A genetic map of the animal-parasitic nematode Strongyloides ratti

Advancing Strongyloides omics data: bridging the gap with Caenorhabditis elegans

Among nematodes, the free-living model organism Caenorhabditis elegans boasts the most advanced portfolio of high-quality omics data. The resources available for parasitic nematodes, including Strongyloides spp., however, are lagging behind. While C. elegans remains the most tractable nematode and has significantly advanced our understanding of many facets of nematode biology, C. elegans is not suitable as a surrogate system for the study of parasitism and it is important that we improve the omics resources available for parasitic nematode species. Here, we review the omics data available for Strongyloides spp. and compare the available resources to those for C. elegans and other parasitic nematodes. The advancements in C. elegans omics offer a blueprint for improving omics-led research in Strongyloides. We suggest areas of priority for future research that will pave the way for expansions in omics resources and technologies. This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue 'Strongyloides: omics to worm-free populations'.

Population genomics of helminth parasites

Next generation sequencing technologies have facilitated a shift from a few targeted loci in population genetic studies to whole genome approaches. Here, we review the types of questions and inferences regarding the population biology and evolution of parasitic helminths being addressed within the field of population genomics. Topics include parabiome, hybridization, population structure, loci under selection and linkage mapping. We highlight various advances, and note the current trends in the field, particularly a focus on human-related parasites despite the inherent biodiversity of helminth species. We conclude by advocating for a broader application of population genomics to reflect the taxonomic and life history breadth displayed by helminth parasites. As such, our basic knowledge about helminth population biology and evolution would be enhanced while the diversity of helminths in itself would facilitate population genomic comparative studies to address broader ecological and evolutionary concepts.

A telomere-to-telomere assembly of Oscheius tipulae and the evolution of rhabditid nematode chromosomes

Eukaryotic chromosomes have phylogenetic persistence. In many taxa, each chromosome has a single functional centromere with essential roles in spindle attachment and segregation. Fusion and fission can generate chromosomes with no or multiple centromeres, leading to genome instability. Groups with holocentric chromosomes (where centromeric function is distributed along each chromosome) might be expected to show karyotypic instability. This is generally not the case, and in Caenorhabditis elegans, it has been proposed that the role of maintenance of a stable karyotype has been transferred to the meiotic pairing centers, which are found at one end of each chromosome. Here, we explore the phylogenetic stability of nematode chromosomes using a new telomere-to-telomere assembly of the rhabditine nematode Oscheius tipulae generated from nanopore long reads. The 60-Mb O. tipulae genome is resolved into six chromosomal molecules. We find the evidence of specific chromatin diminution at all telomeres. Comparing this chromosomal O. tipulae assembly with chromosomal assemblies of diverse rhabditid nematodes, we identify seven ancestral chromosomal elements (Nigon elements) and present a model for the evolution of nematode chromosomes through rearrangement and fusion of these elements. We identify frequent fusion events involving NigonX, the element associated with the rhabditid X chromosome, and thus sex chromosome-associated gene sets differ markedly between species. Despite the karyotypic stability, gene order within chromosomes defined by Nigon elements is not conserved. Our model for nematode chromosome evolution provides a platform for investigation of the tensions between local genome rearrangement and karyotypic evolution in generating extant genome architectures.

Transgenic expression of a T cell epitope in Strongyloides ratti reveals that helminth-specific CD4+ T cells constitute both Th2 and Treg populations

Helminths are distinct from microbial pathogens in both size and complexity, and are the likely evolutionary driving force for type 2 immunity. CD4+ helper T cells can both coordinate worm clearance and prevent immunopathology, but issues of T cell antigen specificity in the context of helminth-induced Th2 and T regulatory cell (Treg) responses have not been addressed. Herein, we generated a novel transgenic line of the gastrointestinal nematode Strongyloides ratti expressing the immunodominant CD4+ T cell epitope 2W1S as a fusion protein with green fluorescent protein (GFP) and FLAG peptide in order to track and study helminth-specific CD4+ T cells. C57BL/6 mice infected with this stable transgenic line (termed Hulk) underwent a dose-dependent expansion of activated CD44hiCD11ahi 2W1S-specific CD4+ T cells, preferentially in the lung parenchyma. Transcriptional profiling of 2W1S-specific CD4+ T cells isolated from mice infected with either Hulk or the enteric bacterial pathogen Salmonella expressing 2W1S revealed that pathogen context exerted a dominant influence over CD4+ T cell phenotype. Interestingly, Hulk-elicited 2W1S-specific CD4+ T cells exhibited both Th2 and Treg phenotypes and expressed high levels of the EGFR ligand amphiregulin, which differed greatly from the phenotype of 2W1S-specific CD4+ T cells elicited by 2W1S-expressing Salmonella. While immunization with 2W1S peptide did not enhance clearance of Hulk infection, immunization did increase total amphiregulin production as well as the number of amphiregulin-expressing CD3+ cells in the lung following Hulk infection. Altogether, this new model system elucidates effector as well as immunosuppressive and wound reparative roles of helminth-specific CD4+ T cells. This report establishes a new resource for studying the nature and function of helminth-specific T cells.

Molecular evidence of hybridization between pig and human Ascaris indicates an interbred species complex infecting humans

Human ascariasis is a major neglected tropical disease caused by the nematode Ascaris lumbricoides. We report a 296 megabase (Mb) reference-quality genome comprised of 17,902 protein-coding genes derived from a single, representative Ascaris worm. An additional 68 worms were collected from 60 human hosts in Kenyan villages where pig husbandry is rare. Notably, the majority of these worms (63/68) possessed mitochondrial genomes that clustered closer to the pig parasite Ascaris suum than to A. lumbricoides. Comparative phylogenomic analyses identified over 11 million nuclear-encoded SNPs but just two distinct genetic types that had recombined across the genomes analyzed. The nuclear genomes had extensive heterozygosity, and all samples existed as genetic mosaics with either A. suum-like or A. lumbricoides-like inheritance patterns supporting a highly interbred Ascaris species genetic complex. As no barriers appear to exist for anthroponotic transmission of these 'hybrid' worms, a one-health approach to control the spread of human ascariasis will be necessary.

Advances in the Molecular and Cellular Biology of Strongyloides spp

Purpose of Review

This paper constitutes an update of recent studies on the general biology, molecular genetics, and cellular biology of Strongyloides spp. and related parasitic nematodes.

Recent Findings

Increasingly, human strongyloidiasis is considered the most neglected of neglected tropical diseases. Despite this, the last 5 years has seen remarkable advances in the molecular biology of Strongyloides spp. Genome sequences for S. stercoralis, S. ratti, S. venezuelensis, S. papillosus, and the related parasite Parastrongyloides trichosuri were created, annotated, and analyzed. These genomic resources, along with a practical transgenesis platform for Strongyloides spp., aided a major achievement, the advent of targeted mutagenesis via CRISPR/Cas9 in S. stercoralis and S. ratti. The genome sequences have also enabled significant molecular epidemiologic and phylogenetic findings on human strongyloidiasis, including the first genetic evidence of zoonotic transmission of S. stercoralis between dogs and humans. Studies of molecular signaling pathways identified the nuclear receptor Ss-DAF-12 as one that can be manipulated in the parasite by exogenous application of its steroid ligands. The chemotherapeutic implications of this were unscored by a study in which a Ss-DAF-12 ligand suppressed autoinfection by S. stercoralis in a new murine model of human strongyloidiasis.

Summary

Seminal advances in genomics of Strongyloides spp. have transformed research into strongyloidiasis, facilitating fundamental phylogenetic and epidemiologic studies and aiding the deployment of CRISPR/Cas9 gene disruption and editing as functional genomic tools in Strongyloides spp. Studies of Ss-DAF-12 signaling in S. stercoralis demonstrated the potential of this pathway as a novel chemotherapeutic target in parasitic nematodes.

Development of Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita (and members of the Phasmarhabditis genus) as new genetic model nematodes to study the genetic basis of parasitism

The genetic mechanisms of how free-living nematodes evolved into parasites are unknown. Current genetic model nematodes (e.g. Caenorhabditis elegans) are not well suited to provide the answer, and mammalian parasites are expensive and logistically difficult to maintain. Here we propose the terrestrial gastropod parasite Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita as a new alternative to study the evolution of parasitism, and outline the methodology of how to keep P. hermaphrodita in the lab for genetic experiments. We show that P. hermaphrodita (and several other Phasmarhabditis species) are easy to isolate and identify from slugs and snails from around the UK. We outline how to make isogenic lines using 'semi-natural' conditions to reduce in-lab evolution, and how to optimize growth using nematode growth media (NGM) agar and naturally isolated bacteria. We show that P. hermaphrodita is amenable to forward genetics and that unc and sma mutants can be generated using formaldehyde mutagenesis. We also detail the procedures needed to carry out genetic crosses. Furthermore, we show natural variation within our Phasmarhabditis collection, with isolates displaying differences in survival when exposed to high temperatures and pH, which facilitates micro and macro evolutionary studies. In summary, we believe that this genetically amenable parasite that shares many attributes with C. elegans as well as being in Clade 5, which contains many animal, plant and arthropod parasites, could be an excellent model to understand the genetic basis of parasitism in the Nematoda.

A Genome Resequencing-Based Genetic Map Reveals the Recombination Landscape of an Outbred Parasitic Nematode in the Presence of Polyploidy and Polyandry

The parasitic nematode Haemonchus contortus is an economically and clinically important pathogen of small ruminants, and a model system for understanding the mechanisms and evolution of traits such as anthelmintic resistance. Anthelmintic resistance is widespread and is a major threat to the sustainability of livestock agriculture globally; however, little is known about the genome architecture and parameters such as recombination that will ultimately influence the rate at which resistance may evolve and spread. Here, we performed a genetic cross between two divergent strains of H. contortus, and subsequently used whole-genome resequencing of a female worm and her brood to identify the distribution of genome-wide variation that characterizes these strains. Using a novel bioinformatic approach to identify variants that segregate as expected in a pseudotestcross, we characterized linkage groups and estimated genetic distances between markers to generate a chromosome-scale F1 genetic map. We exploited this map to reveal the recombination landscape, the first for any helminth species, demonstrating extensive variation in recombination rate within and between chromosomes. Analyses of these data also revealed the extent of polyandry, whereby at least eight males were found to have contributed to the genetic variation of the progeny analyzed. Triploid offspring were also identified, which we hypothesize are the result of nondisjunction during female meiosis or polyspermy. These results expand our knowledge of the genetics of parasitic helminths and the unusual life-history of H. contortus, and enhance ongoing efforts to understand the genetic basis of resistance to the drugs used to control these worms and for related species that infect livestock and humans throughout the world. This study also demonstrates the feasibility of using whole-genome resequencing data to directly construct a genetic map in a single generation cross from a noninbred nonmodel organism with a complex lifecycle.

Different but overlapping populations of Strongyloides stercoralis in dogs and humans-Dogs as a possible source for zoonotic strongyloidiasis

Strongyloidiasis is a much-neglected soil born helminthiasis caused by the nematode Strongyloides stercoralis. Human derived S. stercoralis can be maintained in dogs in the laboratory and this parasite has been reported to also occur in dogs in the wild. Some authors have considered strongyloidiasis a zoonotic disease while others have argued that the two hosts carry host specialized populations of S. stercoralis and that dogs play a minor role, if any, as a reservoir for zoonotic S. stercoralis infections of humans. We isolated S. stercoralis from humans and their dogs in rural villages in northern Cambodia, a region with a high incidence of strongyloidiasis, and compared the worms derived from these two host species using nuclear and mitochondrial DNA sequence polymorphisms. We found that in dogs there exist two populations of S. stercoralis, which are clearly separated from each other genetically based on the nuclear 18S rDNA, the mitochondrial cox1 locus and whole genome sequence. One population, to which the majority of the worms belong, appears to be restricted to dogs. The other population is indistinguishable from the population of S. stercoralis isolated from humans. Consistent with earlier studies, we found multiple sequence variants of the hypervariable region I of the 18 S rDNA in S. stercoralis from humans. However, comparison of mitochondrial sequences and whole genome analysis suggest that these different 18S variants do not represent multiple genetically isolated subpopulations among the worms isolated from humans. We also investigated the mode of reproduction of the free-living generations of laboratory and wild isolates of S. stercoralis. Contrary to earlier literature on S. stercoralis but similar to other species of Strongyloides, we found clear evidence of sexual reproduction. Overall, our results show that dogs carry two populations, possibly different species of Strongyloides. One population appears to be dog specific but the other one is shared with humans. This argues for the strong potential of dogs as reservoirs for zoonotic transmission of S. stercoralis to humans and suggests that in order to reduce the exposure of humans to infective S. stercoralis larvae, dogs should be treated for the infection along with their owners.

Multifunctional Thioredoxin-Like Protein from the Gastrointestinal Parasitic Nematodes Strongyloides ratti and Trichuris suis Affects Mucosal Homeostasis

The cellular redox state is important for the regulation of multiple functions and is essential for the maintenance of cellular homeostasis and antioxidant defense. In the excretory/secretory (E/S) products of Strongyloides ratti and Trichuris suis sequences for thioredoxin (Trx) and Trx-like protein (Trx-lp) were identified. To characterize the antioxidant Trx-lp and its interaction with the parasite's mucosal habitat, S. ratti and T. suis Trx-lps were cloned and recombinantly expressed. The primary antioxidative activity was assured by reduction of insulin and IgM. Further analysis applying an in vitro mucosal 3D-cell culture model revealed that the secreted Trx-lps were able to bind to monocytic and intestinal epithelial cells and induce the time-dependent release of cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-22, and TSLP. In addition, the redox proteins also possessed chemotactic activity for monocytic THP-1 cells and fostered epithelial wound healing activity. These results confirm that the parasite-secreted Trx-lps are multifunctional proteins that can affect the host intestinal mucosa.

Germline organization in Strongyloides nematodes reveals alternative differentiation and regulation mechanisms

Nematodes of the genus Strongyloides are important parasites of vertebrates including man. Currently, little is known about their germline organization or reproductive biology and how this influences their parasitic life strategies. Here, we analyze the structure of the germline in several Strongyloides and closely related species and uncover striking differences in the development, germline organization, and fluid dynamics compared to the model organism Caenorhabditis elegans. With a focus on Strongyloides ratti, we reveal that the proliferation of germ cells is restricted to early and mid-larval development, thus limiting the number of progeny. In order to understand key germline events (specifically germ cell progression and the transcriptional status of the germline), we monitored conserved histone modifications, in particular H3Pser10 and H3K4me3. The evolutionary significance of these events is subsequently highlighted through comparisons with six other nematode species, revealing underlying complexities and variations in the development of the germline among nematodes.

Optimizing culture conditions for free-living stages of the nematode parasite Strongyloides ratti

The rat parasitic nematode Strongyloides ratti (S. ratti) has recently emerged as a model system for various aspects of parasite biology and evolution. In addition to parasitic parthenogenetic females, this species can also form facultative free-living generations of sexually reproducing adults. These free-living worms are bacteriovorous and grow very well when cultured in the feces of their host. However, in fecal cultures the worms are rather difficult to find for observation and experimental manipulation. Therefore, it has also been attempted to raise S. ratti on Nematode Growth Media (NGM) plates with Escherichia coli OP50 as food, exactly as described for the model nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. Whilst worms did grow on these plates, their longevity and reproductive output compared to fecal cultures were dramatically reduced. In order to improve the culture success we tested other plates occasionally used for C. elegans and, starting from the best performing one, systematically varied the plate composition, the temperature and the food in order to further optimize the conditions. Here we present a plate culturing protocol for free-living stages of S. ratti with strongly improved reproductive success and longevity.

Genetics: modes of reproduction and genetic analysis

Classical and reverse genetics remain invaluable tools for the scientific investigation of model organisms. Genetic analysis of endoparasites is generally difficult because the sexual adults required for crossing and other manipulations are usually hidden within their host. Strongyloides spp. and Parastrongyloides spp. are notable exceptions to this and their free-living adults offer unique opportunities to manipulate these parasites experimentally. Here I review the modes of inheritance in the two generations of Strongyloides/Parastrongyloides and I discuss the opportunities and the limitations of the currently available methodology for the genetic analysis of these two genera.

The genomic basis of parasitism in the Strongyloides clade of nematodes

Soil-transmitted nematodes, including the Strongyloides genus, cause one of the most prevalent neglected tropical diseases. Here we compare the genomes of four Strongyloides species, including the human pathogen Strongyloides stercoralis, and their close relatives that are facultatively parasitic (Parastrongyloides trichosuri) and free-living (Rhabditophanes sp. KR3021). A significant paralogous expansion of key gene families--families encoding astacin-like and SCP/TAPS proteins--is associated with the evolution of parasitism in this clade. Exploiting the unique Strongyloides life cycle, we compare the transcriptomes of the parasitic and free-living stages and find that these same gene families are upregulated in the parasitic stages, underscoring their role in nematode parasitism.

Differential chromatin amplification and chromosome complements in the germline of Strongyloididae (Nematoda)

Nematodes of the genus Strongyloides are intestinal parasites of vertebrates including man. Currently, Strongyloides and its sister genus Parastrongyloides are being developed as models for translational and basic biological research. Strongyloides spp. alternate between parthenogenetic parasitic and single free-living sexual generations, with the latter giving rise to all female parasitic progeny. Parastrongyloides trichosuri always reproduces sexually and may form many consecutive free-living generations. Although the free-living adults of both these species share a superficial similarity in overall appearance when compared to Caenorhabditis elegans, there are dramatic differences between them, in particular with respect to the organization of the germline. Here we address two such differences, which have puzzled investigators for several generations. First, we characterize a population of non-dividing giant nuclei in the distal gonad, the region that in C. elegans is populated by mitotically dividing germline stem cells and early meiotic cells. We show that in these nuclei, autosomes are present in higher copy numbers than X chromosomes. Consistently, autosomal genes are expressed at higher levels than X chromosomal ones, suggesting that these worms use differential chromatin amplification for controlling gene expression. Second, we address the lack of males in the progeny of free-living Strongyloides spp. We find that male-determining (nullo-X) sperm are present in P. trichosuri, a species known to produce male progeny, and absent in Strongyloides papillosus, which is consistent for a species that does not. Surprisingly, nullo-X sperm appears to be present in Strongyloides ratti, even though this species does not produce male progeny. This suggests that different species of Strongyloides employ various strategies to prevent the formation of males in the all-parasitic progeny of the free-living generation.

A protocol for chemical mutagenesis in Strongyloides ratti

Genetic analysis using experimentally induced mutations has been a most valuable tool in the analysis of various organisms. However, genetic analysis of endoparasitic organisms tends to be difficult because of the limited accessibility of the sexually reproducing adults, which are normally located within the host. Nematodes of the genera Strogyloides and Parastrongyloides represent an exception to this because they can form facultative free-living sexually reproducing generations in between parasitic generations. Here we present a protocol for the chemical mutagenesis of Strongyloides ratti. Further we evaluate the feasibility of identifying the induced mutations by whole genome re-sequencing.

Strongyloides stercoralis and relatives: recent advances in general and molecular biology

Human strongyloidiasis is a threat to global health, presenting significant challenges in diagnosis and clinical management. The imperative to incorporate strongyoidiasis more fully into control programs for soil-transmitted helminths is increasingly recognized. The unique life cycles of S. stercoralis and congeneric species contain both free-living and parasitic generations, and transcriptomic methods have recently identified genes of potential importance to parasitism in these parasites. Proteomics recently revealed stage-specific secreted proteins that appear crucial to the host-parasite interaction. A comprehensive genome sequencing project for Strongyloides spp. is now nearing completion. Recent technical advances in transgenesis for S. stercoralis and S. ratti, including the first establishment of stable transgenic lines, promise to advance functional evaluations of genes expressed in conjunction with crucial life cycle events. Studies employing these methods recently bolstered the hypothesis that S. stercoralis uses cellular signaling pathways homologous to three that regulate dauer larval development in Caenorhabditis elegans to regulate morphogenesis and development of its infective third-stage larva. The free-living generation of Strongyloides makes classical genetics formally possible. Recent advances, such as a genetic map of S. ratti and a molecular genetic and karyotypic analysis of sex determination in S. papillosus, will greatly facilitate this approach. Advanced methods for study of chemosensation in C. elegans were recently applied to discover numerous host attractant molecules that mediate host finding and contact by infective third-stage larvae of Strongyloides spp. Finally, nucleic acid-based diagnostic methods have recently come to the fore as alternatives to parasitological and immunodiagnostic techniques.

How to become a parasite without sex chromosomes: a hypothesis for the evolution of Strongyloides spp. and related nematodes

Parasitic lifestyles evolved many times independently. Just within the phylum Nematoda animal parasitism must have arisen at least four times. Switching to a parasitic lifestyle is expected to lead to changes in various life history traits including reproductive strategies. Parasitic nematode worms of the genus Strongyloides represent an interesting example to study these processes because they are still capable of forming facultative free-living generations in between parasitic ones. The parasitic generation consists of females only, which reproduce parthenogenetically. The sex in the progeny of the parasitic worms is determined by environmental cues, which control a, presumably ancestral, XX/XO chromosomal sex determining system. In some species the X chromosome is fused with an autosome and one copy of the X-derived sequences is removed by sex-specific chromatin diminution in males. Here I propose a hypothesis for how today's Strongyloides sp. might have evolved from a sexual free-living ancestor through dauer larvae forming free-living and facultative parasitic intermediate stages.

Parastrongyloides trichosuri suggests that XX/XO sex determination is ancestral in Strongyloididae (Nematoda)

The parasitic roundworms Strongyloides stercoralis (in man) and Strongyloides ratti (in rats) employ environmentally controlled XX/XO sex determination with a pair of X chromosomes and two pairs of autosomes. Strongyloides papillosus (in sheep) has only two pairs of chromosomes, one of which combines the genetic material homologous to the S. ratti chromosomes X and I. This species creates males through the elimination of one copy of the portion related to the X chromosome (chromatin diminution). It is not clear which one of these two sex-determining mechanisms is ancestral. We demonstrate that Strongyloides vituli (in cattle) has two pairs of chromosomes like its very close relative S. papillosus whereas Parastrongyloides trichosuri, a closely related out-group to Strongyloides spp. in Australian brushtail possums, has three chromosome pairs and employs XX/XO sex determination. The X chromosome of P. trichosuri is homologous to the X chromosome of S. ratti. Our data strongly suggest that the last common ancestor of Strongyloides spp. and Parastrongyloides spp. had two pairs of autosomes along with two or one X chromosome in females and males, respectively. The situation with two pairs of chromosomes is likely derived and occurred through the fusion of the X chromosome with an autosome.

Transposon-mediated chromosomal integration of transgenes in the parasitic nematode Strongyloides ratti and establishment of stable transgenic lines

Genetic transformation is a potential tool for analyzing gene function and thereby identifying new drug and vaccine targets in parasitic nematodes, which adversely affect more than one billion people. We have previously developed a robust system for transgenesis in Strongyloides spp. using gonadal microinjection for gene transfer. In this system, transgenes are expressed in promoter-regulated fashion in the F1 but are silenced in subsequent generations, presumably because of their location in repetitive episomal arrays. To counteract this silencing, we explored transposon-mediated chromosomal integration of transgenes in S. ratti. To this end, we constructed a donor vector encoding green fluorescent protein (GFP) under the control of the Ss-act-2 promoter with flanking inverted tandem repeats specific for the piggyBac transposon. In three experiments, free-living Strongyloides ratti females were transformed with this donor vector and a helper plasmid encoding the piggyBac transposase. A mean of 7.9% of F1 larvae were GFP-positive. We inoculated rats with GFP-positive F1 infective larvae, and 0.5% of 6014 F2 individuals resulting from this host passage were GFP-positive. We cultured GFP-positive F2 individuals to produce GFP-positive F3 L3i for additional rounds of host and culture passage. Mean GFP expression frequencies in subsequent generations were 15.6% in the F3, 99.0% in the F4, 82.4% in the F5 and 98.7% in the F6. The resulting transgenic lines now have virtually uniform GFP expression among all progeny after at least 10 generations of passage. Chromosomal integration of the reporter transgenes was confirmed by Southern blotting and splinkerette PCR, which revealed the transgene flanked by S. ratti genomic sequences corresponding to five discrete integration sites. BLAST searches of flanking sequences against the S. ratti genome revealed integrations in five contigs. This result provides the basis for two powerful functional genomic tools in S. ratti: heritable transgenesis and insertional mutagenesis.

Characterization of a secreted macrophage migration inhibitory factor homologue of the parasitic nematode Strongyloides acting at the parasite-host cell interface

Strongyloidiasis is a tropical parasitosis characterized by an alternation between free-living and parasitic stages, and by long-term infection via autoinfection. Since invasion and evasion processes of helminth parasites are substantially attained by the involvement of excretory-secretory products, we identified and characterized the 13.5 kDa macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF)-like protein in Strongyloides ratti. Sra-MIF is mainly secreted from the infective stage larvae (iL3), while the transcript was found at lower levels in parasitic and free-living females. Sequence analysis of the full-length cDNA showed the highest homology to the human pathogen Strongyloides stercoralis, and both are related to the MIF type-2. Unlike other mif genes, the Sra-mif includes no intron. The protein was recombinantly expressed in Escherichia coli and purified. Sra-MIF exhibited no in vitro tautomerase activity. The exposure of Sra-MIF to the host immune system is confirmed by high IgG reactivities found in the hosts' sera following infection or immunization. Flow cytometric analysis indicated the binding of Sra-MIF to the monocytes/macrophage lineage but not to peripheral lymphocytes. After exposure to Sra-MIF, monocytes released IL-10 but not TNF-alpha suggesting the involvement of the secreted parasite MIF in host immune responses.

Transgenesis in the parasitic nematode Strongyloides ratti

Strongyloides and related genera are advantageous subjects for transgenesis in parasitic nematodes, primarily by gonadal microinjection as has been used with Caenorhabditis elegans. Transgenesis has been achieved in Strongyloides stercoralis and in Parastrongyloides trichosuri, but both of these lack well-adapted, conventional laboratory hosts in which to derive transgenic lines. By contrast, Strongyloides ratti develops in laboratory rats with high efficiency and offers the added advantages of robust genomic and transcriptomic databases and substantial volumes of genetic, developmental and immunological data. Therefore, we evaluated methodology for transgenesis in S. stercoralis as a means of transforming S. ratti. S. stercoralis-based GFP reporter constructs were expressed in a proportion of F1 transgenic S. ratti following gonadal microinjection into parental free-living females. Frequencies of transgene expression in S. ratti, ranged from 3.7% for pAJ09 to 6.8% for pAJ20; respective frequencies for these constructs in S. stercoralis were 5.6% and 33.5%. Anatomical patterns of transgene expression were virtually identical in S. ratti and S. stercoralis. This is the first report of transgenesis in S. ratti, an important model organism for biological investigations of parasitic nematodes. Availability of the rat as a well-adapted laboratory host will facilitate derivation of transgenic lines of this parasite.

Stage-specific excretory-secretory small heat shock proteins from the parasitic nematode Strongyloides ratti--putative links to host's intestinal mucosal defense system

In a search for molecules involved in the interaction between intestinal nematodes and mammalian mucosal host cells, we performed MS to identify excretory-secretory proteins from Strongyloides ratti. In the excretory-secretory proteins of the parasitic female stage, we detected, in addition to other peptides, peptides homologous with the Caenorhabditis elegans heat shock protein (HSP)-17, named Sra-HSP-17.1 (∼ 19 kDa) and Sra-HSP-17.2 (∼ 18 kDa), with 49% amino acid identity. The full-length cDNAs (483 bp and 474 bp, respectively) were identified, and the genomic organization was analyzed. To allow further characterization, the proteins were recombinantly expressed and purified. Profiling of transcription by quantitative real-time-PCR and of protein by ELISA in various developmental stages revealed parasitic female-specific expression. Sequence analyses of both the DNA and amino acid sequences showed that the two proteins share a conserved α-crystallin domain and variable N-terminals. The Sra-HSP-17s showed the highest homology with the deduced small HSP sequence of the human pathogen Strongyloides stercoralis. We observed strong immunogenicity of both proteins, leading to strong IgG responses following infection of rats. Flow cytometric analysis indicated the binding of Sra-HSP-17s to the monocyte-macrophage lineage but not to peripheral lymphocytes or neutrophils. A rat intestinal epithelial cell line showed dose-dependent binding to Sra-HSP-17.1, but not to Sra-HSP-17.2. Exposed monocytes released interleukin-10 but not tumor necrosis factor-α in response to Sra-HSP-17s, suggesting the possible involvement of secreted female proteins in host immune responses.

Comparative genetics and genomics of nematodes: genome structure, development, and lifestyle

Nematodes are found in virtually all habitats on earth. Many of them are parasites of plants and animals, including humans. The free-living nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans, is one of the genetically best-studied model organisms and was the first metazoan whose genome was fully sequenced. In recent years, the draft genome sequences of another six nematodes representing four of the five major clades of nematodes were published. Compared to mammalian genomes, all these genomes are very small. Nevertheless, they contain almost the same number of genes as the human genome. Nematodes are therefore a very attractive system for comparative genetic and genomic studies, with C. elegans as an excellent baseline. Here, we review the efforts that were made to extend genetic analysis to nematodes other than C. elegans, and we compare the seven available nematode genomes. One of the most striking findings is the unexpectedly high incidence of gene acquisition through horizontal gene transfer (HGT).

Genetics, chromatin diminution, and sex chromosome evolution in the parasitic nematode genus Strongyloides

BACKGROUND

When chromatin diminution occurs during a cell division a portion of the chromatin is eliminated, resulting in daughter cells with a smaller amount of genetic material. In the parasitic roundworms Ascaris and Parascaris, chromatin diminution creates a genetic difference between the soma and the germline. However, the function of chromatin diminution remains a mystery, because the vast majority of the eliminated DNA is noncoding. Within the parasitic roundworm genus Strongyloides, S. stercoralis (in man) and S. ratti (in rat) employ XX/XO sex determination, but the situation in S. papillosus (in sheep) is different but controversial.

RESULTS

We demonstrate genetically that S. papillosus employs sex-specific chromatin diminution to eliminate an internal portion of one of the two homologs of one chromosome pair in males. Contrary to ascarids, the eliminated DNA in S. papillosus contains a large number of genes. We demonstrate that the region undergoing diminution is homologous to the X chromosome of the closely related S. ratti. The flanking regions, which are not diminished, are homologous to the S. ratti autosome number I. Furthermore, we found that the diminished chromosome is not incorporated into sperm, resulting in a male-specific transmission ratio distortion.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data indicate that on the evolutionary path to S. papillosus, the X chromosome fused with an autosome. Chromatin diminution serves to functionally restore an XX/XO sex-determining system. A consequence of the fusion and the process that copes with it is a transmission ratio distortion in males for certain loci.