Negative staining and cryo-negative staining of macromolecules and viruses for TEM

Advances and opportunities in process analytical technologies for viral vector manufacturing

Viral vectors are an emerging, exciting class of biologics whose application in vaccines, oncology, and gene therapy has grown exponentially in recent years. Following first regulatory approval, this class of therapeutics has been vigorously pursued to treat monogenic disorders including orphan diseases, entering hundreds of new products into pipelines. Viral vector manufacturing supporting clinical efforts has spurred the introduction of a broad swath of analytical techniques dedicated to assessing the diverse and evolving panel of Critical Quality Attributes (CQAs) of these products. Herein, we provide an overview of the current state of analytics enabling measurement of CQAs such as capsid and vector identities, product titer, transduction efficiency, impurity clearance etc. We highlight orthogonal methods and discuss the advantages and limitations of these techniques while evaluating their adaptation as process analytical technologies. Finally, we identify gaps and propose opportunities in enabling existing technologies for real-time monitoring from hardware, software, and data analysis viewpoints for technology development within viral vector biomanufacturing.

Biohybrid materials comprising an artificial peroxidase and differently shaped gold nanoparticles

The immobilization of biocatalysts on inorganic supports allows the development of bio-nanohybrid materials with defined functional properties. Gold nanomaterials (AuNMs) are the main players in this field, due to their fascinating shape-dependent properties that account for their versatility. Even though incredible progress has been made in the preparation of AuNMs, few studies have been carried out to analyze the impact of particle morphology on the behavior of immobilized biocatalysts. Herein, the artificial peroxidase Fe(iii)-Mimochrome VI*a (FeMC6*a) was conjugated to two different anisotropic gold nanomaterials, nanorods (AuNRs) and triangular nanoprisms (AuNTs), to investigate how the properties of the nanosupport can affect the functional behavior of FeMC6*a. The conjugation of FeMC6*a to AuNMs was performed by a click-chemistry approach, using FeMC6*a modified with pegylated aza-dibenzocyclooctyne (FeMC6*a-PEG4@DBCO), which was allowed to react with azide-functionalized AuNRs and AuNTs, synthesized from citrate-capped AuNMs. To this end, a literature protocol for depleting CTAB from AuNRs was herein reported for the first time to prepare citrate-AuNTs. The overall results suggest that the nanomaterial shape influences the nanoconjugate functional properties. Besides giving new insights into the effect of the surfaces on the artificial peroxidase properties, these results open up the way for creating novel nanostructures with potential applications in the field of sensing devices.

Electron videography of a lipid-protein tango

Biological phenomena, from enzymatic catalysis to synaptic transmission, originate in the structural transformations of biomolecules and biomolecular assemblies in liquid water. However, directly imaging these nanoscopic dynamics without probes or labels has been a fundamental methodological challenge. Here, we developed an approach for "electron videography"-combining liquid phase electron microscopy with molecular modeling-with which we filmed the nanoscale structural fluctuations of individual, suspended, and unlabeled membrane protein nanodiscs in liquid. Systematic comparisons with biochemical data and simulation indicate the graphene encapsulation involved can afford sufficiently reduced effects of the illuminating electron beam for these observations to yield quantitative fingerprints of nanoscale lipid-protein interactions. Our results suggest that lipid-protein interactions delineate dynamically modified membrane domains across unexpectedly long ranges. Moreover, they contribute to the molecular mechanics of the nanodisc as a whole in a manner specific to the protein within. Overall, this work illustrates an experimental approach to film, quantify, and understand biomolecular dynamics at the nanometer scale.

DNA origami characterized via a solid-state nanopore: insights into nanostructure dimensions, rigidity and yield

Due to their programmability via specific base pairing, self-assembled DNA origami structures have proven to be useful for a wide variety of applications, including diagnostics, molecular computation, drug delivery, and therapeutics. Measuring and characterizing these structures is therefore of great interest and an important part of quality control. Here, we show the extent to which DNA nanostructures can be characterized by a solid-state nanopore; a non-destructive, label-free, single-molecule sensor capable of electrically detecting and characterizing charged biomolecules. We demonstrate that in addition to geometrical dimensions, nanopore sensing can provide information on the mechanical properties, assembly yield, and stability of DNA nanostructures. For this work, we use a model structure consisting of a 3 helix-bundle (3HB), i.e. three interconnected DNA double helices using a M13 scaffold folded twice on itself by short DNA staple strands, and translocate it through solid-state nanopores fabricated by controlled breakdown. We present detailed analysis of the passage characteristics of 3HB structures through nanopores under different experimental conditions which suggest that segments of locally higher flexibility are present along the nanostructure contour that allow for the otherwise rigid 3HB to fold inside nanopores. By characterizing partially melted 3HB structures, we find that locally flexible segments are likely due to short staple oligomers missing from the fully assembled structure. The 3HB used herein is a prototypical example to establish nanopores as a sensitive, non-destructive, and label-free alternative to conventional techniques such as gel electrophoresis with which to characterize DNA nanostructures.

Limonene anti-TMV activity and its mode of action

The main component of orange peel essential oil is limonene. Limonene is a natural active monoterpene with multiple functions, such as antibacterial, antiseptic and antitumor activity, and has important development value in agriculture. This study found that limonene exhibited excellent anti-tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) bioactivity, with results showing that its protection activity, inactivation activity, and curative activity at 800 μg/mL were 84.93%, 59.28%, and 58.89%, respectively-significantly higher than those of chito-oligosaccharides. A direct effect of limonene on TMV particles was not observed, but limonene triggered the hypersensitive response (HR) in tobacco. Further determination of the induction activity of limonene against TMV demonstrated that it displayed good induction activity at 800 μg/mL, with a value of 60.59%. The results of physiological and biochemical experiments showed that at different treatment days, 800 μg/mL limonene induced the enhancement of defense enzymes activity in tobacco, including of SOD, CAT, POD, and PAL, which respectively increased by 3.2, 4.67, 4.12, and 2.33 times compared with the control (POD and SOD activities reached highest on the seventh day, and PAL and CAT activities reached highest on the fifth day). Limonene also enhanced the relative expression levels of pathogenesis related (PR) genes, including NPR1, PR1, and PR5, which were upregulated 3.84-fold, 1.86-fold and 1.71-fold, respectively. Limonene induced the accumulation of salicylic acid (SA), and increased the relative expression levels of genes related to SA biosynthesis (PAL) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) burst (RBOHB), which respectively increased by 2.76 times and 4.23 times higher than the control. Systemic acquired resistance (SAR) is an important plant immune defense against pathogen infection. The observed accumulation of SA, the enhancement of defense enzymes activity and the high-level expression of defense-related genes suggested that limonene may induce resistance to TMV in tobacco by activating SAR mediated by the SA signaling pathway. Furthermore, the experimental results demonstrated that the expression level of the chlorophyll biosynthesis gene POR1 was increased 1.72-fold compared to the control in tobacco treated with 800 μg/mL limonene, indicating that limonene treatment may increase chlorophyll content in tobacco. The results of pot experiment showed that 800 μg/mL limonene induced plant resistance against Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (33.33%), Phytophthora capsici (54.55%), Botrytis cinerea (50.00%). The bioassay results indicated that limonene provided broad-spectrum and long-lasting resistance to pathogen infection. Therefore, limonene has good development and utilization value, and is expected to be developed into a new botanical-derived anti-virus agent and plant immunity activator in addition to insecticides and fungicides.

Molecular Engineering of E. coli Bacterioferritin: A Versatile Nanodimensional Protein Cage

Currently, intense interest is focused on the discovery and application of new multisubunit cage proteins and spherical virus capsids to the fields of bionanotechnology, drug delivery, and diagnostic imaging as their internal cavities can serve as hosts for fluorophores or bioactive molecular cargo. Bacterioferritin is unusual in the ferritin protein superfamily of iron-storage cage proteins in that it contains twelve heme cofactors and is homomeric. The goal of the present study is to expand the capabilities of ferritins by developing new approaches to molecular cargo encapsulation employing bacterioferritin. Two strategies were explored to control the encapsulation of a diverse range of molecular guests compared to random entrapment, a predominant strategy employed in this area. The first was the inclusion of histidine-tag peptide fusion sequences within the internal cavity of bacterioferritin. This approach allowed for the successful and controlled encapsulation of a fluorescent dye, a protein (fluorescently labeled streptavidin), or a 5 nm gold nanoparticle. The second strategy, termed the heme-dependent cassette strategy, involved the substitution of the native heme with heme analogs attached to (i) fluorescent dyes or (ii) nickel-nitrilotriacetate (NTA) groups (which allowed for controllable encapsulation of a histidine-tagged green fluorescent protein). An in silico docking approach identified several small molecules able to replace the heme and capable of controlling the quaternary structure of the protein. A transglutaminase-based chemoenzymatic approach to surface modification of this cage protein was also accomplished, allowing for future nanoparticle targeting. This research presents novel strategies to control a diverse set of molecular encapsulations and adds a further level of sophistication to internal protein cavity engineering.

Skin drug delivery using lipid vesicles: A starting guideline for their development

Lipid vesicles can provide a cost-effective enhancement of skin drug absorption when vesicle production process is optimised. It is an important challenge to design the ideal vesicle, since their properties and features are related, as changes in one affect the others. Here, we review the main components, preparation and characterization methods commonly used, and the key properties that lead to highly efficient vesicles for transdermal drug delivery purposes. We stand by size, deformability degree and drug loading, as the most important vesicle features that determine the further transdermal drug absorption. The interest in this technology is increasing, as demonstrated by the exponential growth of publications on the topic. Although long-term preservation and scalability issues have limited the commercialization of lipid vesicle products, freeze-drying and modern escalation methods overcome these difficulties, thus predicting a higher use of these technologies in the market and clinical practice.

Three-Dimensional Reconstruction of the Hepatitis C Virus Envelope Glycoprotein E1E2 Heterodimer by Electron Microscopic Analysis

Despite the development of highly effective hepatitis C virus (HCV) treatments, an effective prophylactic vaccine is still lacking. HCV infection is mediated by its envelope glycoproteins, E1 and E2, during the entry process, with E2 binding to cell receptors and E1 mediating endosomal fusion. The structure of E1E2 has only been partially resolved by X-ray crystallography of the core domain of E2 protein (E2c) and its complex with various neutralizing antibodies. Structural understanding of the E1E2 heterodimer in its native form can advance the design of candidates for HCV vaccine development. Here, we analyze the structure of the recombinant HCV E1E2 heterodimer with the aid of well-defined monoclonal anti-E1 and E2 antibodies, as well as a small-molecule chlorcyclizine-diazirine-biotin that can target and cross-link the putative E1 fusion domain. Three-dimensional (3D) models were generated after extensive 2D classification analysis with negative-stain single-particle data sets. We modeled the available crystal structures of the E2c and Fabs into 3D volumes of E1E2-Fab complexes based on the shape and dimension of the domain density. The E1E2 heterodimer exists in monomeric form and consists of a main globular body, presumably depicting the E1 and E2 stem/transmembrane domain, and a protruding structure representing the E2c region, based on anti-E2 Fab binding. At low resolution, a model generated from negative-stain analysis revealed the unique binding and orientation of individual or double Fabs onto the E1 and E2 components of the complex. Cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) of the double Fab complexes resulted in a refined structural model of the E1E2 heterodimer, presented here. IMPORTANCE Recombinant HCV E1E2 heterodimer is being developed as a vaccine candidate. Using electron microscopy, we demonstrated unique features of E1E2 in complex with various neutralizing antibodies and small molecule inhibitors that are important to understanding its antigenicity and induction of immune response.

Chiral DNA Nanotubes Self-Assembled from Building Blocks with Tailorable Curvature and Twist

DNA nanotubes with prescribed geometry could allow for nanomaterial organization with designed optical or electrical function. As one of the dominating driving forces for DNA nanotube assembly, intrinsic curvature and twist of building blocks can be induced by bending deformation and twisting deformation. However, it is still unknown that how bending and twisting design on nanoscale building blocks affects the geometry of DNA tubes with micrometer length. Here, through targeted base pair deletion or insertion, the amount of bending deformation in building blocks is modulated by length gradient and the amount of twisting deformation is modulated by average twist density. This work systematically explores the independent effect and synergistic effect of two types of deformation on tube geometry, including diameter, chirality, and helical angles, via a streptavidin-labeling technique. The design rules enable the construction of DNA nanotubes with prescribed chirality and tailored diameters.

Comparison of sample preparation techniques for the physicochemical characterization of Orf virus particles

The determination of the electrostatic charge of biological nanoparticles requires a purified, mono-disperse, and concentrated sample. Previous studies proofed an impact of the preparation protocol on the stability and electro-hydrodynamics of viruses, whereas commonly used methods are often complex and do not allow the required sample throughput. In the present study, the application of the (I) steric exclusion chromatography (SXC) for the Orf virus (ORFV) purification and subsequent physicochemical characterization was evaluated and compared to (II) SXC followed by centrifugal diafiltration and (III) sucrose cushion ultracentrifugation. The three methods were characterized in terms of protein removal, size distribution, infectious virus recovery, visual appearance, and electrophoretic mobility as a function of pH. All preparation techniques achieved a protein removal of more than 99 %, and (I) an infectious ORFV recovery of more than 85 %. Monodisperse samples were realized by (I) and (III). In summary, ORFV samples prepared by (I) and (III) displayed comparable quality. Additionally, (I) offered the shortest operation time and easy application. Based on the obtained data, the three procedures were ranked according to eight criteria of possible practical relevance, which delineate the potential of SXC as virus preparation method for physicochemical analysis.

Cryo-EM structure of an extracellular Geobacter OmcE cytochrome filament reveals tetrahaem packing

Electrically conductive appendages from the anaerobic bacterium Geobacter sulfurreducens were first observed two decades ago, with genetic and biochemical data suggesting that conductive fibres were type IV pili. Recently, an extracellular conductive filament of G. sulfurreducens was found to contain polymerized c-type cytochrome OmcS subunits, not pilin subunits. Here we report that G. sulfurreducens also produces a second, thinner appendage comprised of cytochrome OmcE subunits and solve its structure using cryo-electron microscopy at ~4.3 Å resolution. Although OmcE and OmcS subunits have no overall sequence or structural similarities, upon polymerization both form filaments that share a conserved haem packing arrangement in which haems are coordinated by histidines in adjacent subunits. Unlike OmcS filaments, OmcE filaments are highly glycosylated. In extracellular fractions from G. sulfurreducens, we detected type IV pili comprising PilA-N and -C chains, along with abundant B-DNA. OmcE is the second cytochrome filament to be characterized using structural and biophysical methods. We propose that there is a broad class of conductive bacterial appendages with conserved haem packing (rather than sequence homology) that enable long-distance electron transport to chemicals or other microbial cells.

Development of an Indirect Fluorescent Antibody (IFA) Assay for the Detection of Leishmania RNA Virus 2 (LRV2) in Leishmania Parasites

BACKGROUND

Detection of Leishmania RNA virus (LRV) in Old World Leishmania species and their possible role in the disease prognosis requires sensitive and specific methods, preferably independent of the viral genome. We aimed to develop an indirect immunofluorescence antibody (IFA) assay to detect LRV in the Old World Leishmania parasites.

METHODS

Clinical samples were collected from 86 cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) patients in different endemic areas of CL in Iran, during 2017-2019. For antibody preparation, the viruses were obtained from sediment of an LRV-infected L. major culture-using freeze and thaw cycles followed by gradient cesium chloride centrifugation. The purified viruses were used to immunize a male 3-4 months rabbit. Various dilutions of the LRV-immunized rabbit's serum and a conjugated antibody were deployed to detect LRV in 48 isolates by IFA assay.

RESULTS

LRV virus was detected in four of the 48 CL cases using IFA method. Amplification of a partial fragment of RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) gene from the isolates confirmed the IFA results. In phylogeny, the generated RdRp sequences from four isolates were grouped with the other Old World LRVs, but separate from L. aethiopica LRVs, which appeared as a highly supported distinct clade.

CONCLUSION

Further optimization of this approach to detect the LRV directly in lesion scrapings can make it a more reliable tool for field studies and disclosing the virus's possible role in disseminating and unusual clinical features.

Phenol-soluble modulins PSMα3 and PSMβ2 form nanotubes that are cross-α amyloids

Phenol-soluble modulins (PSMs) are peptide-based virulence factors that play significant roles in the pathogenesis of staphylococcal strains in community-associated and hospital-associated infections. In addition to cytotoxicity, PSMs display the propensity to self-assemble into fibrillar species, which may be mediated through the formation of amphipathic conformations. Here, we analyze the self-assembly behavior of two PSMs, PSMα3 and PSMβ2, which are derived from peptides expressed by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), a significant human pathogen. In both cases, we observed the formation of a mixture of self-assembled species including twisted filaments, helical ribbons, and nanotubes, which can reversibly interconvert in vitro. Cryo–electron microscopy structural analysis of three PSM nanotubes, two derived from PSMα3 and one from PSMβ2, revealed that the assemblies displayed remarkably similar structures based on lateral association of cross-α amyloid protofilaments. The amphipathic helical conformations of PSMα3 and PSMβ2 enforced a bilayer arrangement within the protofilaments that defined the structures of the respective PSMα3 and PSMβ2 nanotubes. We demonstrate that, similar to amyloids based on cross-β protofilaments, cross-α amyloids derived from these PSMs display polymorphism, not only in terms of the global morphology (e.g., twisted filament, helical ribbon, and nanotube) but also with respect to the number of protofilaments within a given peptide assembly. These results suggest that the folding landscape of PSM derivatives may be more complex than originally anticipated and that the assemblies are able to sample a wide range of supramolecular structural space.

Preyssler-type phosphotungstate is a new family of negative-staining reagents for the TEM observation of viruses

Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is an essential method in virology because it allows for direct visualization of virus morphology at a nanometer scale. Negative staining to coat virions with heavy metal ions must be performed before TEM observations to achieve sufficient contrast. Herein, we report that potassium salts of Preyssler-type phosphotungstates (K_(15-n)[P₅W₃₀O₁₁₀Mⁿ⁺], M = Na⁺, Ca²⁺, Ce³⁺, Eu³⁺, Bi³⁺, or Y³⁺) are high-performance negative staining reagents. Additionally, we compare the staining abilities of these salts to those of uranyl acetate and Keggin-type phosphotungstate. The potassium salt of Preyssler-type phosphotungstates has the advantage of not requiring prior neutralization because it is a neutral compound. Moreover, the potassium counter-cation can be protonated by a reaction with H⁺-resin, allowing easy exchange of protons with other cations by acid–base reaction. Therefore, the counter-cations can be changed. Encapsulated cations can also be exchanged, and clear TEM images were obtained using Preyssler-type compounds with different encapsulated cations. Preyssler-type phosphotungstates may be superior negative staining reagents for observing virus. Polyoxotungstates (tungsten-oxide molecules with diverse molecular structures and properties) are thus promising tools to develop negative staining reagents for TEM observations.

Three-dimensional structure determination of protein complexes using matrix-landing mass spectrometry

Native mass spectrometry (MS) is increasingly used to provide complementary data to electron microscopy (EM) for protein structure characterization. Beyond the ability to provide mass measurements of gas-phase biomolecular ions, MS instruments offer the ability to purify, select, and precisely control the spatial location of these ions. Here we present a modified Orbitrap MS system capable of depositing a native MS ion beam onto EM grids. We further describe the use of a chemical landing matrix that preserves the structural integrity of the deposited particles. With this system we obtain a three-dimensional reconstruction of the 800 kDa protein complex GroEL from gas-phase deposited GroEL ions. These data provide direct evidence that non-covalent protein complexes can indeed retain their condensed-phase structures following ionization and vaporization. Finally, we describe how further developments of this technology could pave the way to an integrated MS-EM technology with promise to provide improved cryo-EM sample preparation over conventional plunge-freezing techniques.

Exosomes are secreted at similar densities by M21 and PC3 human cancer cells and show paclitaxel solubility

Exosomes are cell-secreted vesicles less than ≈150 nm in size that contain gene-encoding and gene-silencing RNA and cytosolic proteins with roles in intercellular communication. Interest in the use of exosomes as targeted drug delivery vehicles has grown since it was shown that they can bind specific cells and deliver intact genetic material to the cytosol of target cells. We isolated extracellular vesicles (EVs), consisting of a mixture of exosomes and microvesicles, from prostate (PC3) and melanoma (M21) cancer cell lines using serial ultracentrifugation. Interrogation via western blot analysis confirmed enrichment of CD63, a widely recognized EV surface protein, in the EV pellet from both cell lines. Nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) of EV pellets revealed that the two cell lines produced distinct vesicle size profiles in the ≈30 nm to ≈400 nm range. NTA further showed that the fraction of exosomes to all EVs was constant, suggesting cellular mechanisms that control the fraction of secreted vesicles that are exosomes. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images of the unmodified PC3 EVs showed vesicles with cup-like (i.e., nanocapsule) and previously unreported prolate morphologies. The observed non-spherical morphologies for dehydrated exosomal vesicles (size ≈30-100 nm) are most likely related to the dense packing of proteins in exosome membranes. Solubility phase diagram data showed that EVs enhanced the solubility of paclitaxel (PTX) in aqueous solution compared to a water-only control. Combined with their inherent targeting and cytosol delivery properties, these findings highlight the potential advantages of using exosomes as chemotherapeutic drug carriers in vivo.

Probing Antimicrobial Halloysite/Biopolymer Composites with Electron Microscopy: Advantages and Limitations

Halloysite is a tubular clay nanomaterial of the kaolin group with a characteristic feature of oppositely charged outer and inner surfaces, allowing its selective spatial modification. The natural origin and specific properties of halloysite make it a potent material for inclusion in biopolymer composites with polysaccharides, nucleic acids and proteins. The applications of halloysite/biopolymer composites range from drug delivery and tissue engineering to food packaging and the creation of stable enzyme-based catalysts. Another important application field for the halloysite complexes with biopolymers is surface coatings resistant to formation of microbial biofilms (elaborated communities of various microorganisms attached to biotic or abiotic surfaces and embedded in an extracellular polymeric matrix). Within biofilms, the microorganisms are protected from the action of antibiotics, engendering the problem of hard-to-treat recurrent infectious diseases. The clay/biopolymer composites can be characterized by a number of methods, including dynamic light scattering, thermo gravimetric analysis, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy as well as a range of microscopic techniques. However, most of the above methods provide general information about a bulk sample. In contrast, the combination of electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy allows assessment of the appearance and composition of biopolymeric coatings on individual nanotubes or the distribution of the nanotubes in biopolymeric matrices. In this review, recent contributions of electron microscopy to the studies of halloysite/biopolymer composites are reviewed along with the challenges and perspectives in the field.

Structural characterization of β-propiolactone inactivated severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) particles

The severe COVID‐19 pandemic drives the research toward the SARS‐CoV‐2 virion structure and the possible therapies against it. Here, we characterized the β‐propiolactone inactivated SARS‐CoV‐2 virions using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). We compared the SARS‐CoV‐2 samples purified by two consecutive chromatographic procedures (size exclusion chromatography [SEC], followed by ion‐exchange chromatography [IEC]) with samples purified by ultracentrifugation. The samples prepared using SEC and IEC retained more spikes on the surface than the ones prepared using ultracentrifugation, as confirmed by TEM and AFM. TEM showed that the spike (S) proteins were in the pre‐fusion conformation. Notably, the S proteins could be recognized by specific monoclonal antibodies. Analytical TEM showed that the inactivated virions retained nucleic acid. Altogether, we demonstrated that the inactivated SARS‐CoV‐2 virions retain the structural features of native viruses and provide a prospective vaccine candidate.

Cryo-Electron Microscopy of the Giant Viruses

High resolution study of the giant viruses presents one of the latest challenges in cryo-electron microscopy of viruses. Too small for light microscopy, but too large for easy study at high resolution by electron microscopy, they range in size from ~0.2-2 μm, from high symmetry icosahedral viruses such as Paramecium burseria Chlorella virus 1 to asymmetric forms like Tupanvirus or Pithovirus. To attain high resolution, two strategies exist to study these large viruses by cryo-EM: firstly, increasing the acceleration voltage of the electron microscope to improve sample penetration and overcome the limitations imposed by electro-optical physics at lower voltages, and secondly the method of "block-based reconstruction" pioneered by Michael G. Rossmann and his collaborators, which resolves the latter limitation through an elegant leveraging of high symmetry, but cannot overcome sample penetration limitations. In addition, more recent advances in both computational capacity and image processing also yield assistance in studying the giant viruses. Especially, the inclusion of Ewald sphere correction can provide large improvements in attainable resolutions for 300 kV electron microscopes. Despite this, the study of giant viruses remains a significant challenge.

Re-Discovery of Giardiavirus: Genomic and Functional Analysis of Viruses from Giardia duodenalis Isolates

Giardiasis, caused by the protozoan parasite Giardia duodenalis, is an intestinal diarrheal disease affecting almost one billion people worldwide. A small endosymbiotic dsRNA viruses, G. lamblia virus (GLV), genus Giardiavirus, family Totiviridae, might inhabit human and animal isolates of G. duodenalis. Three GLV genomes have been sequenced so far, and only one was intensively studied; moreover, a positive correlation between GLV and parasite virulence is yet to be proved. To understand the biological significance of GLV infection in Giardia, the characterization of several GLV strains from naturally infected G. duodenalis isolates is necessary. Here we report high-throughput sequencing of four GLVs strains, from Giardia isolates of human and animal origin. We also report on a new, unclassified viral sequence (designed GdRV-2), unrelated to Giardiavirus, encoding and expressing for a single large protein with an RdRp domain homologous to Totiviridae and Botybirnaviridae. The result of our sequencing and proteomic analyses challenge the current knowledge on GLV and strongly suggest that viral capsid protein translation unusually starts with a proline and that translation of the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) occurs via a +1/-2 ribosomal frameshift mechanism. Nucleotide polymorphism, confirmed by mass-spectrometry analysis, was also observed among and between GLV strains. Phylogenetic analysis indicated the occurrence of at least two GLV subtypes which display different phenotypes and transmissibility in experimental infections of a GLV naïve Giardia isolate.

Characterization of a novel group I F-specific RNA bacteriophage isolated from human stool

A novel F-specific RNA bacteriophage (FRNAPH) YM1, affiliating to genogroup I (GI) of Levivirus, is isolated for the first time from human stool samples using double-layer agar plates with the Escherichia coli ATCC700891 as the host. The complete genomic sequence of YM1 is 3551 nt in length, obtained through next-generation sequencing, and contains four genes encoding for maturation protein, coat protein, lysis protein, and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp). The genomic sequence of YM1 shares the highest similarity of 95.3% with that of a GI FRNAPH DL16 isolated from surface water of Great Bay. The YM1 possesses a non-enveloped, icosahedral virion of 23  ±  0.45 nm in diameter. One-step growth curve analysis shows that the burst time of YM1 is 30 min post-infection (p.i.) with the average burst size of 264 PFU/cell. The YM1 lyses only E. coli strains tested, revealing high host specificity. This newly discovered phage may serve as a candidate for viral indicator to monitor human enteric virus, especially norovirus, contamination in the environments.

Organization of the laminin polymer node

Laminin polymerization is a key step of basement membrane assembly that depends on the binding of α, β and γ N-terminal LN domains to form a polymer node. Nodal assembly can be divided into two steps consisting of β- and γ-LN dimerization followed by calcium-dependent addition of the α-LN domain. The assembly and structural organization of laminin-111 LN-LEa segments was examined by size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) and electron microscopy. Triskelion-like structures were observed in negatively-stained images of purified α1/β1/γ1 LN-LEa trimers. Image averaging of these revealed a heel-to-toe organization of the LN domains with angled outward projections of the LEa stem-like domains. A series of single-amino acid substitutions was introduced into the polymerization faces of the α1, β1 and γ1 LN domains followed by SEC analysis to distinguish between loss of β-γ mediated dimerization and loss of α-dependent trimerization (with intact β-γ dimers). Dimer-blocking mutations were confined to the γ1-toe and the β1-heel, whereas the trimer-only-blocking mutations mapped to the γ1-heel, β1-toe and the α1-toe and heel. Thus, in the polymer node the γ1-toe pairs with the β1-heel, the β1-toe pairs with the α1-heel, and the α1-toe pairs with the γ1-heel.

Light and electron microscopy imaging unveils new aspects of the antiviral capacity of silver nanoparticles in bunyavirus-infected cells

Drug repurposing is an important source of new antivirals because many compounds used to treat a variety of pathologies also hamper viral infections. Habitually, silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) have been used to treat bacterial and fungal infections and their antiviral properties have been also reported. In this work, we have studied the antiviral capacity of AgNPs in cells infected with Bunyamwera virus (BUNV), the prototype of the Bunyavirales order. This group of viruses contains important pathogens for humans, animals and plants. Incubation of BUNV-infected Vero cells with non-toxic concentrations of AgNPs, reduced the production of extracellular infectious viruses in up to three orders of magnitude. With a combination of imaging techniques, we have visualized the intracellular distribution of AgNPs in mock- and BUNV-infected cells and studied their effects on intracellular organelles. In mock-infected cells and at short times post-incubation, AgNPs were detected inside nuclei and mitochondria by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). At long times post-treatment, they accumulated inside lysosome-like organelles. Cell compartments did not exhibit any appreciable ultrastructural alterations after incubation with AgNPs. In BUNV-infected cells, AgNPs attached to extracellular virions, that showed a disrupted morphology. Inside cells, they were detected inside the nucleus, in mitochondria and around characteristic Golgi-associated, single-membrane spherules. These membranous structures are the replication organelles (ROs) of bunyaviruses and contain active viral replication complexes (VRCs). Compared to normal spherules that are round, compact and have an electron-dense core, spherules in AgNPs-treated cells were deformed and their core was electron-lucent. Interestingly, in BUNV-infected cells treated with the typical antiviral ribavirin (RBV), spherules with VRCs exhibit also an anomalous morphology and an electron-lucent core. Both AgNPs and RBV might interfere with BUNV-induced dismantling of cell nucleoli and with the intercellular propagation of large groups of virions, a mechanism of BUNV transmission observed for the first time in cultured cells. Our results point to silver nanoparticles as good candidates for antiviral therapy, either alone or in combination with other antiviral drugs, such as RBV-related compounds.

Antigen-Adjuvant Interactions in Vaccines by Taylor Dispersion Analysis: Size Characterization and Binding Parameters

Vaccine adjuvants are immunostimulatory substances used to improve and modulate the immune response induced by antigens. A better understanding of the antigen-adjuvant interactions is necessary to develop future effective vaccine. In this study, Taylor dispersion analysis (TDA) was successfully implemented to characterize the interactions between a polymeric adjuvant (poly(acrylic acid), SPA09) and a vaccine antigen in development for the treatment of Staphylococcus aureus. TDA allowed one to rapidly determine both (i) the size of the antigen-adjuvant complexes under physiological conditions and (ii) the percentage of free antigen in the adjuvant/antigen mixture at equilibrium and finally get the interaction parameters (stoichiometry and binding constant). The complex sizes obtained by TDA were compared to the results obtained by transmission electron microscopy, and the binding parameters were compared to results previously obtained by frontal analysis continuous capillary electrophoresis.

Discovery of a novel recombinant avian orthoreovirus in China

In mid-2020, using next-generation sequencing (NGS) technology, we identified a recombinant cluster 2 avian orthoreovirus (ARV) variant named PHC-2020-0545, isolated from tendons of 33-day-old broilers with leg swelling in China. Complete genomic sequencing and analyses demonstrated that the isolate was genetically significantly distinct from known ARV strains in M1 and M3 genes and its σC coding gene had an extremely high variability, compared with the identified ARV strains grouped into other genotyping cluster. Further analysis showed that many base substitutions were silent and non-silent substitutions are most likely to occur in the first positions of codons. Multiple segmental recombination, intra-segmental recombination and accumulation of point mutations might contribute to the emergence of this isolate. The PHC-2020-0545 strain had a strong replication ability in 1-day-old broilers, and mainly affected the movement, digestion and metabolism of broilers. In addition, the infection route of the isolate is related to its pathogenicity to broilers. Therefore, combined with its unique genetic characteristics and potential origin, we determined that the PHC-2020-0545 field strain is a novel recombinant ARV strain, which has certain reference value for the preparation and evaluation of new vaccines.

X-ray Ptychography Imaging of Human Chromosomes After Low-dose Irradiation

Studies of the structural and functional role of chromosomes in cytogenetics have spanned more than 10 decades. In this work, we take advantage of the coherent X-rays available at the latest synchrotron sources to extract the individual masses of all 46 chromosomes of metaphase human B and T cells using hard X-ray ptychography. We have produced ‘X-ray karyotypes’ of both heavy metal–stained and unstained spreads to determine the gain or loss of genetic material upon low-level X-ray irradiation doses due to radiation damage. The experiments were performed at the I-13 beamline, Diamond Light Source, Didcot, UK, using the phase-sensitive X-ray ptychography method.

Halogen bonding in uranyl and neptunyl trichloroacetates with alkali metals and improved crystal chemical formulae for coordination compounds

The structures of the single crystals of compounds K₂UO₂(tca)₄(tcaH)₂ (I), K₄NpO₂(tca)₆(tcaH)(H₂O)₃ (II), Rb₄UO₂(tca)₆(tcaH)(H₂O)₃ (III), and Cs₃UO₂(tca)₅(tcaH)₂·H₂O (IV), where tca is the trichloroacetate ion, were established by X-ray diffraction analysis. The crystals of II-IV have a framework structure, whereas in the layered crystals of I, neighboring layers are connected to each other via halogen bonds. In this regard, the crystals of I possess perfect cleavage along the (001) plane: the crystals are easily cut into stacks of very thin layers. Halogen bonds in the structures of all title compounds were characterized using the method of molecular Voronoi-Dirichlet polyhedra. The donor-acceptor halogen bond synthon, where the same halogen atom is both the donor towards one halogen atom and the acceptor from the second halogen atom, is recognized for its usefulness in the crystal design. The description of the ligand coordination modes and crystal chemical formulae of complexes is adapted for cases when ligands have chemically non-equivalent and unobvious donor atoms (for example, oxygen and halogen atoms in halogen-substituted carboxylate anions).

The solution structures of higher-order human telomere G-quadruplex multimers

Human telomeres contain the repeat DNA sequence 5′-d(TTAGGG), with duplex regions that are several kilobases long terminating in a 3′ single-stranded overhang. The structure of the single-stranded overhang is not known with certainty, with disparate models proposed in the literature. We report here the results of an integrated structural biology approach that combines small-angle X-ray scattering, circular dichroism (CD), analytical ultracentrifugation, size-exclusion column chromatography and molecular dynamics simulations that provide the most detailed characterization to date of the structure of the telomeric overhang. We find that the single-stranded sequences 5′-d(TTAGGG)_n, with n = 8, 12 and 16, fold into multimeric structures containing the maximal number (2, 3 and 4, respectively) of contiguous G4 units with no long gaps between units. The G4 units are a mixture of hybrid-1 and hybrid-2 conformers. In the multimeric structures, G4 units interact, at least transiently, at the interfaces between units to produce distinctive CD signatures. Global fitting of our hydrodynamic and scattering data to a worm-like chain (WLC) model indicates that these multimeric G4 structures are semi-flexible, with a persistence length of ∼34 Å. Investigations of its flexibility using MD simulations reveal stacking, unstacking, and coiling movements, which yield unique sites for drug targeting.

Revisiting staining of biological samples for electron microscopy: perspectives for recent research

This review revisits essential staining protocols for electron microscopy focussing on the visualization of active sites, i.e. enzymes, metabolites or proteins, in cells and tissues, which have been developed 50 to 60 years ago, however, never were established as standard protocols being used in electron microscopy in a routine fashion. These approaches offer numerous possibilities to expand the knowledge of cellular function and specifically address the localization of active compounds of these systems. It is our conviction, that many of these techniques are still useful, in particular when applied in conjunction with correlative light and electron microscopy. Revisiting specialized classical electron microscopy staining protocols for use in correlative microscopy is particularly promising, as some of these protocols were originally developed as staining methods for light microscopy. To account for this history, rather than summarizing the most recent achievements in literature, we instead first provide an overview of techniques that have been used in the past. While some of these techniques have been successfully implemented into modern microscopy techniques during recent years already, more possibilities are yet to be re-discovered and provide exciting new perspectives for their future use.

Progress Towards CryoEM: Negative-Stain Procedures for Biological Samples

In recent years, electron cryo-microscopy (CryoEM) has become a powerful method for the high-resolution studies of biological macromolecules. While CryoEM experiments can begin without additional microscopy steps, negative-stain EM can tremendously minimize CryoEM screening. Negative-stain is a quick method that can be used to screen for robust biochemical conditions, the integrity, binding, and composition of samples and to get an estimation of sample grid concentration. For some applications, the map resolutions potentially afforded by stain may be as biologically informative as in CryoEM. Here, I describe the benefits and pitfalls of negative-stain EM, with particular emphasis on Uranyl stains with the main goal of screening in advance of CryoEM. In addition, I provide a materials list, detailed protocol and possible adjustments for the use of stains for biological samples requiring imaging and/or diffraction-based methods of EM.

A microfluidic device for TEM sample preparation

Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) allows for visualizing and analyzing viral particles and has become a vital tool for the development of vaccines and biopharmaceuticals. However, appropriate TEM sample preparation is typically done manually which introduces operator-based dependencies and can lead to unreliable results. Here, we present a capillary-driven microfluidic single-use device that prepares a TEM grid with minimal and non-critical user interaction. The user only initiates the sample preparation process, waits for about one minute and then collects the TEM grid, ready for imaging. Using Adeno-associated virus (AAV) particles as the sample and NanoVan® as the stain, we demonstrate microfluidic consistency and show that the sample preparation quality is sufficient for automated image analysis. We further demonstrate the versatility of the microfluidic device by preparing two protein complexes for TEM investigations using two different stain types. The presented TEM sample preparation concept could alleviate the problems associated with human inconsistency in manual preparation protocols and allow for non-specialists to prepare TEM samples.

Combination of Nucleic Acid and Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles: Optimization and Therapeutic Performance In Vitro

Programmable nucleic acid nanoparticles (NANPs) with precisely controlled functional compositions can regulate the conditional activation of various biological pathways and responses in human cells. However, the intracellular delivery of NANPs alone is hindered by their susceptibility to nuclease activity and inefficient crossing of biological membranes. In this work, we optimized the internalization and therapeutic performance of several representative NANPs delivered with mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNPs) tailored for efficient electrostatic association with NANPs. We compared the immunostimulatory properties of different NA-MS-NP complexes formed with globular, planar, and fibrous NANPs and demonstrated the maximum immunostimulation for globular NANPs. As a proof of concept, we assessed the specific gene silencing by NA-MS-NP complexes functionalized with siRNA targeting green fluorescent protein expressed in triple-negative human breast cancer cells. We showed that the fibrous NANPs have the highest silencing efficiency when compared to globular or planar counterparts. Finally, we confirmed the multimodal ability of MSNPs to co-deliver a chemotherapy drug, doxorubicin, and NANPs targeting apoptosis regulator gene BCL2 in triple-negative breast cancer and melanoma cell lines. Overall, the combination of NANPs and MSNPs may become a new promising approach to efficiently treat cancer and other diseases via the simultaneous targeting of various pathways.

Electron microscopy-based semi-automated characterization of aggregation in monoclonal antibody products

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Size-based quantification of small heterogeneous proteins using electron microscopy.

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Electron microscopy as an orthogonal tool for characterizing protein aggregates.

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Quick assessment of small heterogeneous proteins via softEM, a GUI-based algorithm.

Aggregation is a critical parameter for protein-based therapeutics, due to its impact on the immunogenicity of the product. The traditional approach towards characterization of such products is to use a collection of orthogonal tools. However, the fact that none of these tools is able to completely classify the distribution and physical characteristics of aggregates, implies that there exists a need for additional analytical methods. We report one such method for characterization of heterogeneous population of proteins using transmission electron microscopy. The method involves semi-automated, size-based clustering of different protein species from micrographs. This method can be utilized for quantitative characterization of heterogeneous populations of antibody/protein aggregates from TEM images of proteins, and may also be applicable towards other instances of protein aggregation.

Cryo-Electron microscopy for the study of self-assembled poly(ionic liquid) nanoparticles and protein supramolecular structures

Cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) is a powerful structure determination technique that is well-suited to the study of protein and polymer self-assembly in solution. In contrast to conventional transmission electron microscopy (TEM) sample preparation, which often times involves drying and staining, the frozen-hydrated sample preparation allows the specimens to be kept and imaged in a state closest to their native one. Here, we give a short overview of the basic principles of Cryo-EM and review our results on applying it to the study of different protein and polymer self-assembled nanostructures. More specifically, we show how we have applied cryo-electron tomography (cryo-ET) to visualize the internal morphology of self-assembled poly(ionic liquid) nanoparticles and cryo-EM single particle analysis (SPA) to determine the three-dimensional (3D) structures of artificial protein microtubules.

Unexpected Genetic Diversity of Two Novel Swine MRVs in Italy

Mammalian Orthoreoviruses (MRV) are segmented dsRNA viruses in the family Reoviridae. MRVs infect mammals and cause asymptomatic respiratory, gastro-enteric and, rarely, encephalic infections. MRVs are divided into at least three serotypes: MRV1, MRV2 and MRV3. In Europe, swine MRV (swMRV) was first isolated in Austria in 1998 and subsequently reported more than fifteen years later in Italy. In the present study, we characterized two novel reassortant swMRVs identified in one same Italian farm over two years. The two viruses shared the same genetic backbone but showed evidence of reassortment in the S1, S4, M2 segments and were therefore classified into two serotypes: MRV3 in 2016 and MRV2 in 2018. A genetic relation to pig, bat and human MRVs and other unknown sources was identified. A considerable genetic diversity was observed in the Italian MRV3 and MRV2 compared to other available swMRVs. The S1 protein presented unique amino acid signatures in both swMRVs, with unexpected frequencies for MRV2. The remaining genes formed distinct and novel genetic groups that revealed a geographically related evolution of swMRVs in Italy. This is the first report of the complete molecular characterization of novel reassortant swMRVs in Italy and Europe, which suggests a greater genetic diversity of swMRVs never identified before.

Characterization of Peptide-Oligonucleotide Complexes Using Electron Microscopy, Dynamic Light Scattering, and Protease Resistance Assay

Cationic peptides designed for cellular delivery of nucleic acid molecules form noncovalent nanocomplexes with negatively charged oligonucleotides (ON). The electrostatically associated complexes are further compacted by hydrophobic interactions yielding nanoparticles (NP) of homogeneous shape and size that are efficiently taken up by cells. The shape and size of NP often correlate with the biological activity of delivered ON inside cells; and the stability and accessibility of NP in biological fluids govern its circulation in organism and the cellular uptake. Therefore, here we provide protocols for characterizing the shape and size and surface charge of peptide/ON NP by negative staining transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and dynamic light scattering (DLS) respectively, and analysis of NP stability against proteolytic degradation.

E. coli production process yields stable dengue 1 virus-sized particles (VSPs)

Dengue fever is one of the most wide-spread vector-borne diseases in the world. Although dengue-associated mortality is low, morbidity and economic impact are high. Current licensed vaccines are limited and mediate only partial protection, thus a cost-effective vaccine with improved efficacy is strongly needed. In this work, recombinant dengue serotype 1 E protein was produced in E. coli, inclusion bodies were isolated and the E protein solubilized in urea and purified using an immobilized metal chelate affinity column. The protein was refolded by dialysis in order to obtain virus-like particles (VLPs). Particle assembly was confirmed using size-exclusion chromatography, dynamic light scattering (DLS), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), atomic force microscopy and stimulated emission depletion fluorescence (STED) microscopy. Particle diameter was strongly dependent on temperature, pH, buffer salt composition, and addition of L-arginine. Particles were stable in carbonate buffer at pH 9.5 and higher at 4 °C and did not aggregate during short-term temperature increase up to 55 °C. However, on basis of the above analyses, especially the results of DLS, TEM and STED, it was concluded that the particles obtained did not have an optimal virus-like structure and were therefore designated "virus-sized particles" (VSPs) rather than VLPs. Immunization of rabbits with the particles did not induce neutralizing antibodies, despite the recognition of the native virus by rabbit antibodies. As the titers against the immunogen were much higher than against the (heat-inactivated) virus, it is assumed that the conformation of the particles at the time of immunization was not optimal. Studies are currently underway to improve the quality of the E protein virus-sized particles towards true virus-like particles in order to optimize its potential as a dengue vaccine candidate.

What Could Go Wrong? A Practical Guide to Single-Particle Cryo-EM: From Biochemistry to Atomic Models

Cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) has enjoyed explosive recent growth due to revolutionary advances in hardware and software, resulting in a steady stream of long-awaited, high-resolution structures with unprecedented atomic detail. With this comes an increased number of microscopes, cryo-EM facilities, and scientists eager to leverage the ability to determine protein structures without crystallization. However, numerous pitfalls and considerations beset the path toward high-resolution structures and are not necessarily obvious from literature surveys. Here, we detail the most common misconceptions when initiating a cryo-EM project and common technical hurdles, as well as their solutions, and we conclude with a vision for the future of this exciting field.

Revealing Sources of Variation for Reproducible Imaging of Protein Assemblies by Electron Microscopy

Electron microscopy plays an important role in the analysis of functional nano-to-microstructures. Substrates and staining procedures present common sources of variation for the analysis. However, systematic investigations on the impact of these sources on data interpretation are lacking. Here we pinpoint key determinants associated with reproducibility issues in the imaging of archetypal protein assemblies, protein shells, and filaments. The effect of staining on the morphological characteristics of the assemblies was assessed to reveal differential features for anisotropic (filaments) and isotropic (shells) forms. Commercial substrates and coatings under the same staining conditions gave comparable results for the same model assembly, while highlighting intrinsic sample variations including the density and heterogenous distribution of assemblies on the substrate surface. With no aberrant or disrupted structures observed, and putative artefacts limited to substrate-associated markings, the study emphasizes that reproducible imaging must correlate with an optimal combination of substrate stability, stain homogeneity, accelerating voltage, and magnification.

Quality Assessment of Virus-Like Particles at Single Particle Level: A Comparative Study

Virus-like particles (VLPs) have emerged as a powerful scaffold for antigen presentation and delivery strategies. Compared to single protein-based therapeutics, quality assessment requires a higher degree of refinement due to the structure of VLPs and their similar properties to extracellular vesicles (EVs). Advances in the field of nanotechnology with single particle and high-resolution analysis techniques provide appealing approaches to VLP characterization. In this study, six different biophysical methods have been assessed for the characterization of HIV-1-based VLPs produced in mammalian and insect cell platforms. Sample preparation and equipment set-up were optimized for the six strategies evaluated. Electron Microscopy (EM) disclosed the presence of several types of EVs within VLP preparations and cryogenic transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM) resulted in the best technique to resolve the VLP ultrastructure. The use of super-resolution fluorescence microscopy (SRFM), nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) and flow virometry enabled the high throughput quantification of VLPs. Interestingly, differences in the determination of nanoparticle concentration were observed between techniques. Moreover, NTA and flow virometry allowed the quantification of both EVs and VLPs within the same experiment while analyzing particle size distribution (PSD), simultaneously. These results provide new insights into the use of different analytical tools to monitor the production of nanoparticle-based biologicals and their associated contaminants.

Neodymium as an alternative contrast for uranium in electron microscopy

Uranyl acetate is the standard contrasting agent in electron microscopy (EM), but it is toxic and radioactive. We reasoned neodymium acetate might substitute uranyl acetate as a contrasting agent, and we find that neodymium acetate indeed can replace uranyl acetate in several routine applications. Since neodymium acetate is not toxic, not radioactive and easy to use, we foresee neodymium will replace uranyl in many EM sample preparation applications worldwide.

Biophysical approaches for exploring lipopeptide-lipid interactions

In recent years, lipopeptides (LPs) have attracted a lot of attention in the pharmaceutical industry due to their broad-spectrum of antimicrobial activity against a variety of pathogens and their unique mode of action. This class of compounds has enormous potential for application as an alternative to conventional antibiotics and for pest control. Understanding how LPs work from a structural and biophysical standpoint through investigating their interaction with cell membranes is crucial for the rational design of these biomolecules. Various analytical techniques have been developed for studying intramolecular interactions with high resolution. However, these tools have been barely exploited in lipopeptide-lipid interactions studies. These biophysical approaches would give precise insight on these interactions. Here, we reviewed these state-of-the-art analytical techniques. Knowledge at this level is indispensable for understanding LPs activity and particularly their potential specificity, which is relevant information for safe application. Additionally, the principle of each analytical technique is presented and the information acquired is discussed. The key challenges, such as the selection of the membrane model are also been briefly reviewed.

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A brief overview of topics to understand the generalities of lipopeptide (LP) science.

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Main analytical techniques used to reveal the interaction and the distorting effect of LP on artificial membranes.

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Guidelines for selecting of the most adequate membrane models for the given analytical technique.

Combining molecular dynamics simulations and experimental analyses in protein misfolding

The fold of a protein determines its function and its misfolding can result in loss-of-function defects. In addition, for certain proteins their misfolding can lead to gain-of-function toxicities resulting in protein misfolding diseases such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, or the prion diseases. In all of these diseases one or more proteins misfold and aggregate into disease-specific assemblies, often in the form of fibrillar amyloid deposits. Most, if not all, protein misfolding diseases share a fundamental molecular mechanism that governs the misfolding and subsequent aggregation. A wide variety of experimental methods have contributed to our knowledge about misfolded protein aggregates, some of which are briefly described in this review. The misfolding mechanism itself is difficult to investigate, as the necessary timescale and resolution of the misfolding events often lie outside of the observable parameter space. Molecular dynamics simulations fill this gap by virtue of their intrinsic, molecular perspective and the step-by-step iterative process that forms the basis of the simulations. This review focuses on molecular dynamics simulations and how they combine with experimental analyses to provide detailed insights into protein misfolding and the ensuing diseases.

Liquid-phase electron microscopy imaging of cellular and biomolecular systems

Liquid-phase electron microscopy, a new method for real-time nanoscopic imaging in liquid, makes it possible to study cells or biomolecules with a singular combination of spatial and temporal resolution. We review the state of the art in biological research in this growing and promising field.

Mechanical Properties of Sub-Microbubbles with a Nanoparticle-Decorated Polymer Shell

Nanoparticle-decorated polymer-coated sub-microbubbles (NP-P-coated SMBs), as proved, have shown promising application prospects in ultrasound imaging, magnetic resonance imaging, drug delivery, and so forth. However, the quantitative evaluation of the stability and mechanical properties of single NP-P-coated SMB is absent. Here, we first reported the stiffness and Young's modulus of single NP-P-coated SMB obtained by the PeakForce mode of atomic force microscopy. Such NP-P-coated SMBs could maintain perfect spherical shapes and have a thinner shell thickness (about 10 nm), as determined by characterization using a transmission electron microscope. Young's modulus of NP-P-coated SMBs is about 4.6 ± 1.2 GPa, and their stiffness is about 15.0 ± 3.1 N/m. Both modulus and stiffness are obtained from the linear region in the force-deformation curve and are nearly independent of their sizes. These results should be very useful to evaluate their stability, which plays a key role in maintaining the shell drug loading and acoustic capabilities.

Detecting Salmonella Type II flagella production by transmission electron microscopy and immunocytochemistry

The bacterial flagellum is an appendage structure that provides a means for motility to promote survival in fluctuating environments. For the intracellular pathogen Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium to survive within macrophages, flagellar gene expression must be tightly regulated, and thus, is controlled at multiple levels, including DNA recombination, transcription, post-transcription, protein synthesis, and assembly within host cells. To understand the contribution of flagella to Salmonella pathogenesis within the host, it is critical to detect flagella production within macrophages via microscopy. In this paper, we describe two methods for detecting bacterial flagella by microscopy both in vitro and in vivo infection models.

Protocol for Efficient Cell-Free Synthesis of Cowpea Chlorotic Mottle Virus-Like Particles Containing Heterologous RNAs

We report a protocol for efficient cell-free synthesis of cowpea chlorotic mottle virus (CCMV)-like particles containing a broad range of lengths and sequences of RNA. Our protocol starts with a purified stock of wild-type CCMV (protocols for harvesting and purifying the virus are detailed elsewhere) and features three basic steps: disassembly of the CCMV and purification of the capsid protein (CP) from the viral RNA; coassembly of the purified CP and an RNA of choice; and characterization of the assembly products. We highlight several key factors that increase the yield of the assembly reaction: the CP should be uncleaved and sufficiently free of viral RNA; the length of the RNA should be between about 100 and 4000 nucleotides; and the stoichiometry of CP and RNA should be 6-1 by mass. Additionally, we point out that separating the assembly reaction into multiple steps-by successively lowering the ionic strength and then the pH of the assembly buffers-results in the highest yields of well-formed, nuclease-resistant, CCMV-like particles. Finally, we describe methods for characterizing the assembly products using native agarose gel electrophoresis and negative-stain transmission electron microscopy.