Molecular cloning and characterization of a C-type lectin from Ancylostoma ceylanicum: evidence for a role in hookworm reproductive physiology

Identification of Male Sex-Related Genes Regulated by SDHB in Macrobrachium nipponense Based on Transcriptome Analysis after an RNAi Knockdown

The oriental river prawn (Macrobrachium nipponense) is a commercially important species in Asia. A previous study showed that the succinate dehydrogenase complex iron sulfur subunit B (SDHB) gene participates in testes development in this species through its effect on the expression of the insulin-like androgenic gland hormone gene. This study knocked-down the Mn-SDHB genes in M. nipponense using RNAi. A transcriptome analysis of the androgenic gland and testes was then performed to discover the male sex-related genes regulated by SDHB and investigate the mechanism of male sexual development in this species. More than 16,623 unigenes were discovered in each sample generated. In the androgenic gland, most of the differentially expressed genes were enriched in the hypertrophic cardiomyopathy pathway, while in the testes, they were enriched in the citrate cycle pathway. In addition, after Mn-SDHB knockdown, five genes were found to be downregulated in the androgenic gland in a series of biological processes associated with phosphorylated carbohydrate synthesis and transformations in the glycolysis/gluconeogenesis pathway. Moreover, a total of nine male sex-related genes were identified including Pro-resilin, insulin-like androgenic gland hormone, Protein mono-ADP-ribosyltransferase PAPR11, DNAJC2, C-type Lectin-1, Tyrosine-protein kinase Yes, Vigilin, and Sperm motility kinase Y-like, demonstrating the regulatory effects of Mn-SDHB, and providing a reference for the further study of the mechanisms of male development in M. nipponense.

Excretory/Secretory Proteome of Females and Males of the Hookworm Ancylostoma ceylanicum

The dynamic host-parasite mechanisms underlying hookworm infection establishment and maintenance in mammalian hosts remain poorly understood but are primarily mediated by hookworm's excretory/secretory products (ESPs), which have a wide spectrum of biological functions. We used ultra-high performance mass spectrometry to comprehensively profile and compare female and male ESPs from the zoonotic human hookworm Ancylostoma ceylanicum, which is a natural parasite of dogs, cats, and humans. We improved the genome annotation, decreasing the number of protein-coding genes by 49% while improving completeness from 92 to 96%. Compared to the previous genome annotation, we detected 11% and 10% more spectra in female and male ESPs, respectively, using this improved version, identifying a total of 795 ESPs (70% in both sexes, with the remaining sex-specific). Using functional databases (KEGG, GO and Interpro), common and sex-specific enriched functions were identified. Comparisons with the exclusively human-infective hookworm Necator americanus identified species-specific and conserved ESPs. This is the first study identifying ESPs from female and male A. ceylanicum. The findings provide a deeper understanding of hookworm protein functions that assure long-term host survival and facilitate future engineering of transgenic hookworms and analysis of regulatory elements mediating the high-level expression of ESPs. Furthermore, the findings expand the list of potential vaccine and diagnostic targets and identify biologics that can be explored for anti-inflammatory potential.

Pathogen of Vibrio harveyi infection and C-type lectin proteins in whiteleg shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei)

Diseases caused by Vibrio harveyi in shrimps have gradually become one group of the most serious threats to shrimp production, while related molecular mechanisms of infections with Vibrio harveyi are still not known well in shrimps. Here, we performed proteomic sequencing of hepatopancreas in whiteleg shrimps (Litopenaeus vannamei) infected with exogenous Vibrio harveyi, and subsequent functional annotation and calculation of differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) in this study. A total of 145 DEPs were obtained, among them 36 were up-regulated and 109 were down-regulated after the infection. Meanwhile, our results showed that after the infection of Vibrio harveyi, expression levels of a variety of C-type lectins (CTLs) were changed significantly. In-depth functional domain analysis and spatial structure prediction of these CTLs revealed that amino acid sequences and spatial structures of the C-type lectin domain (CTLD) shared by the CTL-S and IML proteins were variant, suggesting differential functions between the two CTLs. In summary, various members of the CTL family have different epidemic responses to Vibrio harveyi infection, which provides a theoretical guidance for deep-going investigations on practical immunity reactions and pathogen infections in shrimps.

Species-Specific Proteins in the Oviducts of Snail Sibling Species: Proteotranscriptomic Study of Littorina fabalis and L. obtusata

Genus Littorina subgenus Neritrema (Mollusca, Caenogastropoda) includes the "obtusata" group of closely related species (Littorina obtusata and L. fabalis). The anatomy of the adult reproductive system (pallial oviduct) is the only reliable feature used for species identification in females of these species. Reproductive system anatomy and reproduction-associated proteins often diverge between sibling species. Despite being of high evolutionary interest, the molecular basis of this divergence remains poorly understood. We performed proteotranscriptomic comparison of oviducts of L. obtusata and L. fabalis by RNA-seq on Illumina HiSeq 2500 and two-dimensional protein electrophoresis (2D DIGE) with MS/MS identification of the species-specific proteins. The interspecies differences in the oviduct were associated with (1) metabolic proteins reflecting overall physiological differences between L. obtusata and L. fabalis, (2) receptor proteins, and (3) transcripts related to transposable elements (TEs). Various receptors identified may recognize a wide variety of ligands from pathogen-associated molecular patterns to specific carbohydrates on the sperm surface. Therefore, these may participate in immune defense as well as in sperm storage and regulation. Species-specificity of multiple TE sequences (coding for reverse transcriptase and ribonuclease H) may indicate the important role of these genomic elements in the Littorina species divergence, which has not been reported previously.

Twenty-five-year research progress in hookworm excretory/secretory products

Hookworm infection is a major public health problem that threatens about 500 million people throughout tropical areas of the world. Adult hookworms survive for many years in the host intestine, where they suck blood, causing iron deficiency anemia and malnutrition. Numerous molecules, named excretory/secretory (ES) products, are secreted by hookworm adults and/or larvae to aid in parasite survival and pathobiology. Although the molecular cloning and characterization of hookworm ES products began 25 years ago, the biological role and molecular nature of many of them are still unclear. Hookworm ES products, with distinct structures and functions, have been linked to many essential events in the disease pathogenesis. These events include host invasion and tissue migration, parasite nourishment and reproduction, and immune modulation. Several of these products represent promising vaccine targets for controlling hookworm disease and therapeutic targets for many inflammatory diseases. This review aims to summarize our present knowledge about hookworm ES products, including their role in parasite biology, host-parasite interactions, and as vaccine and pharmaceutical targets and to identify research gaps and future research directions in this field.

Structural, molecular, functional and immunological characterization of Wuchereria bancrofti-galectin

Galectins regulate growth and differentiation of immune cells and inflammation through their carbohydrate-binding function in humans, while also play a role in parasite survival. This study focused on the galectin of lymphatic filarial parasite Wuchereria bancrofti (Wb-Gal). The multiple sequence alignment with other galectins showed that the Wb-Gal belonged to galactoside binding lectin family, particularly tandem repeat type galectin-9. A homology model of Wb-Gal was developed in the I-TASser server using high similarity 3D structures with a quality score of 89.5. Molecular docking and dynamics studies revealed that the CCRD and NCRD of Wb-Gal bind with galactose and lactose. Further, Wb-Gal was cloned into the pET28 vector, expressed in E. coli Rosetta strain and purified by affinity chromatography. In the hemagglutination assays, the rWb-Gal bound to lactose, galactose, and glucose. Indirect Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) using different clinical filarial sera showed that the IgG and IgM response was against Wb-Gal x very high in all filarial clinical groups, whereas the IgA and IgG2 response was minimum to negligible. There was an enhanced response of IgG1 and IgG4 antibodies in Microfilaremics (MF) cases compared to Chronic Pathology (CP) and Endemic Normal (EN) individuals. Interestingly, the IgE response was comparatively higher in EN than MF and CP. These studies show that Wb-Gal is a member of the lectin family of proteins binding to different carbohydrates and may have an important role in the pathophysiology of filarial infection which needs to be investigated in greater detail.

Somatic proteome of Haemonchus contortus

Currently, there is a dearth of proteomic data to underpin fundamental investigations of parasites and parasitism at the molecular level. Here, using a high throughput LC-MS/MS-based approach, we undertook the first reported comprehensive, large-scale proteomic investigation of the barber's pole worm (Haemonchus contortus) - one of the most important parasitic nematodes of livestock animals worldwide. In total, 2487 unique H. contortus proteins representing different developmental stages/sexes (i.e. eggs, L3s and L4s, female (Af) and male (Am) adults) were identified and quantified with high confidence. Bioinformatic analyses of this proteome revealed substantial alterations in protein profiles during the life cycle, particularly in the transition from the free-living to the parasitic phase, and key groups of proteins involved specifically in feeding, digestion, metabolism, development, parasite-host interactions (including immunomodulation), structural remodelling of the body wall and adaptive processes during parasitism. This proteomic data set will facilitate future molecular, biochemical and physiological investigations of H. contortus and related nematodes, and the discovery of novel intervention targets against haemonchosis.

Phylogenetic Analysis of C Type Lectin from Toxocara canis Infective Larvae and Comparison with the C Type Lectin Family in the Immune System of Mouse and Human

BACKGROUND

C type lectin (CTL) family is a type of calcium-dependent proteins found in vertebrates and invertebrates. The objective of this study was to perform a comparative analysis and phylogenetic inferring for understanding the similarities and differences of carbohydrate recognition domain (CRD) domain of Toxocara canis CTL and other nematodes, and similar C type lectin involved in the immune system of mouse and human as their host.

METHODS

The female T. canis was retrieved from the 2-6 months puppies (Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tehran, 2015). To collect T. canis eggs, the worms were cultured for 5 d until they were embryonated. The hatching process was accelerated for collecting the stage 2 larvae, and the larvae were cultured for a week. A cDNA library was made from the total mRNA of T. canis infective larvae. The PCR amplification for C type lectin gene was performed and the amino acids were analyzed using the alignment method and the construction of phylogenetic tree.

RESULTS

The suspension sample maintained at 30 ºC for four weeks could embryonate 90%-100% of eggs. T. canis CTL gene was 657 bp in length and encoded a protein with 219 amino acids. The CTL of species of Strongylida order were closely placed in the tree, whereas the members of Ascaridida orders were located in a separate branch. High levels of similarity (36%-44%) and conservation of C type lectin from T. canis with mouse and human C type lectins. Its C type lectin showed a higher similarity with asialoglycoprotein receptor (ASGPR), macrophage lectin, dendritic cell-specific intercellular adhesion molecule 3-grabbing nonintegrin (DC-SIGN), MINCLE receptor of mouse and human.

CONCLUSION

Analysis of CRD domain of C type lectin protein could make a better understanding of their role in the interaction of nematode parasite with their hosts.

Sex and tissue specific gene expression patterns identified following de novo transcriptomic analysis of the Norway lobster, Nephrops norvegicus

BACKGROUND

The Norway lobster, Nephrops norvegicus, is economically important in European fisheries and is a key organism in local marine ecosystems. Despite multi-faceted scientific interest in this species, our current knowledge of genetic resources in this species remains very limited. Here, we generated a reference de novo transcriptome for N. norvegicus from multiple tissues in both sexes. Bioinformatic analyses were conducted to detect transcripts that were expressed exclusively in either males or females. Patterns were validated via RT-PCR.

RESULTS

Sixteen N. norvegicus libraries were sequenced from immature and mature ovary, testis and vas deferens (including the masculinizing androgenic gland). In addition, eyestalk, brain, thoracic ganglia and hepatopancreas tissues were screened in males and both immature and mature females. RNA-Sequencing resulted in >600 million reads. De novo assembly that combined the current dataset with two previously published libraries from eyestalk tissue, yielded a reference transcriptome of 333,225 transcripts with an average size of 708 base pairs (bp), with an N50 of 1272 bp. Sex-specific transcripts were detected primarily in gonads followed by hepatopancreas, brain, thoracic ganglia, and eyestalk, respectively. Candidate transcripts that were expressed exclusively either in males or females were highlighted and the 10 most abundant ones were validated via RT-PCR. Among the most highly expressed genes were Serine threonine protein kinase in testis and Vitellogenin in female hepatopancreas. These results align closely with gene annotation results. Moreover, a differential expression heatmap showed that the majority of differentially expressed transcripts were identified in gonad and eyestalk tissues. Results indicate that sex-specific gene expression patterns in Norway lobster are controlled by differences in gene regulation pattern between males and females in somatic tissues.

CONCLUSIONS

The current study presents the first multi-tissue reference transcriptome for the Norway lobster that can be applied to future biological, wild restocking and fisheries studies. Sex-specific markers were mainly expressed in males implying that males may experience stronger selection than females. It is apparent that differential expression is due to sex-specific gene regulatory pathways that are present in somatic tissues and not from effects of genes located on heterogametic sex chromosomes. The N. norvegicus data provide a foundation for future gene-based reproductive studies.

Molecular cloning and characterization of a nematode polyprotein antigen/allergen from the human and animal hookworm Ancylostoma ceylanicum

Nematodes are unable to synthesize fatty acids de novo and must acquire them from the environment or host. It is hypothesized that two unique classes of fatty acid and retinol binding proteins that nematodes produce (fatty acid and retinol binding (FAR) and nematode polyprotein antigen/allergen (NPA)) are used to meet this need. A partial cDNA has been cloned corresponding to four subunits of a putative Ancylostoma ceylanicum NPA (AceNPA). The translated amino acid sequence of AceNPA shares sequence identity with similar proteins from Dictyocaulus viviparus, Ascaris suum, and Ostertagia ostertagi. Immunoblot experiments using a polyclonal anti-AceNPA IgG revealed proteins corresponding to the expected sizes of single, as well as two or three un-cleaved NPA subunits in adult excretory/secretory proteins and soluble adult worm extracts. Immunohistochemistry experiments localize AceNPA to the cuticle, pseudocoelomic space and testes suggesting a role in hookworm biology that is distinct from what has previously been defined for other hookworm lipid binding proteins. A single recombinant subunit of AceNPA (rAceNPAb) demonstrated binding in vitro to fluorescent fatty acids DAUDA, cis-parinaric acid, as well as retinol, at equilibrium dissociation constants in the low micromolar range. Further, in vitro data reveal that rAceNPAb binds fatty acids with chain lengths of C12-C22, with the greatest affinities for arachidonic, linoleic (C18), and eicosapentaenoic (C20) acids.

A novel pattern recognition protein of the Chinese oak silkmoth, Antheraea pernyi, is involved in the pro-PO activating system

In this paper, we firstly reported a C-type lectin cDNA clone of 1029 bps from the larvae of A. Pernyi (Ap-CTL) using PCR and RACE techniques. The full-length cDNA contains an open reading frame encoding 308 amino acid residues which has two different carbohydrate-recognition domains (CRDs) arranged in tandem. To investigate the biological activities in the innate immunity, recombinant Ap-CTL was expressed in E. coli with a 6-histidine at the amino-terminus (Ap-rCTL). Besides acted as a broad-spectrum recognition protein binding to a wide range of PAMPs and microorganisms, Ap-rCTL also had the ability to recognize and trigger the agglutination of bacteria and fungi. In the proPO activation assay, Ap-rCTL specifically restored the PO activity of hemolymph blocked by anti- Ap-rCTL antibody in the presence of different PAMPs or microorganisms. In summary, Ap-rCTL plays an important role in insect innate immunity as an pattern recognition protein.

Molecular cloning and expression of a C-type lectin gene from Venerupis philippinarum

C-type lectins have been demonstrated to play important roles in invertebrate innate immunity by mediating the recognition of pathogens and clearing the micro-invaders. In the present study, a C-type lectin gene (denoted as VpCTL) was identified from Venerupis philippinarum by expressed sequence tag and rapid amplification of cDNA ends approaches. The full-length cDNA of VpCTL consists of 904 nucleotides with an open-reading frame of 456 bp encoding a peptide of 151 amino acids. The deduced amino acid sequence of VpCTL shared high similarity with C-type lectins from other species. The C-type lectin domain and the characteristic EPN and WND motifs were found in VpCTL. The VpCTL mRNA was dominantly expressed in the haemocytes of the V. philippinarum. After Listonella anguillarum challenge, the temporal expression of VpCTL mRNA in haemocytes was increased by 97- and 84-fold at 48 and 96 h, respectively. With high expression level in haemocytes and hepatopancreas, and the up-regulated expression in haemocytes indicted that VpCTL was perhaps involved in the immune responses to L. anguillarum challenge.

LEC-2, a highly variable lectin in the lichen Peltigera membranacea

Lectins are a diverse group of carbohydrate binding proteins often involved in cellular interactions. A lectin gene, lec-2, was identified in the mycobiont of the lichen Peltigera membranacea. Sequencing of lec-2 open reading frames from 21 individual samples showed an unexpectedly high level of polymorphism in the deduced protein (LEC-2), which was sorted into nine haplotypes based on amino acid sequence. Calculations showed that the rates of nonsynonymous versus synonymous nucleotide substitutions deviated significantly from the null hypothesis of neutrality, indicating strong positive selection. Molecular modeling revealed that most amino acid replacements were around the putative carbohydrate-binding pocket, indicating changes in ligand binding. Lectins have been thought to be involved in the recognition of photobiont partners in lichen symbioses, and the hypothesis that positive selection of LEC-2 is driven by variation in the Nostoc photobiont partner was tested by comparing mycobiont LEC-2 haplotypes and photobiont genotypes, as represented by the rbcLX region. It was not possible to pair up the two types of marker sequences without conflicts, suggesting that positive selection of LEC-2 was not due to variation in photobiont partners.

A novel C-type lectin identified by EST analysis in tissue migratory larvae of Ascaris suum

C-type lectins (CTLs) are a group of proteins which bind to carbohydrate epitopes in the presence of Ca(2+), which have been described in a wide range of species. In this study, a cDNA sequence coding a putative CTL has been identified from the cDNA library constructed from the pig round worm Ascaris suum lung L3 (LL3) larvae, which was designated as A. suum C-type lectin-1 (As-CTL-1). The 510 nucleotide open reading frame of As-CTL-1 cDNA encoded the predicted 169 amino acid protein including a putative signal peptide of 23 residues and C-type lectin/C-type lectin-like domain (CLECT) at residue 26 to 167. As-CTL-1 was most similar to Toxocara canis C-type lectin-1 and 4 (Tc-CTL-1 and 4), and highly homologous to namatode CTLs and mammalian CTLs as well, such as human C-type lectin domain family 4 member G (CLECG4). In addition, As-CTL-1 was strongly expressed in tissue migrating LL3 and the L4 larvae, which were developmental larvae stages within the mammalian host. These results suggest that A. suum larvae might utilize As-CTL-1 to avoid pathogen recognition mechanisms in mammalian hosts due to it is similarity to host immune cell receptors.

Construction of a cDNA library from female adult of Toxocara canis, and analysis of EST and immune-related genes expressions

Toxocara canis is a widespread intestinal nematode parasite of dogs, which can also cause disease in humans. We employed an expressed sequence tag (EST) strategy in order to study gene-expression including development, digestion and reproduction of T. canis. ESTs provided a rapid way to identify genes, particularly in organisms for which we have very little molecular information. In this study, a cDNA library was constructed from a female adult of T. canis and 215 high-quality ESTs from 5'-ends of the cDNA clones representing 79 unigenes were obtained. The titer of the primary cDNA library was 1.83×10(6)pfu/mL with a recombination rate of 99.33%. Most of the sequences ranged from 300 to 900bp with an average length of 656bp. Cluster analysis of these ESTs allowed identification of 79 unique sequences containing 28 contigs and 51 singletons. BLASTX searches revealed that 18 unigenes (22.78% of the total) or 70 ESTs (32.56% of the total) were novel genes that had no significant matches to any protein sequences in the public databases. The rest of the 61 unigenes (77.22% of the total) or 145 ESTs (67.44% of the total) were closely matched to the known genes or sequences deposited in the public databases. These genes were classified into seven groups based on their known or putative biological functions. We also confirmed the gene expression patterns of several immune-related genes using RT-PCR examination. This work will provide a valuable resource for the further investigations in the stage-, sex- and tissue-specific gene transcription or expression.

C-type lectins from the nematode parasites Heligmosomoides polygyrus and Nippostrongylus brasiliensis

The C-type lectin superfamily is highly represented in all metazoan phyla so far studied. Many members of this superfamily are important in innate immune defences against infection, while others serve key developmental and structural roles. Within the superfamily, many proteins contain multiple canonical carbohydrate-recognition domains (CRDs), together with additional non-lectin domains. In this report, we have studied two gastrointestinal nematode parasites which are widely used in experimental rodent systems, Heligmosomoides polygyrus and Nippostrongylus brasiliensis. From cDNA libraries, we have isolated 3 new C-type lectins from these species; all are single-CRD proteins with short additional N-terminal domains. The predicted Hp-CTL-1 protein contains 156 aa, Nb-CTL-1 191 aa and Nb-CTL-2 183 aa; all encode predicted signal peptides, as well as key conserved sequence motifs characteristic of the CTL superfamily. These lectins are most similar to C. elegans CLEC-48, 49 and 50, as well as to the lectin domains of mammalian immune system proteins CD23 and CD206. RT-PCR showed that these H. polygyrus and N. brasiliensis genes are primarily expressed in the gut-dwelling adult stages, although Nb-CTL-2 transcripts are also prominent in the free-living infective larval (L3) stage. Polyclonal antibodies raised to Hp-CTL-1 and Nb-CTL-1 reacted to both proteins by ELISA, and in Western blot analysis recognised a 15-kDa band in secreted proteins of adult N. brasiliensis (NES) and a 19-kDa band in H. polygyrus ES (HES). Anti-CTL-1 antibody also bound strongly to the cuticle of adult H. polygyrus. Hence, live parasites release C-type lectins homologous to some key receptors of the mammalian host immune system, raising the possibility that these products interfere in some manner with immunological recognition or effector function.

Helminth immunoregulation: the role of parasite secreted proteins in modulating host immunity

Helminths are masterful immunoregulators. A characteristic feature of helminth infection is a Th2-dominated immune response, but stimulation of immunoregulatory cell populations, such as regulatory T cells and alternatively activated macrophages, is equally common. Typically, Th1/17 immunity is blocked and productive effector responses are muted, allowing survival of the parasite in a "modified Th2" environment. Drug treatment to clear the worms reverses the immunoregulatory effects, indicating that a state of active suppression is maintained by the parasite. Hence, research has focussed on "excretory-secretory" products released by live parasites, which can interfere with every aspect of host immunity from initial recognition to end-stage effector mechanisms. In this review, we survey our knowledge of helminth secreted molecules, and summarise current understanding of the growing number of individual helminth mediators that have been shown to target key receptors or pathways in the mammalian immune system.

Characterisation of a fatty acid and retinol binding protein orthologue from the hookworm Ancylostoma ceylanicum

Hookworms, bloodfeeding intestinal nematodes, infect nearly one billion people in resource limited countries and are a leading cause of anaemia and malnutrition. Like other nematodes, hookworms lack the capacity to synthesise essential fatty acids de novo and therefore must acquire those from exogenous sources. The cDNA corresponding to a putative Ancylostoma ceylanicum fatty acid and retinol binding protein-1 (AceFAR-1) was amplified from adult hookworm mRNA. Studies using quantitative reverse transcriptase real-time PCR demonstrate that AceFAR-1 transcripts are most abundant in the earliest developmental stages of the parasite, and greater in females than males. Using in vitro assays, the recombinant AceFAR-1 (rAceFAR-1) was shown to bind individual fatty acids with equilibrium dissociation constants in the low micromolar range. The pattern of fatty acid uptake by live adult worms cultured ex vivo was similar to the in vitro binding profile of rAceFAR-1, raising the possibility that the native protein may be involved in acquisition of fatty acids by A. ceylanicum. Animals vaccinated orally with rAceFAR-1 and the mucosal adjuvant cholera toxin exhibited a statistically significant (40-47%) reduction in intestinal worm burden compared with controls immunized with antigen or adjuvant alone. Together, these data suggest a potential role for AceFAR-1 in hookworm biology, making it a potentially valuable target for drug and vaccine development.

Structural and functional characterization of a secreted hookworm Macrophage Migration Inhibitory Factor (MIF) that interacts with the human MIF receptor CD74

Hookworms, parasitic nematodes that infect nearly one billion people worldwide, are a major cause of anemia and malnutrition. We hypothesize that hookworms actively manipulate the host immune response through the production of specific molecules designed to facilitate infection by larval stages and adult worm survival within the intestine. A full-length cDNA encoding a secreted orthologue of the human cytokine, Macrophage Migration Inhibitory Factor (MIF) has been cloned from the hookworm Ancylostoma ceylanicum. Elucidation of the three-dimensional crystal structure of recombinant AceMIF (rAceMIF) revealed an overall structural homology with significant differences in the tautomerase sites of the human and hookworm proteins. The relative bioactivities of human and hookworm MIF proteins were compared using in vitro assays of tautomerase activity, macrophage migration, and binding to MIF receptor CD74. The activity of rAceMIF was not inhibited by the ligand ISO-1, which was previously determined to be an inhibitor of the catalytic site of human MIF. These data define unique immunological, structural, and functional characteristics of AceMIF, thereby establishing the potential for selectively inhibiting the hookworm cytokine as a means of reducing parasite survival and disease pathogenesis.