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Villanueva-Pérez D, Tataje-Lavanda L, Montalván-Avalos A, Paredes-Inofuente D, Montoya-Ortiz S, Isasi-Rivas G, Fernández MF, Fernández-Sánchez M, Fernández-Díaz M. Detection and Molecular Characterization of GI-1 and GI-23 Avian Infectious Bronchitis Virus in Broilers Indicate the Emergence of New Genotypes in Bolivia. Viruses 2024; 16:1463. [PMID: 39339939 PMCID: PMC11437422 DOI: 10.3390/v16091463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2024] [Revised: 09/13/2024] [Accepted: 09/13/2024] [Indexed: 09/30/2024] Open
Abstract
Infectious Bronchitis Virus (IBV) is a major threat to the poultry industry worldwide, causing significant economic losses. While the virus's genetic structure is well understood, the specific strains circulating in Bolivia have remained uncharacterized until now. This study aimed to identify and characterize new IBV strains in Bolivia. Tissue samples from broilers exhibiting clinical signs of Infectious Bronchitis were screened to detect IBV using real-time RT-PCR (RT-qPCR). Positive samples with low cycle threshold (Ct) values were selected for sequencing the full S1 gene. Of the 12 samples analyzed, 10 were determined to be positive for IBV. However, only four samples yielded sufficient genetic material for sequencing and subsequent phylogenetic analysis. The results revealed the presence of GI-1 and GI-23 lineages, both belonging to genotype I (GI). The GI-1 lineage showed >99% sequence identity to the H120 and Massachusetts vaccine strains, suggesting a close relationship. In contrast, the GI-23 lineage clustered with other IBV strains, showing a distinct subclade that is genetically distant from Brazilian strains. No evidence of recombination was found. Furthermore, amino acid substitution analysis identified specific mutations in the S1 subunit, particularly in the hypervariable regions 1, 2, and 3. These mutations could potentially alter the virus's antigenicity, leading to reduced vaccine efficacy. The findings of this study highlight the importance of continued and broad genomic surveillance of circulating IBV strains and the need to improve vaccination strategies in Bolivia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Doris Villanueva-Pérez
- Research and Development Laboratories, FARVET, Carretera Panamericana Sur N° 766 Km 198.5, Chincha Alta 11702, Peru; (L.T.-L.); (A.M.-A.); (D.P.-I.); (S.M.-O.); (G.I.-R.); (M.F.F.); (M.F.-S.)
| | - Luis Tataje-Lavanda
- Research and Development Laboratories, FARVET, Carretera Panamericana Sur N° 766 Km 198.5, Chincha Alta 11702, Peru; (L.T.-L.); (A.M.-A.); (D.P.-I.); (S.M.-O.); (G.I.-R.); (M.F.F.); (M.F.-S.)
- Escuela Profesional de Medicina Humana, Universidad Privada San Juan Bautista, Lima 15067, Peru
| | - Angela Montalván-Avalos
- Research and Development Laboratories, FARVET, Carretera Panamericana Sur N° 766 Km 198.5, Chincha Alta 11702, Peru; (L.T.-L.); (A.M.-A.); (D.P.-I.); (S.M.-O.); (G.I.-R.); (M.F.F.); (M.F.-S.)
| | - Diego Paredes-Inofuente
- Research and Development Laboratories, FARVET, Carretera Panamericana Sur N° 766 Km 198.5, Chincha Alta 11702, Peru; (L.T.-L.); (A.M.-A.); (D.P.-I.); (S.M.-O.); (G.I.-R.); (M.F.F.); (M.F.-S.)
| | - Suly Montoya-Ortiz
- Research and Development Laboratories, FARVET, Carretera Panamericana Sur N° 766 Km 198.5, Chincha Alta 11702, Peru; (L.T.-L.); (A.M.-A.); (D.P.-I.); (S.M.-O.); (G.I.-R.); (M.F.F.); (M.F.-S.)
| | - Gisela Isasi-Rivas
- Research and Development Laboratories, FARVET, Carretera Panamericana Sur N° 766 Km 198.5, Chincha Alta 11702, Peru; (L.T.-L.); (A.M.-A.); (D.P.-I.); (S.M.-O.); (G.I.-R.); (M.F.F.); (M.F.-S.)
| | - María F. Fernández
- Research and Development Laboratories, FARVET, Carretera Panamericana Sur N° 766 Km 198.5, Chincha Alta 11702, Peru; (L.T.-L.); (A.M.-A.); (D.P.-I.); (S.M.-O.); (G.I.-R.); (M.F.F.); (M.F.-S.)
| | - Manolo Fernández-Sánchez
- Research and Development Laboratories, FARVET, Carretera Panamericana Sur N° 766 Km 198.5, Chincha Alta 11702, Peru; (L.T.-L.); (A.M.-A.); (D.P.-I.); (S.M.-O.); (G.I.-R.); (M.F.F.); (M.F.-S.)
| | - Manolo Fernández-Díaz
- Research and Development Laboratories, FARVET, Carretera Panamericana Sur N° 766 Km 198.5, Chincha Alta 11702, Peru; (L.T.-L.); (A.M.-A.); (D.P.-I.); (S.M.-O.); (G.I.-R.); (M.F.F.); (M.F.-S.)
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Jaton J, Gómez E, Lucero MS, Gravisaco MJ, Pinto S, Vagnozzi A, Craig MI, Di Giacomo S, Berinstein A, Chimeno Zoth S. Study of coinfection with local strains of infectious bursal disease virus and infectious bronchitis virus in specific pathogen-free chickens. Poult Sci 2023; 102:103129. [PMID: 37879167 PMCID: PMC10618767 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2023.103129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2023] [Revised: 09/14/2023] [Accepted: 09/15/2023] [Indexed: 10/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Immunosuppressive diseases cause great losses in the poultry industry, increasing the susceptibility to infections by other pathogens and promoting a suboptimal response to vaccination. Among them, infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) arises as one of the most important around the world. IBDV infects immature B lymphocytes, affecting the immune status of birds and facilitating infections by other pathogens such as avian infectious bronchitis virus (IBV). Although it has been reported that the interaction between these viruses increases IBV clinical signs, there are no actual studies about the interaction between regional circulating isolates that validate this statement. In this context, the objective of our work was to evaluate the effect of the interaction between local isolates of IBDV (belonging to genogroup 4) and IBV (lineage GI-16) in chickens. Thus, specific pathogen-free chickens were orally inoculated with IBDV genogroup (G) 4 or with PBS at 5 d of age. At 14-days postinoculation (dpi) the animals were intratracheally inoculated with a GI-16 IBV or with PBS. At multiple time points, groups of birds were euthanized and different parameters such as histological damage, viral load, lymphocyte populations and specific antibodies were evaluated. The success of IBDV infection was confirmed by the severity of bursal atrophy, viral detection, and presence of anti-IBDV antibodies. In IBV-infected animals, the presence of viral genome was detected in both kidney and bursa. The coinfected animals showed higher degree of lymphocyte infiltration in kidney, higher rate of animals with IBV viral genome in bursa at 28 dpi, and a clear decrease in antibody response against IBV at 28, 35, and 40 dpi. The results indicate that the infection with the local isolate of IBDV affects the immune status of the chickens, causing major severe damage, in response to IBV infection, which could consequently severely affect the local poultry industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Jaton
- Laboratory of Avian Immunology and Vaccines, Institute of Agrobiotechnology and Molecular Biology, INTA-CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Evangelina Gómez
- Laboratory of Avian Immunology and Vaccines, Institute of Agrobiotechnology and Molecular Biology, INTA-CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - María Soledad Lucero
- Laboratory of Avian Immunology and Vaccines, Institute of Agrobiotechnology and Molecular Biology, INTA-CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - María José Gravisaco
- Laboratory of Avian Immunology and Vaccines, Institute of Agrobiotechnology and Molecular Biology, INTA-CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Silvina Pinto
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, University of Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Ariel Vagnozzi
- Poultry Laboratory, Institute of Virology and Technological Innovations, INTA-CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - María Isabel Craig
- Poultry Laboratory, Institute of Virology and Technological Innovations, INTA-CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Sebastián Di Giacomo
- Poultry Laboratory, Institute of Virology and Technological Innovations, INTA-CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Analía Berinstein
- Laboratory of Avian Immunology and Vaccines, Institute of Agrobiotechnology and Molecular Biology, INTA-CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Silvina Chimeno Zoth
- Laboratory of Avian Immunology and Vaccines, Institute of Agrobiotechnology and Molecular Biology, INTA-CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
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Icochea E, González R, Castro-Sanguinetti G, Maturrano L, Alzamora L, Sesti L, Chacón J, More-Bayona J. Genetic Analysis of Infectious Bronchitis Virus S1 Gene Reveals Novel Amino Acid Changes in the GI-16 Lineage in Peru. Microorganisms 2023; 11:microorganisms11030691. [PMID: 36985264 PMCID: PMC10051523 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11030691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2022] [Revised: 02/03/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Infectious bronchitis is a highly contagious viral disease that represents an economic threat for poultry despite the wide use of vaccination. To characterize the virus circulating in Peru, we analyzed 200 samples, including nasopharyngeal swabs and multiple tissues collected from animals suspected of being infected with infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) between January and August in 2015. All animals had at least one positive sample for IBV by RT-PCR. Out of these positive samples, eighteen (18) were selected for viral isolation and a partial S1 sequencing. Phylogenetic analysis showed that sixteen isolates clustered with members of GI-16 lineage, also known as Q1, with nucleotide homology ranging from 93% to 98%. The two remaining isolates grouped with members of the GI-1 lineage. Our study reveals circulation of GI-16 lineage during this period in poultry systems in Peru, along with GI-1 lineage (vaccine-derived). Moreover, those IBV GI-16 isolates showed unique nucleotide and amino acid changes compared to their closest relatives. Altogether, these findings reveal the circulation of GI-16 lineage while describing changes at key regions of the S protein that might be of relevance for vaccine evasion. These results highlight the importance of genetic surveillance for improving vaccination strategies against infectious bronchitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eliana Icochea
- Laboratory of Avian Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Av. Circunvalación 2800, Lima 15081, Peru
| | - Rosa González
- Laboratory of Avian Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Av. Circunvalación 2800, Lima 15081, Peru
| | - Gina Castro-Sanguinetti
- Laboratory of Avian Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Av. Circunvalación 2800, Lima 15081, Peru
| | - Lenin Maturrano
- Laboratory of Genetics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Av. Circunvalación 2800, Lima 15081, Peru
| | - Luis Alzamora
- CEVA Animal Health, 3461 Av. República de Panamá Dpto. 1102, San Isidro, Lima 15047, Peru
| | - Luiz Sesti
- CEVA Animal Health, 3461 Av. República de Panamá Dpto. 1102, San Isidro, Lima 15047, Peru
| | - Jorge Chacón
- CEVA Animal Health, 3461 Av. República de Panamá Dpto. 1102, San Isidro, Lima 15047, Peru
| | - Juan More-Bayona
- Laboratory of Avian Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Av. Circunvalación 2800, Lima 15081, Peru
- Laboratory of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Av. Circunvalación 2800, Lima 15081, Peru
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Ramirez-Nieto G, Mir D, Almansa-Villa D, Cordoba-Argotti G, Beltran-Leon M, Rodriguez-Osorio N, Garai J, Zabaleta J, Gomez AP. New Insights into Avian Infectious Bronchitis Virus in Colombia from Whole-Genome Analysis. Viruses 2022; 14:2562. [PMID: 36423171 PMCID: PMC9694374 DOI: 10.3390/v14112562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2022] [Revised: 11/12/2022] [Accepted: 11/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Infectious Bronchitis (IB) is a respiratory disease caused by a highly variable Gammacoronavirus, which generates a negative impact on poultry health worldwide. GI-11 and GI-16 lineages have been identified in South America based on Infectious Bronchitis virus (IBV) partial S1 sequences. However, full genome sequence information is limited. In this study we report, for the first time, the whole-genome sequence of IBV from Colombia. Seven IBV isolates obtained during 2012 and 2013 from farms with respiratory disease compatible with IB were selected and the complete genome sequence was obtained by NGS. According to S1 sequence phylogenetic analysis, six isolates belong to lineage GI-1 and one to lineage GVI-1. When whole genome was analyzed, five isolates were related to the vaccine strain Ma5 2016 and two showed mosaic genomes. Results from complete S1 sequence analysis provides further support for the hypothesis that GVI-1, considered a geographically confined lineage in Asia, could have originated in Colombia. Complete genome information reported in this research allow a deeper understanding of the phylogenetic evolution of variants and the recombination events between strains that are circulating worldwide, contributing to the knowledge of coronavirus in Latin America and the world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gloria Ramirez-Nieto
- Grupo de Investigación en Microbiología y Epidemiología, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y de Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogotá 111321, Colombia
| | - Daiana Mir
- Unidad de Genómica y Bioinformática, Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, Centro Universitario Regional Litoral Norte, Universidad de la República (UdelaR), Salto 50000, Uruguay
| | - Diego Almansa-Villa
- Grupo de Investigación en Microbiología y Epidemiología, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y de Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogotá 111321, Colombia
| | - Geovanna Cordoba-Argotti
- Grupo de Investigación en Microbiología y Epidemiología, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y de Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogotá 111321, Colombia
| | - Magda Beltran-Leon
- Grupo de Investigación en Microbiología y Epidemiología, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y de Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogotá 111321, Colombia
| | - Nelida Rodriguez-Osorio
- Unidad de Genómica y Bioinformática, Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, Centro Universitario Regional Litoral Norte, Universidad de la República (UdelaR), Salto 50000, Uruguay
| | - Jone Garai
- Stanley S. Scott Cancer Center, School of Medicine, Louisiana State University Health Science Center, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA
| | - Jovanny Zabaleta
- Stanley S. Scott Cancer Center, School of Medicine, Louisiana State University Health Science Center, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA
- Department of Interdisciplinary Oncology, School of Medicine, Louisiana State University Health Science Center, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA
| | - Arlen P. Gomez
- Grupo de Investigación en Microbiología y Epidemiología, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y de Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogotá 111321, Colombia
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Origin of New Lineages by Recombination and Mutation in Avian Infectious Bronchitis Virus from South America. Viruses 2022; 14:v14102095. [PMID: 36298650 PMCID: PMC9609748 DOI: 10.3390/v14102095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2022] [Revised: 09/09/2022] [Accepted: 09/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The gammacoronavirus avian infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) is a highly contagious respiratory pathogen of primary economic importance to the global poultry industry. Two IBV lineages (GI-11 and GI-16) have been widely circulating for decades in South America. GI-11 is endemic to South America, and the GI-16 is globally distributed. We obtained full-length IBV genomes from Argentine and Uruguayan farms using Illumina sequencing. Genomes of the GI-11 and GI-16 lineages from Argentina and Uruguay differ in part of the spike coding region. The remaining genome regions are similar to the Chinese and Italian strains of the GI-16 lineage that emerged in Asia or Europe in the 1970s. Our findings support that the indigenous GI-11 strains recombine extensively with the invasive GI-16 strains. During the recombination process, GI-11 acquired most of the sequences of the GI-16, retaining the original S1 sequence. GI-11 strains with recombinant genomes are circulating forms that underwent further local evolution. The current IBV scenario in South America includes the GI-16 lineage, recombinant GI-11 strains sharing high similarity with GI-16 outside S1, and Brazilian GI-11 strains with a divergent genomic background. There is also sporadic recombinant in the GI-11 and GI-16 lineages among vaccine and field strains. Our findings exemplified the ability of IBV to generate emergent lineage by using the S gene in different genomic backgrounds. This unique example of recombinational microevolution underscores the genomic plasticity of IBV in South America.
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Bali K, Kaszab E, Marton S, Hamdiou SH, Bentaleb RK, Kiss I, Palya V, Bányai K. Novel Lineage of Infectious Bronchitis Virus from Sub-Saharan Africa Identified by Random Amplification and Next-Generation Sequencing of Viral Genome. Life (Basel) 2022; 12:life12040475. [PMID: 35454966 PMCID: PMC9028189 DOI: 10.3390/life12040475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2022] [Revised: 03/18/2022] [Accepted: 03/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Avian infectious bronchitis (IB) is among the major viral respiratory and reproductive diseases of chickens caused by Avian coronavirus. In the African continent, IB was first described in countries located in the Mediterranean basin. In other parts of the continent, the epidemiological situation of IB remains unclear. In this study, the complete genome sequences of five IBV strains, originating from the sub-Saharan area were determined. Phylogenetic analysis based on the full-length S1 sequences identified three lineages (GI-14, GI-16, and GI-19) common in Africa and revealed that a strain, D2334/11/2/13/CI, isolated in Ivory Coast may represent a novel lineage within genotype GI. The maximum inter- and intragenotype sequence identities between this strain and other IBVs were 67.58% and 78.84% (nucleotide) and 64.44% and 78.6% (amino acid), respectively. The whole-genome nucleotide identity of the novel variant shared the highest values with a reference Belgian nephropathogenic strain (B1648, 92.4%) and with another study strain from Ivory Coast (D2334/12/2/13/CI, 94.6%). This study illustrates the importance of epidemiological monitoring of IBV in sub-Saharan Africa, as the area may serve as a focal point for newly emerging viral lineages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krisztina Bali
- Veterinary Medical Research Institute, 1143 Budapest, Hungary; (E.K.); (S.M.)
- Correspondence: (K.B.); (K.B.)
| | - Eszter Kaszab
- Veterinary Medical Research Institute, 1143 Budapest, Hungary; (E.K.); (S.M.)
| | - Szilvia Marton
- Veterinary Medical Research Institute, 1143 Budapest, Hungary; (E.K.); (S.M.)
| | | | | | - István Kiss
- Ceva-Phylaxia Veterinary Biologicals Co., Ltd., 1107 Budapest, Hungary; (I.K.); (V.P.)
| | - Vilmos Palya
- Ceva-Phylaxia Veterinary Biologicals Co., Ltd., 1107 Budapest, Hungary; (I.K.); (V.P.)
| | - Krisztián Bányai
- Veterinary Medical Research Institute, 1143 Budapest, Hungary; (E.K.); (S.M.)
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Veterinary Medicine, 1078 Budapest, Hungary
- Correspondence: (K.B.); (K.B.)
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Marandino A, Pérez R. Genetic and Antigenic Diversity of Infectious Bronchitis Virus in South America. Avian Dis 2021; 65:624-630. [DOI: 10.1637/aviandiseases-d-21-00103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2021] [Accepted: 09/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ana Marandino
- Sección Genética Evolutiva, Instituto de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Iguá 4225, 11400 Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Ruben Pérez
- Sección Genética Evolutiva, Instituto de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Iguá 4225, 11400 Montevideo, Uruguay
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Zhou Z, Qiu Y, Ge X. The taxonomy, host range and pathogenicity of coronaviruses and other viruses in the Nidovirales order. ANIMAL DISEASES 2021; 1:5. [PMID: 34778878 PMCID: PMC8062217 DOI: 10.1186/s44149-021-00005-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2021] [Accepted: 03/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The frequent emergence of coronavirus (CoV) epidemics has seriously threatened public health and stock farming. The major hosts for CoVs are birds and mammals. Although most CoVs inhabit their specific natural hosts, some may occasionally cross the host barrier to infect livestock and even people, causing a variety of diseases. Since the beginning of the new century, increasing attention has been given to research on CoVs due to the emergence of highly pathogenic and genetically diverse CoVs that have caused several epidemics, including the recent COVID-19 pandemic. CoVs belong to the Coronaviridae family of the Nidovirales order. Recently, advanced techniques for viral detection and viral genome analyses have enabled characterization of many new nidoviruses than ever and have greatly expanded the Nidovirales order with new classification and nomenclature. Here, we first provide an overview of the latest research progress in the classification of the Nidovirales order and then introduce the host range, genetic variation, genomic pattern and pathogenic features of epidemic CoVs and other epidemic viruses. This information will promote understanding of the phylogenetic relationship and infectious transmission of various pathogenic nidoviruses, including epidemic CoVs, which will benefit virological research and viral disease control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhijian Zhou
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Medical Virology, Institute of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, College of Biology, Hunan University, 27 Tianma Rd., Changsha, Hunan China
| | - Ye Qiu
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Medical Virology, Institute of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, College of Biology, Hunan University, 27 Tianma Rd., Changsha, Hunan China
| | - Xingyi Ge
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Medical Virology, Institute of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, College of Biology, Hunan University, 27 Tianma Rd., Changsha, Hunan China
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Emergence of Avian coronavirus genotype GI-11 in Colombia. Braz J Microbiol 2020; 52:455-459. [PMID: 33104974 PMCID: PMC7586380 DOI: 10.1007/s42770-020-00394-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2020] [Accepted: 10/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Avian coronavirus (AvCoV/IBV) is a virus with high morbidity, which can cause respiratory, digestive, renal, and reproductive diseases in chickens. Molecular detection and sequencing are the main tool for identification and classification of AvCoV. Thirty-six samples were collected in three broiler farms from different regions in Colombia, due to mortality increase; ten samples were positive using RT-qPCR targeted to the 5′ UTR of AvCoV, and one sample was positive and had its partial S gene sequenced. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that this strain belongs to the GI-11 lineage, similar to the Brazilian cluster. Several lineages have already been described in Colombia but, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first time that GI-11 has been detected in this country, which suggests that this subtype may be more widespread in South America than previously thought.
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Domańska-Blicharz K, Woźniakowski G, Konopka B, Niemczuk K, Welz M, Rola J, Socha W, Orłowska A, Antas M, Śmietanka K, Cuvelier-Mizak B. Animal Coronaviruses in the Light of COVID-19. J Vet Res 2020; 64:333-345. [PMID: 32984621 PMCID: PMC7497757 DOI: 10.2478/jvetres-2020-0050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2020] [Accepted: 07/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Coronaviruses are extremely susceptible to genetic changes due to the characteristic features of the genome structure, life cycle and environmental pressure. Their remarkable variability means that they can infect many different species of animals and cause different disease symptoms. Moreover, in some situations, coronaviruses might be transmitted across species. Although they are commonly found in farm, companion and wild animals, causing clinical and sometimes serious signs resulting in significant economic losses, not all of them have been classified by the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) as hazardous and included on the list of notifiable diseases. Currently, only three diseases caused by coronaviruses are on the OIE list of notifiable terrestrial and aquatic animal diseases. However, none of these three entails any administrative measures. The emergence of the SARS-CoV-2 infections that have caused the COVID-19 pandemic in humans has proved that the occurrence and variability of coronaviruses is highly underestimated in the animal reservoir and reminded us of the critical importance of the One Health approach. Therefore, domestic and wild animals should be intensively monitored, both to broaden our knowledge of the viruses circulating among them and to understand the mechanisms of the emergence of viruses of relevance to animal and human health.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Grzegorz Woźniakowski
- Department of Swine Diseases, National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100Puławy, Poland
| | | | - Krzysztof Niemczuk
- Director General, National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100Puławy, Poland
| | - Mirosław Welz
- General Veterinary Inspectorate, 00-930Warsaw, Poland
| | - Jerzy Rola
- Department of Virology, National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100Puławy, Poland
| | - Wojciech Socha
- Department of Virology, National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100Puławy, Poland
| | - Anna Orłowska
- Department of Virology, National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100Puławy, Poland
| | - Marta Antas
- Department of Swine Diseases, National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100Puławy, Poland
| | - Krzysztof Śmietanka
- Department of Poultry Diseases, National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100Puławy, Poland
| | - Beata Cuvelier-Mizak
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacy, National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100Puławy, Poland
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Epigenetic Regulation by Non-Coding RNAs in the Avian Immune System. Life (Basel) 2020; 10:life10080148. [PMID: 32806547 PMCID: PMC7459779 DOI: 10.3390/life10080148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2020] [Revised: 08/06/2020] [Accepted: 08/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The identified non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) include circular RNAs, long non-coding RNAs, microRNAs, ribosomal RNAs, small interfering RNAs, small nuclear RNAs, piwi-interacting RNAs, and transfer RNAs, etc. Among them, long non-coding RNAs, circular RNAs, and microRNAs are regulatory RNAs that have different functional mechanisms and were extensively participated in various biological processes. Numerous research studies have found that circular RNAs, long non-coding RNAs, and microRNAs played their important roles in avian immune system during the infection of parasites, virus, or bacterium. Here, we specifically review and expand this knowledge with current advances of circular RNAs, long non-coding RNAs, and microRNAs in the regulation of different avian diseases and discuss their functional mechanisms in response to avian diseases.
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Gravinatti ML, Barbosa CM, Soares RM, Gregori F. Synanthropic rodents as virus reservoirs and transmitters. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 2020; 53:e20190486. [PMID: 32049206 PMCID: PMC7083353 DOI: 10.1590/0037-8682-0486-2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2019] [Accepted: 01/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
This review focuses on reports of hepatitis E virus, hantavirus, rotavirus,
coronavirus, and arenavirus in synanthropic rodents (Rattus
rattus, Rattus norvegicus, and Mus
musculus) within urban environments. Despite their potential impact
on human health, relatively few studies have addressed the monitoring of these
viruses in rodents. Comprehensive control and preventive activities should
include actions such as the elimination or reduction of rat and mouse
populations, sanitary education, reduction of shelters for the animals, and
restriction of the access of rodents to residences, water, and food
supplies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mara Lucia Gravinatti
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva e Saúde Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | | | - Rodrigo Martins Soares
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva e Saúde Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Fábio Gregori
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva e Saúde Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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Kaszab E, Doszpoly A, Lanave G, Verma A, Bányai K, Malik YS, Marton S. Metagenomics revealing new virus species in farm and pet animals and aquaculture. GENOMICS AND BIOTECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES IN VETERINARY, POULTRY, AND FISHERIES 2020. [PMCID: PMC7149329 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-816352-8.00002-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Abstract
Viral metagenomics is slowly taking over the traditional and widely used molecular techniques for the investigation of pathogenic viruses responsible for illness and inflicting great economic burden on the farm animal industry. Owing to the continued improvements in sequencing technologies and the dramatic reduction of per base costs of sequencing the use of next generation sequencing have been key factors in this progress. Discoveries linked to viral metagenomics are expected to be beneficial to the field of veterinary medicine starting from the development of better diagnostic assays to the design of new subunit vaccines with minimal investments. With these achievements the research has taken a giant leap even toward the better healthcare of animals and, as a result, the animal sector could be growing at an unprecedented pace.
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Attenuation of Infectious Bronchitis Virus in Eggs Results in Different Patterns of Genomic Variation across Multiple Replicates. J Virol 2019; 93:JVI.00492-19. [PMID: 31043525 PMCID: PMC6600199 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00492-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2019] [Accepted: 04/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The gammacoronavirus infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) causes an acute, highly contagious respiratory disease of poultry. Live attenuated vaccines are traditionally generated by serial passage of a virulent strain in embryonated chicken eggs; however, the molecular mechanism of attenuation is unknown. M41-CK, a virulent lab-adapted strain of IBV, was egg passaged over 100 times in four parallel independent replicates. All four final egg-passaged viruses were attenuated in vivo and exhibited similar growth phenotypes in adult chicken kidney cells and ex vivo tracheal organ cultures. The virus populations were sequenced by 454 pyrosequencing at the end of passaging, and the results showed that overall sequence diversity in the IBV population increased but the four replicates only had between 11 and 17 consensus-level single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). Although hot spots of variation were identified in spike and nucleocapsid structural proteins as well as the 3' untranslated region, each attenuated virus possessed a different pattern of genomic variation. Overall, only a small number of consensus-level SNPs were acquired during egg passage, leaving a potentially short route back to virulence. These results highlight the unpredictable nature of attenuation by serial egg passage and the need to develop mechanisms to rationally attenuate IBV for the next generation of effective vaccines.IMPORTANCE Infectious bronchitis remains a major problem in the global poultry industry, despite the existence of many different vaccines. IBV vaccines are currently developed by serial passage of a virulent strain on embryonated hen's eggs until attenuation; however, little is known about the evolution of the viral population during the process of attenuation. High-throughput sequencing of four replicates of a serially egg-passaged IBV revealed a different pattern of genomic variation in each attenuated replicate and few consensus-level SNPs. This raises concerns that only a small number of genomic mutations are required to revert to a virulent phenotype, which may result in vaccine breakdown in the field. The observed hot spots of variation in the attenuated viruses have the potential to be used in the rational attenuation of virulent IBV for next-generation vaccine design.
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Lin J, Wang Z, Wang J, Yang Q. Microarray analysis of infectious bronchitis virus infection of chicken primary dendritic cells. BMC Genomics 2019; 20:557. [PMID: 31286855 PMCID: PMC6615177 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-019-5940-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2018] [Accepted: 06/26/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Avian infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) is a major respiratory disease-causing agent in birds that leads to significant losses. Dendritic cells (DCs) are specialised cells responsible for sampling antigens and presenting them to T cells, which also play an essential role in recognising and neutralising viruses. Recent studies have suggested that non-coding RNAs may regulate the functional program of DCs. Expression of host non-coding RNAs changes markedly during infectious bronchitis virus infection, but their role in regulating host immune function has not been explored. Here, microarrays of mRNAs, miRNAs, and lncRNAs were globally performed to analyse how avian DCs respond to IBV. Results First, we found that IBV stimulation did not enhance the maturation ability of avian DCs. Interestingly, inactivated IBV was better able than IBV to induce DC maturation and activate lymphocytes. We identified 1093 up-regulated and 845 down-regulated mRNAs in IBV-infected avian DCs. Gene Ontology analysis suggested that cellular macromolecule and protein location (GO-BP) and transcription factor binding (GO-MF) were abundant in IBV-stimulated avian DCs. Meanwhile, pathway analysis indicated that the oxidative phosphorylation and leukocyte transendothelial migration signalling pathways might be activated in the IBV group. Moreover, alteration of microRNAs (miRNAs) and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) was detected in IBV-stimulated avian DCs. In total, 19 significantly altered (7 up and 12 down) miRNAs and 101 (75 up and 26 down) lncRNAs were identified in the IBV-treated group. Further analysis showed that the actin cytoskeleton and MAPK signal pathway were related to the target genes of IBV-stimulated miRNAs. Finally, our study identified 2 TF-microRNA and 53 TF–microRNA–mRNA interactions involving 1 TF, 2 miRNAs, and 53 mRNAs in IBV-stimulated avian DCs. Conclusions Our research suggests a new mechanism to explain why IBV actively blocks innate responses needed for inducing immune gene expression and also provides insight into the pathogenic mechanisms of avian IBV. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12864-019-5940-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Lin
- College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Wei gang 1, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210095, People's Republic of China.,College of Veterinary medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Wei gang 1, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210095, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhisheng Wang
- National Veterinary Product Engineering Research Center, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, China
| | - Jialu Wang
- College of Veterinary medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Wei gang 1, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210095, People's Republic of China
| | - Qian Yang
- College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Wei gang 1, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210095, People's Republic of China. .,College of Veterinary medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Wei gang 1, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210095, People's Republic of China.
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Marandino A, Vagnozzi A, Craig MI, Tomás G, Techera C, Panzera Y, Vera F, Pérez R. Genetic and antigenic heterogeneity of infectious bronchitis virus in South America: implications for control programmes. Avian Pathol 2019; 48:270-277. [PMID: 30761909 DOI: 10.1080/03079457.2019.1583315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) is a persistent sanitary problem for the South American poultry industry despite extensive vaccination. The IBV single-stranded RNA genome has high rates of mutation and recombination that generate a notorious virus variability. Since most IBV vaccines are type-specific, there is a need for constant surveillance of the circulating lineages and knowledge about their genetic and antigenic properties. Here we present an integrative analysis that provides the pattern of genetic variation of the South American IBV strains and information about their antigenic characteristics. The genetic analysis was performed using the S1 complete coding sequences of all available South American strains, including newly obtained Argentine and Uruguayan field samples. Our phylogenetic and phylodynamic analyses evidence that three main lineages (GI-1, GI-11 and GI-16) are extensively circulating in South American flocks. Strains of the GI-1 lineage (Massachusetts-type) were detected in Argentina, Brazil, Chile and Colombia. The GI-11 lineage is an exclusively South American lineage that emerged in the 1950s, and is the predominant lineage in Brazil and Uruguay at present. The GI-16 lineage emerged around 1979, and is currently circulating in most South American territories (Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, Colombia and Peru). The virus cross-neutralization test performed here reveals very low antigenic relatedness between GI-11 and GI-16 lineages (i.e. they are different serotypes). The results of this study extend our knowledge about the present and past IBV variability in South America and provide relevant elements to improve the control programmes by considering the genetic and antigenic attributes of IBV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Marandino
- a Sección Genética Evolutiva , Instituto de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República Montevideo , Uruguay
| | - Ariel Vagnozzi
- b Instituto de Virología, CICVyA, INTA-Castelar Castelar , Buenos Aires , Argentina
| | - María Isabel Craig
- b Instituto de Virología, CICVyA, INTA-Castelar Castelar , Buenos Aires , Argentina
| | - Gonzalo Tomás
- a Sección Genética Evolutiva , Instituto de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República Montevideo , Uruguay
| | - Claudia Techera
- a Sección Genética Evolutiva , Instituto de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República Montevideo , Uruguay
| | - Yanina Panzera
- a Sección Genética Evolutiva , Instituto de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República Montevideo , Uruguay
| | - Federico Vera
- c Laboratorio Sanidad Aviar, INTA- E.E.A , Concepción del Uruguay , Entre Ríos , Argentina
| | - Ruben Pérez
- a Sección Genética Evolutiva , Instituto de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República Montevideo , Uruguay
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Near-Complete Genome Sequence of Infectious Bronchitis Virus Strain VFAR-047 (GI-16 Lineage), Isolated in Peru. Microbiol Resour Announc 2019; 8:MRA01555-18. [PMID: 30714035 PMCID: PMC6357641 DOI: 10.1128/mra.01555-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2018] [Accepted: 01/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Here, we report the near-complete genome sequence of the infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) strain VFAR-047, isolated in Peru in 2014. This strain was classified into GI lineage 16 (GI-16) based on both the genome and Spike 1 (S1) sequence analysis. Here, we report the near-complete genome sequence of the infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) strain VFAR-047, isolated in Peru in 2014. This strain was classified into GI lineage 16 (GI-16) based on both the genome and Spike 1 (S1) sequence analysis. Furthermore, four potential recombination events with other GI-16 and GI-11 strains were identified.
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Franzo G, Cecchinato M, Tosi G, Fiorentini L, Faccin F, Tucciarone CM, Trogu T, Barbieri I, Massi P, Moreno A. GI-16 lineage (624/I or Q1), there and back again: The history of one of the major threats for poultry farming of our era. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0203513. [PMID: 30571679 PMCID: PMC6301571 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0203513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2018] [Accepted: 11/29/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The genetic variability of Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) is one of the main challenges for its control, hindering not only the development of effective vaccination strategies but also its classification and, consequently, epidemiology understanding. The 624/I and Q1 genotypes, now recognized to be part of the GI-16 lineage, represent an excellent example of the practical consequences of IBV molecular epidemiology limited knowledge. In fact, being their common origin unrecognized for a long time, independent epidemiological pictures were drawn for the two genotypes. To fix this misinterpretation, the present study reconstructs the history, population dynamics and spreading patterns of GI-16 lineage as a whole using a phylodynamic approach. A collection of worldwide available hypervariable region 1 and 2 (HVR12) and 3 (HVR3) sequences of the S1 protein was analysed together with 258 HVR3 sequences obtained from samples collected in Italy (the country where this genotype was initially identified) since 1963. The results demonstrate that after its emergence at the beginning of the XX century, GI-16 was able to persist until present days in Italy. Approximately in the late 1980s, it migrated to Asia, which became the main nucleus for further spreading to Middle East, Europe and especially South America, likely through multiple introduction events. A remarkable among-country diffusion was also demonstrated in Asia and South America. Interestingly, although most of the recent Italian GI-16 strains originated from ancestral viruses detected in the same country, a couple were closely related to Chinese ones, supporting a backward viral flow from China to Italy. Besides to the specific case-study results, this work highlights the misconceptions that originate from the lack of a unified nomenclature and poor molecular epidemiology data generation and sharing. This shortcoming appears particularly relevant since the described scenario could likely be shared by many other IBV genotypes and pathogens in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Franzo
- Department of Animal Medicine, Production and Health (MAPS), University of Padua, Legnaro (PD), Italy
| | - Mattia Cecchinato
- Department of Animal Medicine, Production and Health (MAPS), University of Padua, Legnaro (PD), Italy
| | - Giovanni Tosi
- Sezione di Forlì, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e Emilia Romagna, Forlì Cesena, Italy
| | - Laura Fiorentini
- Sezione di Forlì, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e Emilia Romagna, Forlì Cesena, Italy
| | - Francesca Faccin
- Department of Virology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e Emilia Romagna, Brescia, Italy
| | - Claudia Maria Tucciarone
- Department of Animal Medicine, Production and Health (MAPS), University of Padua, Legnaro (PD), Italy
| | - Tiziana Trogu
- Department of Virology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e Emilia Romagna, Brescia, Italy
| | - Ilaria Barbieri
- Department of Virology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e Emilia Romagna, Brescia, Italy
| | - Paola Massi
- Sezione di Forlì, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e Emilia Romagna, Forlì Cesena, Italy
| | - Ana Moreno
- Department of Virology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e Emilia Romagna, Brescia, Italy
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Laconi A, Listorti V, Franzo G, Cecchinato M, Naylor C, Lupini C, Catelli E. Molecular characterization of whole genome sequence of infectious bronchitis virus 624I genotype confirms the close relationship with Q1 genotype. Transbound Emerg Dis 2018; 66:207-216. [PMID: 30126059 PMCID: PMC7168539 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.13000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2018] [Revised: 07/16/2018] [Accepted: 08/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Infectious Bronchitis virus (IBV) genotype Q1 was detected for the first time in China in 1996, and then spread worldwide. The first report of Q1 genotype in Italy occurred in 2011 and a deep molecular investigation of a Q1 isolated in Italy in 2013 has led to speculation regarding the origin of this genotype. Phylogenetic analysis of the S1 sequence of a Q1 Italian strain revealed a close relationship with sequences of the 624I strains circulating in Italy in the early 1990s and this led to the idea that 624I was an ancestor of the Q1 genotype. Despite the fact that most heterogeneity of IBVs occurs in the S1 gene, the sequence analysis of this gene alone was not sufficient to confirm or deny this hypothesis. In the present study, an Italian 624I (gammaCoV/AvCov/Ck/Italy/IP14425/96) was fully sequenced for the first time and compared to all available complete Q1 genome sequences. This analysis confirmed the genetic correlation between GammaCoV/AvCov/Ck/Italy/IP14425/96 and Q1 strains, suggesting a common origin between 624I and Q1 genotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Laconi
- Department of Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Department of Infection Biology, University of Liverpool, Leahurst Campus, Liverpool, Cheshire, UK
| | - Valeria Listorti
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, University of Bologna, Ozzano dell'Emilia, BO, Italy
| | - Giovanni Franzo
- Department of Animal Medicine, Production and Health, University of Padua, Legnaro, PD, Italy
| | - Mattia Cecchinato
- Department of Animal Medicine, Production and Health, University of Padua, Legnaro, PD, Italy
| | - Clive Naylor
- Department of Infection Biology, University of Liverpool, Leahurst Campus, Liverpool, Cheshire, UK
| | - Caterina Lupini
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, University of Bologna, Ozzano dell'Emilia, BO, Italy
| | - Elena Catelli
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, University of Bologna, Ozzano dell'Emilia, BO, Italy
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