleaving activity for identification of the enzyme protein by mass spectrometry. The novel role of cathepsin L in secretory vesicles for neuropeptide production has been demonstrated in vivo by cathepsin L gene knockout studies, cathepsin L gene expression in neuroendocrine cells, and notably, cathepsin L localization in neuropeptide-containing secretory vesicles. Cathepsin L is involved in producing opioid neuropeptides consisting of enkephalin, β-endorphin, and dynorphin, as well as in generating the POMC-derived peptide hormones ACTH and α-MSH. In addition, NPY, CCK, and catestatin neuropeptides utilize cathepsin L for their biosynthesis. The neuropeptide-synthesizing functions of cathepsin L represent its unique activity in secretory vesicles, which contrasts with its role in lysosomes. Interesting evaluations of protease gene knockout studies in mice that lack cathepsin L compared to those lacking PC1/3 and PC2 (PC, prohormone convertase) indicate the key role of cathepsin L in neuropeptide production. Therefore, dual cathepsin L and prohormone convertase protease pathways participate in neuropeptide production. Significantly, the recent new findings indicate cathepsin L as a novel 'proprotein convertase' for production of neuropeptides that mediate cell-cell communication in health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lydiane Funkelstein
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
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29
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Hook V, Bark S, Gupta N, Lortie M, Lu WD, Bandeira N, Funkelstein L, Wegrzyn J, O'Connor DT, Pevzner P. Neuropeptidomic components generated by proteomic functions in secretory vesicles for cell-cell communication. AAPS JOURNAL 2010; 12:635-45. [PMID: 20734175 PMCID: PMC2976990 DOI: 10.1208/s12248-010-9223-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2010] [Accepted: 07/12/2010] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Diverse neuropeptides participate in cell-cell communication to coordinate neuronal and endocrine regulation of physiological processes in health and disease. Neuropeptides are short peptides ranging in length from ~3 to 40 amino acid residues that are involved in biological functions of pain, stress, obesity, hypertension, mental disorders, cancer, and numerous health conditions. The unique neuropeptide sequences define their specific biological actions. Significantly, this review article discusses how the neuropeptide field is at the crest of expanding knowledge gained from mass-spectrometry-based neuropeptidomic studies, combined with proteomic analyses for understanding the biosynthesis of neuropeptidomes. The ongoing expansion in neuropeptide diversity lies in the unbiased and global mass-spectrometry-based approaches for identification and quantitation of peptides. Current mass spectrometry technology allows definition of neuropeptide amino acid sequence structures, profiling of multiple neuropeptides in normal and disease conditions, and quantitative peptide measures in biomarker applications to monitor therapeutic drug efficacies. Complementary proteomic studies of neuropeptide secretory vesicles provide valuable insight into the protein processes utilized for neuropeptide production, storage, and secretion. Furthermore, ongoing research in developing new computational tools will facilitate advancements in mass-spectrometry-based identification of small peptides. Knowledge of the entire repertoire of neuropeptides that regulate physiological systems will provide novel insight into regulatory mechanisms in health, disease, and therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vivian Hook
- University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, 92093-0744, USA.
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30
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Lone AM, Nolte WM, Tinoco AD, Saghatelian A. Peptidomics of the prolyl peptidases. AAPS JOURNAL 2010; 12:483-91. [PMID: 20552307 DOI: 10.1208/s12248-010-9208-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2010] [Accepted: 05/20/2010] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The prolyl peptidases are a family of enzymes characterized by a biochemical preference for cleaving proline-containing peptides. The members of this enzyme family include prolyl endopeptidase, prolyl endopeptidase-like, dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP4), DPP7, DPP8, DPP9, and fibroblast activation protein. DPP4 is the best studied member of the family, due to its role in physiological glucose tolerance, exerted through the regulation of the insulinotropic peptide glucagon-like peptide-1. While other members of the prolyl peptidase family have also been implicated in various (patho)physiological processes, the underlying peptides and pathways regulated by these enzymes are less clear. The identification of endogenous substrates of the prolyl peptidases is an important step in elucidating the molecular mechanisms of these enzymes. Here, we highlight the utility of liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry-based peptidomics to enable the discovery of endogenous prolyl peptidase substrates directly from tissues, and demonstrate the utility of this information in understanding the biochemical and physiological functions of the prolyl peptidases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Mari Lone
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA
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31
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Wardman JH, Zhang X, Gagnon S, Castro LM, Zhu X, Steiner DF, Day R, Fricker LD. Analysis of peptides in prohormone convertase 1/3 null mouse brain using quantitative peptidomics. J Neurochem 2010; 114:215-25. [PMID: 20412386 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2010.06760.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Neuropeptides are produced from larger precursors by limited proteolysis, first by endopeptidases and then by carboxypeptidases. Major endopeptidases required for these cleavages include prohormone convertase (PC) 1/3 and PC2. In this study, quantitative peptidomics analysis was used to characterize the specific role PC1/3 plays in this process. Peptides isolated from hypothalamus, amygdala, and striatum of PC1/3 null mice were compared with those from heterozygous and wild-type mice. Extracts were labeled with stable isotopic tags and fractionated by HPLC, after which relative peptide levels were determined using tandem mass spectrometry. In total, 92 peptides were found, of which 35 were known neuropeptides or related peptides derived from 15 distinct secretory pathway proteins: 7B2, chromogranin A and B, cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript, procholecystokinin, proenkephalin, promelanin concentrating hormone, proneurotensin, propituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide, proSAAS, prosomatosatin, provasoactive intestinal peptide, provasopressin, secretogranin III, and VGF. Among the peptides derived from these proteins, approximately 1/3 were decreased in the PC1/3 null mice relative to wild-type mice, approximately 1/3 showed no change, and approximately 1/3 increased in PC1/3 null. Cleavage sites were analyzed in peptides that showed no change or that decreased in PC1/3 mice, and these results were compared with peptides that showed no change or decreased in previous peptidomic studies with PC2 null mice. Analysis of these sites showed that while PC1/3 and PC2 have overlapping substrate preferences, there are particular cleavage site residues that distinguish peptides preferred by each PC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan H Wardman
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York 10461, USA
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