Mycobacterial Interspersed Repeat Unit-Variable Number Tandem Repeat Typing of Mycobacterium avium Strains Isolated from the Lymph Nodes of Free-Living Carnivorous Animals in Poland

Non-tuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) are ubiquitous organisms, of which some, especially those of the Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC), may be opportunistic animal and human pathogens. Infection with NTM can interfere with tuberculosis (TB) diagnosis and induce zoonoses, especially in immunocompromised individuals. Diseases caused by NTM have become more readily recognized; however, they are likely still underestimated. In this study, we identified and genotyped Mycobacterium avium strains that were isolated during TB monitoring among free-living carnivorous animals from southeastern Poland. In 2011-2020, lymph node samples from 192 such animals were tested for mycobacteria. A total of 41 isolates of M. avium strains were detected with the use of IS901, IS900, IS1245, and mycobacterial interspersed repeat unit-variable number tandem repeat (MIRU-VNTR) identification. Thirty-three were identified as M. avium subsp. avium. These strains were derived from 1 beech marten (Martes foina), 1 common buzzard (Buteo buteo), 2 European badgers (Meles meles), 3 wolves (Canis lupus), and 26 red foxes (Vulpes vulpes). One strain isolated from a wolf was identified as M. avium subsp. hominissuis. The results show the widespread occurrence of MAC bacilli in the studied environment and additionally comprise new data on the molecular characteristics of M. avium subspecies carried by free-living southeastern Polish carnivores.

Detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Complex Genetic Material in a Free-Living Brown Bear (Ursus arctos)

Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) has rarely been detected in bears (Ursidae). We describe detection of MTBC genetic material using a single-tube, high-multiplex PCR and fluorescence-based detection system in a throat swab collected from a free-living, problem individual during immobilization and telemetry collar deployment. Mycobacterial culture was negative in all samples.

No evidence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex infection in samples from cervids in various regions of Poland

INTRODUCTION

Tuberculosis (TB) is a widespread disease known to affect livestock and wildlife, as well as humans. However, its incidence in wildlife remains poorly recognized on the global level. In Europe, the majority of TB cases have been confirmed in red deer, badgers and wild boar.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the study was to examine the occurrence of TB in Cervidae in Poland, in areas where TB has been detected in cattle and wildlife.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Head and thoracic lymph nodes were collected from a total of 76 free-living red deer (Cervus elaphus) and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), from nine Polish provinces during a single hunting season (autumn - winter 2018-19). Samples were subjected to conventional microbiological procedures to isolate mycobacteria.

RESULTS

No Mycobacteria was isolated in the material collected from red or roe deer.

CONCLUSIONS

There is a need to continue monitoring the presence of TB in cattle and other animal species to ensure the protection of public health.

Ten Years of Animal Tuberculosis Monitoring in Free-Living European Bison (Bison bonasus) in Poland

In the period 1996–2012, two outbreaks of animal tuberculosis were noted in the population of free-living European bison (Bison bonasus caucasicus) in the Bieszczady Mountains, Southern Poland. As the European bison is an endangered species and particularly susceptible to tuberculosis, not to mention a national icon, the decision was made to test all deceased bison for TB in Poland. The screened bison were obtained by elimination due to poor health or natural death. A total of 159 European bison have been examined over the last 10 years. The individuals came from four regions of Poland (Białowieża Forest, Bieszczady Mountains, Borecka Forest, Knyszyńska Forest), not only from the area where tuberculosis is still endemic. Mycobacterium bovis and Mycobacterium avium spp. hominisuis were identified in two different herds. The isolation of M. bovis from European bison was the first case described in Poland. So far, the only causative agent of tuberculosis identified in European bison in Poland, both in the wild and in captive herds, was Mycobacterium caprae. The isolated M. bovis spoligotype has not previously been registered in international spoligotype databases so far. The obtained results highlight the need to monitor TB in European bison in Poland.

Microbiological and molecular monitoring for bovine tuberculosis in the Polish population of European bison (Bison bonasus)

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVE

In recent years, bovine tuberculosis (BTB) has become one of the major health hazards facing the European bison (EB, Bison bonasus), a vulnerable species that requires active protection, including regular and effective health monitoring. Monitoring of zoonotic disease in wildlife is also an important part of public health protection. The aim of the study was to determine whether BTB still influences the EB population in Poland.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

During 2017-2019, mandibular, retropharyngeal and mediastinal lymph nodes were collected from 90 EB during post-mortem examination, and then cultivated on Lowenstein-Jensen and Stonebrink media. Isolated strains were subjected to molecular analysis to determine the species, spoligotype and MIRU-VNTR pattern.

RESULTS

Lesions were found in lymph nodes originating from eight EB (8.89%). Positive microbiological cultures for mycobacteria were obtained in samples from six (6.67%) EB. The isolated strains were identified as Mycobacterium caprae (material from four EB) and atypical mycobacteria (material from two EB). For M. caprae strains spoligotype M. bovis 4_CA 1600 was identified and the MIRU-VNTR pattern was identified as 345751355413232.

CONCLUSIONS

It is recommended that this potentially dangerous disease should be monitored in EB via a comprehensive strategy based on a combination of microbiological and molecular methods. Such monitoring will protect the health of both animals and humans.

Epidemiological characterization of Mycobacterium caprae strains isolated from wildlife in the Bieszczady Mountains, on the border of Southeast Poland

Background

The majority of animal tuberculosis (TB) cases reported in wildlife in Poland over the past 20 years have concerned the European bison inhabiting the Bieszczady Mountains in Southeast Poland: an area running along the border of Southeast Poland. As no TB cases have been reported in domestic animals in this region since 2005, any occurrence of TB in the free-living animals inhabiting this area might pose a real threat to local livestock and result in the loss of disease-free status. The aim of the study was to describe the occurrence of tuberculosis in the wildlife of the Bieszczady Mountains and determine the microbiological and molecular characteristics of any cultured strains. Lymph node samples were collected for analysis from 274 free-living animals, including European bison, red foxes, badgers, red deer, wild boar and roe deer between 2011 and 2017. Löwenstein–Jensen and Stonebrink media were used for culture. Molecular identification of strains was performed based on hsp65 sequence analysis, the GenoType®MTBC (Hain Lifescience, Germany) test, spoligotyping and MIRU-VNTR analysis.

Results

Mycobacterium caprae was isolated from the lymph nodes of 21 out of 55 wild boar (38.2%; CI 95%: 26.5%, 51.4%) and one roe deer. Since 2014, no new TB cases have been reported in the Bieszczady European bison population.

Conclusions

The identification of TB in wild boar in the Bieszczady is an alarming phenomenon, which requires further investigation. The Bieszczady mountains are a precious, unique area, home to many protected species. However, it is also the only area in Poland where TB cases have been reported in free-living animals. The occurrence of TB in wild boar inhabiting this area might pose a real threat to local livestock and many of the protected species (for example European bison that can share feeding places with wild boar). Given this situation, ongoing monitoring of the prevalence of TB should be conducted, and protective measures should be considered.

Animal Coronaviruses in the Light of COVID-19

Coronaviruses are extremely susceptible to genetic changes due to the characteristic features of the genome structure, life cycle and environmental pressure. Their remarkable variability means that they can infect many different species of animals and cause different disease symptoms. Moreover, in some situations, coronaviruses might be transmitted across species. Although they are commonly found in farm, companion and wild animals, causing clinical and sometimes serious signs resulting in significant economic losses, not all of them have been classified by the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) as hazardous and included on the list of notifiable diseases. Currently, only three diseases caused by coronaviruses are on the OIE list of notifiable terrestrial and aquatic animal diseases. However, none of these three entails any administrative measures. The emergence of the SARS-CoV-2 infections that have caused the COVID-19 pandemic in humans has proved that the occurrence and variability of coronaviruses is highly underestimated in the animal reservoir and reminded us of the critical importance of the One Health approach. Therefore, domestic and wild animals should be intensively monitored, both to broaden our knowledge of the viruses circulating among them and to understand the mechanisms of the emergence of viruses of relevance to animal and human health.

Local regulators of seasonal reproduction processes in uterus masculinus of an adult male European bison (Bison bonasus, Linnaeus 1758)

Growth factors, hypoxia-inducible factor 1-alpha (HIF-1α) and klotho protein all have very important functions in the male reproduction; however their role in the regulation of seasonal reproductive processes in the male European bison remains unclear. Similarly, although the uterus masculinus is very frequently found in the bison, its importance and functions remain unknown. It is likely that, this organ may have secretory functions and thus be a target for various regulatory factors. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate expression and activity of several factors: vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF-A), fibroblast growth factor (FGF-2), transforming growth factor β1 (TGF-β1), nerve growth factor (NGF), insulin-like growth factor receptor (IGF-IR β), hypoxia-inducible factor 1 alpha (HIF-1α), and klotho protein in the uterus masculinus, immediately after the season of the reproductive activity (November and December). Our study reveals that the growth factor expression levels are significantly higher in November, when compared to December, while expression of HIF-1α and klotho was higher in December. These results provide novel data on differences in the expression levels of several factors in the uterus maculinus of European bison bulls after the breeding season. The described factors may, therefore, be potent regulators of the seasonal reproduction.

Vector and Serologic Survey for Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever Virus in Poland

In contrast to animals, Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF) causes a severe disease in humans with a high mortality rate. The etiological agent, CCHF virus (CCHFV), can be transmitted by argasid and ixodid ticks, but arachnids of the genus Hyalomma, followed by Rhipicephalus and Dermacentor serve as the major vectors of this virus. The goal of the study was to assess the epidemiological situation of CCHFV infection in cattle in south-east Poland, and survey for potential tick vector species. A total of 592 bovine blood samples from animals located in the southernmost region in Poland were tested by IgG sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Ticks (n = 993) from south-east Poland were collected from dogs, cats, cattle, and horses and tested by RT-PCR. All 592 serum samples were negative for IgG antibodies to CCHFV. Of the ticks collected, 125 were Dermacentor reticulatus and 868 represented Ixodes ricinus, both species are regarded as potential vectors of CCHFV. All tick samples were negative for the presence of CCHFV. Considering the zoonotic nature, public health importance, and the virus increasing spread, it was prudent to assess the seroprevalence of CCHFV in the south-east area of Poland, bordering with CCHFV endemic areas. It seems unlikely that CCHFV infection will suddenly spread in Poland, but considering the multiple possibilities of the virus introduction, serosurveys and vector biosurveillance should be conducted at regular intervals.

Evidence of low prevalence of mycobacterial lymphadenitis in wild boars (Sus scrofa) in Poland

Mycobacterium spp. and Rhodococcus equi are generally regarded as the main causes of lymphadenitis in pigs and wild boars. In Poland, mycobacterial submandibular lymphadenitis was first diagnosed in a wild boar in 2012 but Mycobacterium spp. infections are also present in the Polish population of European bison (Bison bonasus). The prevalence of lymphadenitis in Polish wild boars has been found to 8.4% (95% CI 6.2–11.3%) and it has been proved that R. equi is not an important cause of purulent lesions in these animals. The current study was carried out to assess the prevalence of mycobacterial lymphadenitis in the Polish wild boar population. Submandibular lymph nodes with purulent lesions collected from 38 wild boars in 2010/2011 and negative for R. equi were included. Calculations based on the hypergeometric approximation were used to determine the probability that at least one positive individual would be detected if the infection had been present at a prevalence greater than or equal to the design prevalence. All 38 samples were negative for Mycobacterium spp. [0% (95% CI 0, 9.2%)]. Epidemiological analysis showed that the true prevalence was 95% likely to be lower than 10%. In conclusion, mycobacterial lymphadenitis seems to occur rarely in wild boars in Poland. Due to the presence of Mycobacterium spp. infections in other wildlife, the surveillance of mycobacterial infections in wild animals in Poland remains an important issue.

Ante-mortem and post-mortem tuberculosis diagnostics in three European Bison from the enclosure in Bukowiec in the Bieszczady National Park in Poland

The ante-mortem diagnostics of tuberculosis in wildlife constitutes a major problem due to the difficulties in collecting samples for examination. Therefore, tuberculosis in free-living animals is usually diagnosed post mortem. Ante-mortem examinations for bovine tuberculosis (BTB) were conducted in three European bison living in an acclimatisation enclosure in Bukowiec in the Bieszczady National Park in Poland. The reason for performing these examinations was the documented contact between the aforementioned animals and tuberculous European bison from a free-living herd present in the area. The three European bison were pharmacologically immobilised. Next, their blood samples were collected for immunological studies (interferon-gamma release assays), complete blood count and blood biochemistry tests. Moreover, bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid from the lower respiratory tract, two nasal cavity swabs and one throat swab were taken from each animal. Tuberculin testing was also performed. The findings of all these examinations indicated the possible infection of the European bison with the tubercle bacillus. Ultimately, the decision was taken to euthanize the animals.

Prevalence and genetic diversity of Rhodococcus equi in wild boars (Sus scrofa), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and red deer (Cervus elaphus) in Poland

BACKGROUND

Rhodococcus equi is now considered an emerging zoonotic pathogen. Sources and routes of human infection remain unclear but foodborne transmission seems to be the most probable way. Strains of pig or bovine type are most often isolated from human cases and moreover R. equi is present in submaxillary lymph nodes of apparently healthy pigs and wild boars intended for human consumption. The aim of this study was to estimate the prevalence of R. equi in submaxillary lymph nodes in wild boars, roe deer and red deer.

RESULTS

Samples were collected from 936 animals and 27 R. equi strains were isolated, from 5.1 % of wild boars (23/452), 0.7 % of red deer (2/272) and 0.9 % of roe deer (2/212). Genetic diversity of all 27 isolates was studied using VspI-PFGE method, resulting in the detection of 25 PFGE patterns and four PFGE clusters. PFGE patterns of the isolates were compared with virulence plasmid types and no concordance was observed.

CONCLUSIONS

R. equi was present in wild animal tissues and consumption of the game may be a potential source of R. equi infection for humans. To the authors' best knowledge, this is the first epidemiological report of R. equi prevalence in tissues of roe deer and red deer. However, risk associated with wild ruminant consumption seems marginal. Investigation of R. equi transmission between animals and humans based exclusively on types of virulence plasmids seems to be insufficient to identify sources of R. equi infection for people.

Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in wild boars, red deer and roe deer in Poland

Little is known about the prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in wild life, particularly game animals in Poland. Meat juice collected during the 2009/2010 and 2010/2011 hunting seasons from 552 red deer (Cervus elaphus), 367 wild boars (Sus scrofa) and 92 roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) was tested for T. gondii antibodies using the multi-species ID Screen Toxoplasmosis Indirect kit (IDvet, Montpellier, France). Antibodies to T. gondii were detected in 24.1% of red deer (95% CI: 20.7%, 27.8%), 37.6% of wild boar (95% CI: 32.8%, 42.7%) and 30.4% of roe deer (95% CI: 22.0%, 40.5%). To the authors' best knowledge, this is the first epidemiological report of T. gondii prevalence in red deer, roe deer and wild boars in Poland. T. gondii is present in wildlife animal tissues and consumption of the game may be a potential source of infection for humans.

Palliative pharmaceutical care: a randomized, prospective study of telephone-based prescription and medication counseling services for treating chronic pain

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the effects of providing a unique telephone-based pharmaceutical care program to a sample of patients enrolled at a university pain clinic in Philadelphia, Pa. We hypothesized that in comparison to routine pharmaceutical care, the telephone-based pharmaceutical care program would have a positive impact on delivery of medication, quality of life, and overall satisfaction with the pain clinic program.

PATIENTS

One hundred seven pain clinic patients were randomly assigned to the control and intervention groups. Seventy-four patients (control group, n = 36; intervention group, n = 38) met inclusion criteria.

METHOD

The control group continued to receive care and prescription services through the same means as prior to the study. There were 2 components to the pharmaceutical care program offered to the intervention group. The first component consisted of a palliative care pharmacy company, PainRxperts, providing specialized prescription services tailored to the needs of a pain medicine clinical practice. The second component involved the palliative-trained pharmacist's proactive monitoring of patient pharmacotherapy for potential or actual drug related problems (DRPs).

RESULTS

Intervention patients perceived that they had better access to medication, more efficient processing of prescriptions, and fewer stigmatizing experiences. They also endorsed pharmacists' behavioral interventions such as medication counseling, availability to answer medication-related questions, and non-judgmental attitudes when managing opioid prescriptions.

CONCLUSION

This study suggests that the palliative-trained pharmacist can play an important collaborative role in managing chronic pain. Application of the pharmaceutical care model in pain medicine centers can improve satisfaction and remove some of the barriers to good pharmaceutical care facing patients with chronic pain disorders

Stimulation of CD95 (Fas) blocks T lymphocyte calcium channels through sphingomyelinase and sphingolipids

Calcium influx through store-operated calcium release-activated calcium channels (CRAC) is required for T cell activation, cytokine synthesis, and proliferation. The CD95 (Apo-1/Fas) receptor plays a role in self-tolerance and tumor immune escape, and it mediates apoptosis in activated T cells. In this paper we show that CD95-stimulation blocks CRAC and Ca(2+) influx in lymphocytes through the activation of acidic sphingomyelinase (ASM) and ceramide release. The block of Ca(2+) entry is lacking in CD95-defective lpr lymphocytes as well as in ASM-defective cells and can be restored by retransfection of ASM. C2 ceramide, C6 ceramide, and sphingosine block CRAC reversibly, whereas the inactive dihydroceramide has no effect. CD95-stimulation or the addition of ceramide prevents store-operated Ca(2+) influx, activation of the transcriptional regulator NFAT, and IL-2 synthesis. The block of CRAC by sphingomyelinase metabolites adds a function to the repertoire of the CD95 receptor inhibiting T cell activation signals.