Human and mouse NAIP/NLRC4 inflammasome responses to bacterial infection

A tale of two caspases

Macrophages control intracellular pathogens like Salmonella by using two caspase enzymes at different times during infection.

Dopamine-driven increase in IL-1β in myeloid cells is mediated by differential dopamine receptor expression and exacerbated by HIV

The catecholamine neurotransmitter dopamine is classically known for regulation of central nervous system (CNS) functions such as reward, movement, and cognition. Increasing evidence also indicates that dopamine regulates critical functions in peripheral organs and is an important immunoregulatory factor. We have previously shown that dopamine increases NF-κB activity, inflammasome activation, and the production of inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β in human macrophages. As myeloid lineage cells are central to the initiation and resolution of acute inflammatory responses, dopamine-mediated dysregulation of these functions could both impair the innate immune response and exacerbate chronic inflammation. However, the exact pathways by which dopamine drives myeloid inflammation are not well defined, and studies in both rodent and human systems indicate that dopamine can impact the production of inflammatory mediators through both D1-like dopamine receptors (DRD1, DRD5) and D2-like dopamine receptors (DRD2, DRD3, and DRD4). Therefore, we hypothesized that dopamine-mediated production of IL-1β in myeloid cells is regulated by the ratio of different dopamine receptors that are activated. Our data in primary human monocyte-derived macrophages (hMDM) indicate that DRD1 expression is necessary for dopamine-mediated increases in IL-1β, and that changes in the expression of DRD2 and other dopamine receptors can alter the magnitude of the dopamine-mediated increase in IL-1β. Mature hMDM have a high D1-like to D2-like receptor ratio, which is different relative to monocytes and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). We further confirm in human microglia cell lines that a high ratio of D1-like to D2-like receptors promotes dopamine-induced increases in IL-1β gene and protein expression using pharmacological inhibition or overexpression of dopamine receptors. RNA-sequencing of dopamine-treated microglia shows that genes encoding functions in IL-1β signaling pathways, microglia activation, and neurotransmission increased with dopamine treatment. Finally, using HIV as an example of a chronic inflammatory disease that is substantively worsened by comorbid substance use disorders (SUDs) that impact dopaminergic signaling, we show increased effects of dopamine on inflammasome activation and IL-1β in the presence of HIV in both human macrophages and microglia. These data suggest that use of addictive substances and dopamine-modulating therapeutics could dysregulate the innate inflammatory response and exacerbate chronic neuroimmunological conditions like HIV. Thus, a detailed understanding of dopamine-mediated changes in inflammation, in particular pathways regulating IL-1β, will be critical to effectively tailor medication regimens.

From Gene to Intervention: NLRC4 and WIPI1 Regulate Septic Acute Lung Injury Through Autophagy

Background

Septic Acute Lung Injury (SALI)-induced severe respiratory dysfunction has been established to significantly increase patient mortality rates and socioeconomic costs. To mitigate cellular damage, autophagy -a conserved biological process in organisms -degrades damaged cellular components, such as proteins and organelles. Although autophagy is crucially involved in the inflammatory response, its precise molecular mechanisms in SALI remain unclear, forming the basis of this study.

Methods

Herein, two microarray datasets (GSE33118 and GSE131761) and three single-cell sequencing datasets (SCP43, SCP548, and SCP2156) derived from human samples were used to ascertain the interrelationship between Differentially Expressed Autophagy-Related Genes (DEARGs) and SALI. The relationship between key DEARGs and SALI was validated both in vitro and in vivo using various techniques, including flow cytometry, Immunofluorescence (IF), Quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction (qPCR), Western Blotting (WB), and small interfering RNA (siRNA).

Results

Herein, we found that autophagy activation attenuated SALI, with NLRC4 and WIPI1 as the two key DEARGs involved. Specifically, NLRC4 and WIPI1 downregulation mitigated SALI via autophagy activation. Compared to NLRC4, WIPI1 was more closely associated with noncanonical autophagic flux in SALI. Furthermore, immune infiltration analysis and single-cell data showed a close relationship between NLRC4, WIPI1, and immune cells.

Conclusion

Our findings revealed that SALI correlated strongly with autophagy, with the downregulation of the two key DEARGs, NLRC4 and WIPI1, attenuating sepsis lung injury via autophagy regulation, highlighting their therapeutic significance in SALI.

Inhibition of DPP-4 Attenuates Endotoxemia-Induced NLRC4 Inflammasome and Inflammation in Visceral Adipose Tissue of Mice Fed a High-Fat Diet

Inflammasomes are protein complexes that trigger pro-inflammatory responses and promote many diseases, including adipose tissue dysfunction. Linagliptin (L), a DPP-4 inhibitor used for type 2 diabetes therapy, has putative anti-inflammatory effects. This work explores L effects on inflammasome regulation, inflammation, and adipose tissue dysfunction in obese mice. Male C57BL/6N mice were fed a normal chow (NC) diet, high-fat (HF) diet, or HF diet with L (HFL) for 15 weeks. Gene expression and histological examinations were performed on visceral (VAT) and subcutaneous (SAT) adipose tissue samples. Biomarkers were quantified on sera. Murine macrophages were utilized for in vitro analyses. L decreased HF-induced endotoxemia and circulating inflammatory indicators. Despite having no effect on body weight, L reduced VAT inflammation by decreasing endotoxemia-induced NLRC4 inflammasome, inflammation severity, and fat cell hypertrophy. Although SAT response differed from VAT, inflammation was slightly reduced in this tissue too. In vitro, L modulated inflammation by directly reducing the pro-inflammatory macrophage phenotype. In obesity, increased NLRC4 inflammasome expression links endotoxemia and VAT inflammation. L protected against endotoxemia, maybe by affecting gut permeability and VAT responses. The decreased polarization of macrophages toward a pro-inflammatory phenotype and the reduction in adipocyte hypertrophy are involved in the response to L.

T3SS translocon induces pyroptosis by direct interaction with NLRC4/NAIP inflammasome

Type III secretion system (T3SS) is a virulence apparatus existing in many bacterial pathogens. Structurally, T3SS consists of the base, needle, tip, and translocon. The NLRC4 inflammasome is the major receptor for T3SS needle and basal rod proteins. Whether other T3SS components are recognized by NLRC4 is unclear. In this study, using Edwardsiella tarda as a model intracellular pathogen, we examined T3SS-inflammasome interaction and its effect on cell death. E. tarda induced pyroptosis in a manner that required the bacterial translocon and the host inflammasome proteins of NLRC4, NLRP3, ASC, and caspase 1/4. The translocon protein EseB triggered NLRC4/NAIP-mediated pyroptosis by binding NAIP via its C-terminal region, particularly the terminal 6 residues (T6R). EseB homologs exist widely in T3SS-positive bacteria and share high identities in T6R. Like E. tarda EseB, all of the representatives of the EseB homologs exhibited T6R-dependent NLRC4 activation ability. Together these results revealed the function and molecular mechanism of EseB to induce host cell pyroptosis and suggested a highly conserved inflammasome-activation mechanism of T3SS translocon in bacterial pathogens.

The intricate interactions between inflammasomes and bacterial pathogens: Roles, mechanisms, and therapeutic potentials

Inflammasomes are intracellular multiprotein complexes that consist of a sensor, an adaptor, and a caspase enzyme to cleave interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-18 into their mature forms. In addition, caspase-1 and -11 activation results in the cleavage of gasdermin D to form pores, thereby inducing pyroptosis. Activation of the inflammasome and pyroptosis promotes host defense against pathogens, whereas dysregulation of the inflammasome can result in various pathologies. Inflammasomes exhibit versatile microbial signal detection, directly or indirectly, through cellular processes, such as ion fluctuations, reactive oxygen species generation, and the disruption of intracellular organelle function; however, bacteria have adaptive strategies to manipulate the inflammasome by altering microbe-associated molecular patterns, intercepting innate pathways with secreted effectors, and attenuating inflammatory and cell death responses. In this review, we summarize recent advances in the diverse roles of the inflammasome during bacterial infections and discuss how bacteria exploit inflammasome pathways to establish infections or persistence. In addition, we highlight the therapeutic potential of harnessing bacterial immune subversion strategies against acute and chronic bacterial infections. A more comprehensive understanding of the significance of inflammasomes in immunity and their intricate roles in the battle between bacterial pathogens and hosts will lead to the development of innovative strategies to address emerging threats posed by the expansion of drug-resistant bacterial infections.

Inflammation unleashed: The role of pyroptosis in chronic liver diseases

Pyroptosis, a newly identified form of programmed cell death intertwined with inflammatory responses, is facilitated by the Gasdermin family's pore-forming activity, leading to cell lysis and the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines. This process is a double-edged sword in innate immunity, offering protection against pathogens while risking excessive inflammation and tissue damage when dysregulated. Specifically, pyroptosis operates through two distinct signaling pathways, namely the Caspase-1 pathway and the Caspase-4/5/11 pathway. In the context of chronic liver diseases like fibrosis and cirrhosis, inflammation emerges as a central contributing factor to their pathogenesis. The identification of inflammation is characterized by the activation of innate immune cells and the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1α, IL-1β, and TNF-α. This review explores the interrelationship between pyroptosis and the inflammasome, a protein complex located in liver cells that recognizes danger signals and initiates Caspase-1 activation, resulting in the secretion of IL-1β and IL-18. The article delves into the influence of the inflammasome and pyroptosis on various liver disorders, with a specific focus on their molecular and pathophysiological mechanisms. Additionally, the potential therapeutic implications of targeting pyroptosis for liver diseases are highlighted for future consideration.

Pyroptosis regulation by Salmonella effectors

The genus Salmonella contains the most common foodborne pathogens frequently isolated from food-producing animals and is responsible for zoonotic infections in humans and animals. Salmonella infection in humans and animals can cause intestinal damage, resulting in intestinal inflammation and disruption of intestinal homeostasis more severe cases can lead to bacteremia. Pyroptosis, a proinflammatory form of programmed cell death, is involved in many disease processes. Inflammasomes, pyroptosis, along with their respective signaling cascades, are instrumental in the preservation of intestinal homeostasis. In recent years, with the in-depth study of pyroptosis, our comprehension of the virulence factors and effector proteins in Salmonella has reached an extensive level, a deficit persists in our knowledge regarding the intrinsic pathogenic mechanisms about pyroptosis, necessitating a continued pursuit of understanding and investigation. In this review, we discuss the occurrence of pyroptosis induced by Salmonella effectors to provide new ideas for elucidating the regulatory mechanisms through which Salmonella virulence factors and effector proteins trigger pyroptosis could pave the way for novel concepts and strategies in the clinical prevention of Salmonella infections and the treatment of associated diseases.

CLEC5A Promotes Neuronal Pyroptosis in Rat Spinal Cord Injury Models by Interacting with TREM1 and Elevating NLRC4 Expression

Pyroptosis, an inflammatory programmed cell death, has recently been found to play an important role in spinal cord injury (SCI). C-type lectin domain family 5 member A (CLEC5A), triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 1 (TREM1), and NLR-family CARD-containing protein 4 (NLRC4) have been reported to be associated with neuronal pyroptosis, but few studies have clarified their functions and regulatory mechanisms in SCI. In this study, CLEC5A, TREM1, and NLRC4 were highly expressed in lidocaine-induced SCI rat models, and their knockdown alleviated lidocaine-induced SCI. The elevation of pyroptosis-related indicators LDH, ASC, GSDMD-N, IL-18, caspase-1, and IL-1β levels in SCI rats was attenuated after silencing of CLEC5A, TREM1, or NLRC4. Lidocaine-induced decrease in cell viability and the elevation in cell death were partly reversed after CLEC5A, TREM1, or NLRC4 silencing. Lidocaine-mediated effects on the levels of LDH, ASC, GSDMD-N, IL-18, caspase-1, and IL-1β in lidocaine-induced PC12 cells were weakened by downregulating CLEC5A, TREM1, or NLRC4. CLEC5A could interact with TREM1 to mediate NLRC4 expression, thus accelerating neuronal pyroptosis, ultimately leading to SCI exacerbation. In conclusions, CLEC5A interacted with TREM1 to increase NLRC4 expression, thus promoting neuronal pyroptosis in rat SCI models, providing new insights into the role of neuronal pyroptosis in SCI.

The role of pyroptosis in the occurrence and development of pregnancy-related diseases

Pyroptosis is a form of programmed cell death that is crucial in the development of various diseases, including autoimmune diseases, atherosclerotic diseases, cancer, and pregnancy complications. In recent years, it has gained significant attention in national and international research due to its association with inflammatory immune overactivation and its involvement in pregnancy complications such as miscarriage and preeclampsia (PE). The mechanisms discussed include the canonical pyroptosis pathway of gasdermin activation and pore formation (caspase-1-dependent pyroptosis) and the non-canonical pyroptosis pathway (cysteoaspartic enzymes other than caspase-1). These pathways work on various cellular and factorial levels to influence normal pregnancy. This review aims to summarize and analyze the pyroptosis pathways associated with abnormal pregnancies and pregnancy complications. The objective is to enhance pregnancy outcomes by identifying various targets to prevent the onset of pyroptosis.

Mechanisms of host adaptation by bacterial pathogens

The emergence of new infectious diseases poses a major threat to humans, animals, and broader ecosystems. Defining factors that govern the ability of pathogens to adapt to new host species is therefore a crucial research imperative. Pathogenic bacteria are of particular concern, given dwindling treatment options amid the continued expansion of antimicrobial resistance. In this review, we summarize recent advancements in the understanding of bacterial host species adaptation, with an emphasis on pathogens of humans and related mammals. We focus particularly on molecular mechanisms underlying key steps of bacterial host adaptation including colonization, nutrient acquisition, and immune evasion, as well as suggest key areas for future investigation. By developing a greater understanding of the mechanisms of host adaptation in pathogenic bacteria, we may uncover new strategies to target these microbes for the treatment and prevention of infectious diseases in humans, animals, and the broader environment.

Dopamine-driven Increase in IL-1β in Myeloid Cells is Mediated by Differential Dopamine Receptor Expression and Exacerbated by HIV

The catecholamine neurotransmitter dopamine is classically known for regulation of central nervous system (CNS) functions such as reward, movement, and cognition. Increasing evidence also indicates that dopamine regulates critical functions in peripheral organs and is an important immunoregulatory factor. We have previously shown that dopamine increases NF-κB activity, inflammasome activation, and the production of inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β in human macrophages. As myeloid lineage cells are central to the initiation and resolution of acute inflammatory responses, dopamine-mediated dysregulation of these functions could both impair the innate immune response and exacerbate chronic inflammation. However, the exact pathways by which dopamine drives myeloid inflammation are not well defined, and studies in both rodent and human systems indicate that dopamine can impact the production of inflammatory mediators through both D1-like dopamine receptors (DRD1, DRD5) and D2-like dopamine receptors (DRD2, DRD3, and DRD4). Therefore, we hypothesized that dopamine-mediated production of IL-1β in myeloid cells is regulated by the ratio of different dopamine receptors that are activated. Our data in primary human monocyte-derived macrophages (hMDM) indicate that DRD1 expression is necessary for dopamine-mediated increases in IL-1β, and that changes in the expression of DRD2 and other dopamine receptors can alter the magnitude of the dopamine-mediated increase in IL-1β. Mature hMDM have a high D1-like to D2-like receptor ratio, which is different relative to monocytes and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). We further confirm in human microglia cell lines that a high ratio of D1-like to D2-like receptors promotes dopamine-induced increases in IL-1β gene and protein expression using pharmacological inhibition or overexpression of dopamine receptors. RNA-sequencing of dopamine-treated microglia shows that genes encoding functions in IL-1β signaling pathways, microglia activation, and neurotransmission increased with dopamine treatment. Finally, using HIV as an example of a chronic inflammatory disease that is substantively worsened by comorbid substance use disorders (SUDs) that impact dopaminergic signaling, we show increased effects of dopamine on inflammasome activation and IL-1β in the presence of HIV in both human macrophages and microglia. These data suggest that use of addictive substances and dopamine-modulating therapeutics could dysregulate the innate inflammatory response and exacerbate chronic neuroimmunological conditions like HIV. Thus, a detailed understanding of dopamine-mediated changes in inflammation, in particular pathways regulating IL-1β, will be critical to effectively tailor medication regimens.

Cinnamaldehyde inhibits the NLRP3 inflammasome by preserving mitochondrial integrity and augmenting autophagy in Shigella sonnei-infected macrophages

BACKGROUND

Worldwide, more than 125 million people are infected with Shigella each year and develop shigellosis. In our previous study, we provided evidence that Shigella sonnei infection triggers activation of the NACHT, LRR, and PYD domain-containing protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome in macrophages. NLRP3 inflammasome is responsible for regulating the release of the proinflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-18 through the protease caspase-1. Researchers and biotech companies have shown great interest in developing inhibitors of the NLRP3 inflammasome, recognizing it as a promising therapeutic target for several diseases. The leaves of Cinnamomum osmophloeum kaneh, an indigenous tree species in Taiwan, are rich in cinnamaldehyde (CA), a compound present in significant amounts. Our aim is to investigate how CA affects the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome in S. sonnei-infected macrophages.

METHODS

Macrophages were infected with S. sonnei, with or without CA. ELISA and Western blotting were employed to detect protein expression or phosphorylation levels. Flow cytometry was utilized to assess H2O2 production and mitochondrial damage. Fluorescent microscopy was used to detect cathepsin B activity and mitochondrial ROS production. Additionally, colony-forming units were employed to measure macrophage phagocytosis and bactericidal activity.

RESULTS

CA inhibited the NLRP3 inflammasome in S. sonnei-infected macrophages by suppressing caspase-1 activation and reducing IL-1β and IL-18 expression. CA also inhibited pyroptosis by decreasing caspase-11 and Gasdermin D activation. Mechanistically, CA reduced lysosomal damage and enhanced autophagy, while leaving mitochondrial damage, mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphorylation, and NF-κB activation unaffected. Furthermore, CA significantly boosted phagocytosis and the bactericidal activity of macrophages against S. sonnei, while reducing secretion of IL-6 and tumour necrosis factor following infection.

CONCLUSION

CA shows promise as a nutraceutical for mitigating S. sonnei infection by diminishing inflammation and enhancing phagocytosis and the bactericidal activity of macrophages against S. sonnei.

The autoinflammation-associated NLRC4V341A mutation increases microbiota-independent IL-18 production but does not recapitulate human autoinflammatory symptoms in mice

Background

Autoinflammation with infantile enterocolitis (AIFEC) is an often fatal disease caused by gain-of-function mutations in the NLRC4 inflammasome. This inflammasomopathy is characterized by macrophage activation syndrome (MAS)-like episodes as well as neonatal-onset enterocolitis. Although elevated IL-18 levels were suggested to take part in driving AIFEC pathology, the triggers for IL-18 production and its ensuing pathogenic effects in these patients are incompletely understood.

Methods

Here, we developed and characterized a novel genetic mouse model expressing a murine version of the AIFEC-associated NLRC4V341A mutation from its endogenous Nlrc4 genomic locus.

Results

NLRC4V341A expression in mice recapitulated increased circulating IL-18 levels as observed in AIFEC patients. Housing NLRC4V341A-expressing mice in germfree (GF) conditions showed that these systemic IL-18 levels were independent of the microbiota, and unmasked an additional IL-18-inducing effect of NLRC4V341A expression in the intestines. Remarkably, elevated IL-18 levels did not provoke detectable intestinal pathologies in NLRC4V341A-expressing mice, even not upon genetically ablating IL-18 binding protein (IL-18BP), which is an endogenous IL-18 inhibitor that has been used therapeutically in AIFEC. In addition, NLRC4V341A expression did not alter susceptibility to the NLRC4-activating gastrointestinal pathogens Salmonella Typhimurium and Citrobacter rodentium.

Conclusion

As observed in AIFEC patients, mice expressing a murine NLRC4V341A mutant show elevated systemic IL-18 levels, suggesting that the molecular mechanisms by which this NLRC4V341A mutant induces excessive IL-18 production are conserved between humans and mice. However, while our GF and infection experiments argue against a role for commensal or pathogenic bacteria, identifying the triggers and mechanisms that synergize with IL-18 to drive NLRC4V341A-associated pathologies will require further research in this NLRC4V341A mouse model.

Epithelial inflammasomes, gasdermins, and mucosal inflammation - Lessons from Salmonella and Shigella infected mice

Besides its crucial function in nutrient absorbance and as barrier against the microbiota, the gut epithelium is essential for sensing pathogenic insults and mounting of an appropriate early immune response. In mice, the activation of the canonical NAIP/NLRC4 inflammasome is critical for the defense against enterobacterial infections. Activation of the NAIP/NLRC4 inflammasome triggers the extrusion of infected intestinal epithelial cells (IEC) into the gut lumen, concomitant with inflammasome-mediated lytic cell death. The membrane permeabilization, a hallmark of pyroptosis, is caused by the pore-forming proteins called gasdermins (GSDMs). Recent work has revealed that NAIP/NLRC4-dependent extrusion of infected IECs can, however, also be executed in the absence of GSDMD. In fact, several reports highlighted that various cell death pathways (e.g., pyroptosis or apoptosis) and unique mechanisms specific to particular infection models and stages of gut infection are in action during epithelial inflammasome defense against intestinal pathogens. Here, we summarize the current knowledge regarding the underlying mechanisms and speculate on the putative functions of the epithelial inflammasome activation and cell death, with a particular emphasis on mouse infection models for two prominent enterobacterial pathogens, Salmonella Typhimurium and Shigella flexneri.

Yersinia deploys type III-secreted effectors to evade caspase-4 inflammasome activation in human cells

IMPORTANCE

Yersinia are responsible for significant disease burden in humans, ranging from recurrent disease outbreaks (yersiniosis) to pandemics (Yersinia pestis plague). Together with rising antibiotic resistance rates, there is a critical need to better understand Yersinia pathogenesis and host immune mechanisms, as this information will aid in developing improved immunomodulatory therapeutics. Inflammasome responses in human cells are less studied relative to murine models of infection, though recent studies have uncovered key differences in inflammasome responses between mice and humans. Here, we dissect human intestinal epithelial cell and macrophage inflammasome responses to Yersinia pseudotuberculosis. Our findings provide insight into species- and cell type-specific differences in inflammasome responses to Yersinia.