Might cholesterol sulfate deficiency contribute to the development of autistic spectrum disorder?

Lithium Cholesterol Sulfate: A Novel and Potential Drug for Treating Alzheimer's Disease and Autism Spectrum Disorder

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Recent studies have shown that lithium treatment can reduce symptoms of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). However, the present lithium salts clinically available have serious short-term and long-term side effects which requires frequent monitoring of blood chemistry and plasma lithium levels so as to avoid toxicity. Consequently, there is a demand for a safer and more effective lithium formulation to treat these diseases.

METHODS

Hence, we firstly synthesized lithium cholesterol sulfate (LiCS) and compared its pharmacological effects with that of lithium chloride (LiCl) and sodium cholesterol sulfate (NaCS) on markers of neurodegenerative disease in cell cultures.

RESULTS

LiCS was more potent than LiCl in increasing inhibitory GSK3β (Ser9) phosphorylation (pGSK3β) in both CHO and SH-SY5Y cells. These agents dose-dependently increased pGSK3β, starting at 10 µM for LiCS and 60µM for LiCl and maximally by approximately 100% at 60 µM for LiCS and 1.25 mM for LiCl, without altering total GSK3β levels. In HEK293/tau cells, LiCS reduced tau (Thr231) phosphorylation (ptau) starting at 10 µM and maximally by 63% at 40 µM without altering total tau levels, but ptau levels were not altered by LiCl at any dose between 60 µM and 1.25 mM. In BV2 cells, LiCS and LiCl decreased LPS-induced TNFα levels, starting at 20 µM for LiCS and 5 mM for LiCl, and maximally by approximately 30% at 80 µM for LiCS and 20 mM for LiCl. NaCS at any dose between 5 and 90 µM did not alter pGSK3β, ptau or LPS-induced TNFα.

CONCLUSION

LiCS may become a new drug with good pharmacological potential for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders such as AD and ASD by allowing lithium to more readily access intracellular pathological processes.

The role of cholesterol metabolism and various steroid abnormalities in autism spectrum disorders: A hypothesis paper

Based on evidence from the relevant research literature, we present a hypothesis that there may be a link between cholesterol, vitamin D, and steroid hormones which subsequently impacts on the development of at least some of the "autisms" [Coleman & Gillberg]. Our hypothesis, driven by the peer reviewed literature, posits that there may be links between cholesterol metabolism, which we will refer to as "steroid metabolism" and findings of steroid abnormalities of various kinds (cortisol, testosterone, estrogens, progesterone, vitamin D) in autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Further research investigating these potential links is warranted to further our understanding of the biological mechanisms underlying ASD. Autism Res 2017. © 2017 The Authors Autism Research published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of International Society for Autism Research. Autism Res 2017, 10: 1022-1044. © 2017 International Society for Autism Research, Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Aluminum-induced entropy in biological systems: implications for neurological disease

Over the last 200 years, mining, smelting, and refining of aluminum (Al) in various forms have increasingly exposed living species to this naturally abundant metal. Because of its prevalence in the earth's crust, prior to its recent uses it was regarded as inert and therefore harmless. However, Al is invariably toxic to living systems and has no known beneficial role in any biological systems. Humans are increasingly exposed to Al from food, water, medicinals, vaccines, and cosmetics, as well as from industrial occupational exposure. Al disrupts biological self-ordering, energy transduction, and signaling systems, thus increasing biosemiotic entropy. Beginning with the biophysics of water, disruption progresses through the macromolecules that are crucial to living processes (DNAs, RNAs, proteoglycans, and proteins). It injures cells, circuits, and subsystems and can cause catastrophic failures ending in death. Al forms toxic complexes with other elements, such as fluorine, and interacts negatively with mercury, lead, and glyphosate. Al negatively impacts the central nervous system in all species that have been studied, including humans. Because of the global impacts of Al on water dynamics and biosemiotic systems, CNS disorders in humans are sensitive indicators of the Al toxicants to which we are being exposed.

Cholesterol sulfate and cholesterol sulfotransferase inhibit gluconeogenesis by targeting hepatocyte nuclear factor 4α

Sulfotransferase (SULT)-mediated sulfation represents a critical mechanism in regulating the chemical and functional homeostasis of endogenous and exogenous molecules. The cholesterol sulfotransferase SULT2B1b catalyzes the sulfoconjugation of cholesterol to synthesize cholesterol sulfate (CS). In this study, we showed that the expression of SULT2B1b in the liver was induced in obese mice and during the transition from the fasted to the fed state, suggesting that the regulation of SULT2B1b is physiologically relevant. CS and SULT2B1b inhibited gluconeogenesis by targeting the gluconeogenic factor hepatocyte nuclear factor 4α (HNF4α) in both cell cultures and transgenic mice. Treatment of mice with CS or transgenic overexpression of the CS-generating enzyme SULT2B1b in the liver inhibited hepatic gluconeogenesis and alleviated metabolic abnormalities both in mice with diet-induced obesity (DIO) and in leptin-deficient (ob/ob) mice. Mechanistically, CS and SULT2B1b inhibited gluconeogenesis by suppressing the expression of acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA) synthetase (Acss), leading to decreased acetylation and nuclear exclusion of HNF4α. Our results also suggested that leptin is a potential effector of SULT2B1b in improving metabolic function. We conclude that SULT2B1b and its enzymatic by-product CS are important metabolic regulators that control glucose metabolism, suggesting CS as a potential therapeutic agent and SULT2B1b as a potential therapeutic target for metabolic disorders.

Determination of plasma cholesterol sulfate by LC-APCI-MS/MS in the context of pediatric autism

Cholesterol sulfate (CS) has various biological functions. Previously, plasma CS was measured primarily as a means to diagnose X-linked ichthyosis; however, a recent hypothesis suggests that CS deficiency might be related to autism. As such, an assay capable of measuring both very high (in the case of X-linked ichthyosis) and very low (in the case of autism) plasma CS levels is required. Here we describe a novel LC-APCI-MS/MS method for the determination of CS in human plasma, and we propose normal CS ranges for children, based on studies of a local population of normal Chinese children between the ages of 2 and 10. In addition, we have used this method to measure plasma CS in autistic children. CS was isolated by solid-phase extraction, and quantified by isotope-dilution LC-APCI-MS/MS in negative ion mode monitoring 465.3>97.1 m/z (CS) and 472.3>97.1 m/z (CS-d7). Mean recovery of the assay ranged from 88.1 to 112.7%; within- and between-run imprecisions have CVs less than 7.2 and 8.1%, respectively. The assay was linear up to at least 100 µmol L(-1). The reference interval of plasma CS in males (range: 1.16-4.23 µmol L(-1)) was found to be higher than in females (range: 0.86-3.20 µmol L(-1)). Comparison of normal and autistic children showed no statistically significant difference in the plasma CS level. In conclusion, a robust LC-APCI-MS/MS method for plasma CS was developed, and a pediatric reference interval was derived from applying the method to normal and autistic children.