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Nanushaj D, Kono M, Sakatani H, Murakami D, Hotomi M. Nucleic acid sensing Toll-like receptors 3 and 9 play complementary roles in the development of bacteremia after nasal colonization associated with influenza co-infection. Exp Anim 2024; 73:50-60. [PMID: 37532523 PMCID: PMC10877144 DOI: 10.1538/expanim.23-0001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2023] [Accepted: 07/30/2023] [Indexed: 08/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus pneumoniae can cause mortality in infant, elderly, and immunocompromised individuals owing to invasion of bacteria to the lungs, the brain, and the blood. In building strategies against invasive infections, it is important to achieve greater understanding of how the pneumococci are able to survive in the host. Toll-like receptors (TLRs), critically important components in the innate immune system, have roles in various stages of the development of infectious diseases. Endosomal TLRs recognize nucleic acids of the pathogen, but the impact on the pneumococcal diseases of immune responses from signaling them remains unclear. To investigate their role in nasal colonization and invasive disease with/without influenza co-infection, we established a mouse model of invasive pneumococcal diseases directly developing from nasal colonization. TLR9 KO mice had bacteremia more frequently than wildtype in the pneumococcal mono-infection model, while the occurrence of bacteremia was higher among TLR3 KO mice after infection with influenza in advance of pneumococcal inoculation. All TLR KO strains showed poorer survival than wildtype after the mice had bacteremia. The specific and protective role of TLR3 and TLR9 was shown in developing bacteremia with/without influenza co-infection respectively, and all nucleic sensing TLRs would contribute equally to protecting sepsis after bacteremia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denisa Nanushaj
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Wakayama Medical University, Research Building 9F, 811-1 Kimiidera, Wakayama 641-8510, Japan
| | - Masamitsu Kono
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Wakayama Medical University, Research Building 9F, 811-1 Kimiidera, Wakayama 641-8510, Japan
| | - Hideki Sakatani
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Wakayama Medical University, Research Building 9F, 811-1 Kimiidera, Wakayama 641-8510, Japan
| | - Daichi Murakami
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Wakayama Medical University, Research Building 9F, 811-1 Kimiidera, Wakayama 641-8510, Japan
| | - Muneki Hotomi
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Wakayama Medical University, Research Building 9F, 811-1 Kimiidera, Wakayama 641-8510, Japan
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Masyutina AM, Maximchik PV, Chkadua GZ, Pashenkov MV. Inhibition of specific signaling pathways rather than epigenetic silencing of effector genes is the leading mechanism of innate tolerance. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1006002. [PMID: 36776861 PMCID: PMC9909295 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1006002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2022] [Accepted: 01/09/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Macrophages activated through a pattern-recognition receptor (PRR) enter a transient state of tolerance characterized by diminished responsiveness to restimulation of the same receptor. Signaling-based and epigenetic mechanisms are invoked to explain this innate tolerance. However, these two groups of mechanisms should result in different outcomes. The epigenetic scenario (silencing of effector genes) predicts that activation of a PRR should broadly cross-tolerize to agonists of unrelated PRRs, whereas in the signaling-based scenario (inhibition of signaling pathways downstream of specific PRRs), cross-tolerization should occur only between agonists utilizing the same PRR and/or signaling pathway. Also, the so-called non-tolerizeable genes have been described, which acquire distinct epigenetic marks and increased responsiveness to rechallenge with the same agonist. The existence of such genes is well explained by epigenetic mechanisms but difficult to explain solely by signaling mechanisms. Methods To evaluate contribution of signaling and epigenetic mechanisms to innate tolerance, we tolerized human macrophages with agonists of TLR4 or NOD1 receptors, which signal via distinct pathways, and assessed responses of tolerized cells to homologous restimulation and to cross-stimulation using different signaling, metabolic and transcriptomic read-outs. We developed a transcriptomics-based approach to distinguish responses to secondary stimulation from continuing responses to primary stimulation. Results We found that macrophages tolerized with a NOD1 agonist lack responses to homologous restimulation, whereas LPS-tolerized macrophages partially retain the ability to activate NF-κB pathway upon LPS rechallenge, which allows to sustain low-level expression of a subset of pro-inflammatory genes. Contributing to LPS tolerance is blockade of signaling pathways required for IFN-β production, resulting in 'pseudo-tolerization' of IFN-regulated genes. Many genes in NOD1- or TLR4-tolerized macrophages are upregulated as the result of primary stimulation (due to continuing transcription and/or high mRNA stability), but do not respond to homologous restimulation. Hyperresponsiveness of genes to homologous rechallenge is a rare and inconsistent phenomenon. However, most genes that have become unresponsive to homologous stimuli show unchanged or elevated responses to agonists of PRRs signaling via distinct pathways. Discussion Thus, inhibition of specific signaling pathways rather than epigenetic silencing is the dominant mechanism of innate tolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna M. Masyutina
- Laboratory of Clinical Immunology, National Research Center “Institute of Immunology” of the Federal Medical-Biological Agency of Russia, Moscow, Russia,Biological Faculty, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Polina V. Maximchik
- Faculty of Fundamental Medicine, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Georgy Z. Chkadua
- Laboratory of experimental diagnostics and biotherapy of tumors, N.N.Blokhin National Medical Research Center of Oncology of the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia
| | - Mikhail V. Pashenkov
- Laboratory of Clinical Immunology, National Research Center “Institute of Immunology” of the Federal Medical-Biological Agency of Russia, Moscow, Russia,*Correspondence: Mikhail V. Pashenkov,
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ZHANG X, Li Y, Zhang C, Chi H, Liu C, Li A, Yu W. Postbiotics derived from Lactobacillus plantarum 1.0386 Ameliorates lipopolysaccharide-induced tight junction injury via MicroRNA-200c-3p Mediated Activation of MLCK-MLC Pathway in Caco-2 Cells. Food Funct 2022; 13:11008-11020. [DOI: 10.1039/d2fo00001f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
L. plantarum 1.0386 could repair the intestinal epithelial tight junction injury, and the present study was designed to further explore the role of its postbiotics, including surface protein (1.0386-Slp), peptidase...
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Effect of Bifidobacterium longum subsp. longum on the proliferative and tight-junction activities of Human Fetal Colon Epithelial Cells. J Funct Foods 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jff.2021.104715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
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Matsuda T, Kambe N, Ueki Y, Kanazawa N, Izawa K, Honda Y, Kawakami A, Takei S, Tonomura K, Inoue M, Kobayashi H, Okafuji I, Sakurai Y, Kato N, Maruyama Y, Inoue Y, Otsubo Y, Makino T, Okada S, Kobayashi I, Yashiro M, Ito S, Fujii H, Kondo Y, Okamoto N, Ito S, Iwata N, Kaneko U, Doi M, Hosokawa J, Ohara O, Saito MK, Nishikomori R. Clinical characteristics and treatment of 50 cases of Blau syndrome in Japan confirmed by genetic analysis of the NOD2 mutation. Ann Rheum Dis 2020; 79:1492-1499. [DOI: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2020-217320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2020] [Revised: 05/18/2020] [Accepted: 06/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
ObjectivesTo collect clinical information and NOD2 mutation data on patients with Blau syndrome and to evaluate their prognosis.MethodsFifty patients with NOD2 mutations were analysed. The activity of each NOD2 mutant was evaluated in HEK293 cells by reporter assay. Clinical information was collected from medical records through the attending physicians.ResultsThe study population comprised 26 males and 24 females aged 0–61 years. Thirty-two cases were sporadic, and 18 were familial from 9 unrelated families. Fifteen different mutations in NOD2 were identified, including 2 novel mutations (p.W490S and D512V); all showed spontaneous nuclear factor kappa B activation, and the most common mutation was p.R334W. Twenty-six patients had fever at relatively early timepoints in the disease course. Forty-three of 47 patients had a skin rash. The onset of disease in 9 patients was recognised after BCG vaccination. Forty-five of 49 patients had joint lesions. Thirty-eight of 50 patients had ocular symptoms, 7 of which resulted in blindness. After the diagnosis of Blau syndrome, 26 patients were treated with biologics; all were antitumour necrosis factor agents. Only 3 patients were treated with biologics alone; the others received a biologic in combination with methotrexate and/or prednisolone. None of the patients who became blind received biologic treatment.ConclusionsIn patients with Blau syndrome, severe joint contractures and blindness may occur if diagnosis and appropriate treatment are delayed. Early treatment with a biologic agent may improve the prognosis.
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Umiker B, Lee HH, Cope J, Ajami NJ, Laine JP, Fregeau C, Ferguson H, Alves SE, Sciammetta N, Kleinschek M, Salmon M. The NLRP3 inflammasome mediates DSS-induced intestinal inflammation in Nod2 knockout mice. Innate Immun 2020; 25:132-143. [PMID: 30774010 PMCID: PMC6830860 DOI: 10.1177/1753425919826367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Crohn’s disease (CD) is a chronic disorder of the gastrointestinal tract
characterized by inflammation and intestinal epithelial injury. Loss of function
mutations in the intracellular bacterial sensor NOD2 are major risk factors for
the development of CD. In the absence of robust bacterial recognition by NOD2 an
inflammatory cascade is initiated through alternative PRRs leading to CD. In the
present study, MCC950, a specific small molecule inhibitor of NLR pyrin
domain-containing protein 3 (NLRP3), abrogated dextran sodium sulfate
(DSS)-induced intestinal inflammation in Nod2−/−
mice. NLRP3 inflammasome formation was observed at a higher rate in
NOD2-deficient small intestinal lamina propria cells after insult by DSS. NLRP3
complex formation led to an increase in IL-1β secretion in both the small
intestine and colon of Nod2ko mice. This increase in IL-1β
secretion in the intestine was attenuated by MCC950 leading to decreased disease
severity in Nod2ko mice. Our work suggests that NLRP3
inflammasome activation may be a key driver of intestinal inflammation in the
absence of functional NOD2. NLRP3 pathway inhibition can prevent intestinal
inflammation in the absence of robust NOD2 signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Nadim J Ajami
- 2 Diversigen, Inc. Houston, TX, USA.,3 Alkek Center for Metagenomics and Microbiome Research, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
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Zom GG, Willems MMJHP, Meeuwenoord NJ, Reintjens NRM, Tondini E, Khan S, Overkleeft HS, van der Marel GA, Codee JDC, Ossendorp F, Filippov DV. Dual Synthetic Peptide Conjugate Vaccine Simultaneously Triggers TLR2 and NOD2 and Activates Human Dendritic Cells. Bioconjug Chem 2019; 30:1150-1161. [PMID: 30865430 DOI: 10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.9b00087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Simultaneous triggering of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and NOD-like receptors (NLRs) has previously been shown to synergistically activate monocytes, dendritic cells, and macrophages. We applied these properties in a T-cell vaccine setting by conjugating the NOD2-ligand muramyl-dipeptide (MDP) and TLR2-ligand Pam3CSK4 to a synthetic peptide derived from a model antigen. Stimulation of human DCs with the MDP-peptide-Pam3CSK4 conjugate led to a strongly increased secretion of pro-inflammatory and Th1-type cytokines and chemokines. We further show that the conjugated ligands retain their ability to trigger their respective receptors, while even improving NOD2-triggering. Also, activation of murine DCs was enhanced by the dual triggering, ultimately leading to effective induction of vaccine-specific T cells expressing IFNγ, IL-2, and TNFα. Together, these data indicate that the dual MDP-SLP-Pam3CSK4 conjugate constitutes a chemically well-defined vaccine approach that holds promise for the use in the treatment of virus infections and cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gijs G Zom
- Department of Immunohematology and Blood Transfusion , Leiden University Medical Center , P.O. Box 9600, 2300 RC Leiden , The Netherlands
| | - Marian M J H P Willems
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry , Leiden University , Einsteinweg 55 , 2333 CC Leiden , The Netherlands
| | - Nico J Meeuwenoord
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry , Leiden University , Einsteinweg 55 , 2333 CC Leiden , The Netherlands
| | - Niels R M Reintjens
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry , Leiden University , Einsteinweg 55 , 2333 CC Leiden , The Netherlands
| | - Elena Tondini
- Department of Immunohematology and Blood Transfusion , Leiden University Medical Center , P.O. Box 9600, 2300 RC Leiden , The Netherlands
| | - Selina Khan
- Department of Immunohematology and Blood Transfusion , Leiden University Medical Center , P.O. Box 9600, 2300 RC Leiden , The Netherlands
| | - Herman S Overkleeft
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry , Leiden University , Einsteinweg 55 , 2333 CC Leiden , The Netherlands
| | - Gijsbert A van der Marel
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry , Leiden University , Einsteinweg 55 , 2333 CC Leiden , The Netherlands
| | - Jeroen D C Codee
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry , Leiden University , Einsteinweg 55 , 2333 CC Leiden , The Netherlands
| | - Ferry Ossendorp
- Department of Immunohematology and Blood Transfusion , Leiden University Medical Center , P.O. Box 9600, 2300 RC Leiden , The Netherlands
| | - Dmitri V Filippov
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry , Leiden University , Einsteinweg 55 , 2333 CC Leiden , The Netherlands
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Pashenkov MV, Murugina NE, Budikhina AS, Pinegin BV. Synergistic interactions between NOD receptors and TLRs: Mechanisms and clinical implications. J Leukoc Biol 2018; 105:669-680. [PMID: 30517768 DOI: 10.1002/jlb.2ru0718-290r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2018] [Revised: 10/23/2018] [Accepted: 11/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Interactions between pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) shape innate immune responses to particular classes of pathogens. Here, we review interactions between TLRs and nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain 1 and 2 (NOD1 and NOD2) receptors, two major groups of PRRs involved in innate recognition of bacteria. Most of experimental data both in vitro and in vivo suggest that NODs and TLRs synergize with each other at inducing the production of cytokines and antimicrobial peptides. Molecular mechanisms of this synergy remain poorly understood, although several scenarios can be proposed: (i) direct interactions of signaling pathways downstream of NODs and TLRs; (ii) mutual transcriptional regulation of unique components of NOD-dependent and TLR-dependent signaling pathways; and (iii) interactions at the post-transcriptional level. Potential practical implications of NOD-TLR synergy are dual. In sepsis, where synergistic effects probably contribute to excessive proinflammatory cytokine production, blockade of NOD1, and/or NOD2 in addition to TLR4 blockade may be required to achieve therapeutic benefit. On the other hand, synergistic combinations of relatively small doses of NOD and TLR agonists administered before infection could be used to boost innate resistance against bacterial pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikhail V Pashenkov
- Laboratory of Clinical Immunology, National Research Center Institute of Immunology, Federal Medical-Biological Agency of Russia, Moscow, Russia
| | - Nina E Murugina
- Laboratory of Clinical Immunology, National Research Center Institute of Immunology, Federal Medical-Biological Agency of Russia, Moscow, Russia
| | - Anna S Budikhina
- Laboratory of Clinical Immunology, National Research Center Institute of Immunology, Federal Medical-Biological Agency of Russia, Moscow, Russia
| | - Boris V Pinegin
- Laboratory of Clinical Immunology, National Research Center Institute of Immunology, Federal Medical-Biological Agency of Russia, Moscow, Russia
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Schäffler H, Geiss D, Gittel N, Rohde S, Huth A, Glass Ä, Brandhorst G, Jaster R, Lamprecht G. Mutations in the NOD2 gene are associated with a specific phenotype and lower anti-tumor necrosis factor trough levels in Crohn's disease. J Dig Dis 2018; 19:678-684. [PMID: 30284387 DOI: 10.1111/1751-2980.12677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2018] [Revised: 09/04/2018] [Accepted: 09/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-containing protein 2 (NOD2) gene mutations are known to be an important risk factor in the pathogenesis of Crohn's disease (CD). Specific disease phenotypes are associated with the presence of NOD2 gene mutation. One treatment option is to use an anti-tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α agent. Therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) is usually performed in cases of a loss of response. Our aim was to explore whether NOD2 gene mutations have an effect on the disease phenotype, vitamin D levels, and on TDM in CD patients. METHODS This was a retrospective genotype-phenotype association study on NOD2 gene mutations in 161 patients with CD. RESULTS Altogether 55 (34.2%) patients carried at least one mutant allele of NOD2. NOD2 gene mutations were associated with ileocecal disease, ileocecal resection, stricturing and perianal disease, and patients with NOD2 gene mutation had significantly less frequent colonic disease and received an ostomy less frequently. TDM in patients with NOD2 gene mutation showed more frequent anti-TNF trough levels in the subtherapeutic range and lower anti-TNF trough levels than in NOD2 wild-type (WT) patients. CONCLUSIONS CD patients with NOD2 gene mutation have a specific clinical phenotype and they may require higher doses of anti-TNF agents to achieve sufficient anti-TNF trough levels. They may therefore benefit from a proactive TDM than a reactive approach. This could be another step in the direction of personalized medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holger Schäffler
- Department of Medicine II, Division of Gastroenterology, Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock, Germany
| | - David Geiss
- Department of Medicine II, Division of Gastroenterology, Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock, Germany
| | - Nicole Gittel
- Department of Medicine II, Division of Gastroenterology, Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock, Germany
| | - Sarah Rohde
- Department of Medicine II, Division of Gastroenterology, Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock, Germany
| | - Astrid Huth
- Department of Medicine II, Division of Gastroenterology, Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock, Germany
| | - Änne Glass
- Institute for Biostatistics and Informatics in Medicine and Ageing Research, Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock, Germany
| | - Gunnar Brandhorst
- Institute for Clinical Chemistry, UMG-Laboratories, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Robert Jaster
- Department of Medicine II, Division of Gastroenterology, Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock, Germany
| | - Georg Lamprecht
- Department of Medicine II, Division of Gastroenterology, Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock, Germany
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McDonald C, Shen M, Johnson EE, Kabi A, Yao Q. Alterations in nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-2 expression, pathway activation, and cytokine production in Yao syndrome. Autoimmunity 2018; 51:53-61. [PMID: 29471675 DOI: 10.1080/08916934.2018.1442442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Yao syndrome (YAOS) is a systemic autoinflammatory disease (SAID), formerly termed nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-2 (NOD2)-associated autoinflammatory disease. Due to the recent identification of YAOS, the molecular mechanisms underlying its disease pathogenesis are unclear. With specific NOD2 variants as characteristic genotypic features of YAOS, our study examined NOD2 expression, transcript splicing, signaling pathway activation, and cytokine profiles in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from 10 YAOS patients and six healthy individuals. All participants were genotyped for NOD2 variants; all YAOS patients were heterozygous for the NOD2 IVS8+158 variant (IVS8+158) and four patients also carried a concurrent NOD2 R702W variant (IVS8+158/R702W haplotype). Resembling other SAIDs, plasma levels of TNFα, IL-1β, IL-6, IFNγ, and S100A12 were unaltered in YAOS patients. Intron-8 splicing of NOD2 transcripts was unaffected by carriage of NOD2 IVS8+158. However, NOD2 transcript level and basal p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) activity were significantly elevated in PBMCs from IVS8+158 YAOS patients. Moreover, these patients' cells had elevated basal IL-6 secretion that was enhanced by muramyl dipeptide (MDP) stimulation. Tocilizumab treatment of a YAOS IVS8+158 patient resulted in marked clinical improvement. In contrast, MDP-stimulated NF-κB activity was uniquely suppressed in haplotype IVS8+158/R702W patients, as was TNFα secretion. Our study demonstrates for the first time that NOD2 expression and pathway activation are aberrant in YAOS, and specific NOD2 genotypes result in distinct NOD2 expression and cytokine profiles. These findings may also help select therapeutic strategies in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine McDonald
- a Department of Pathobiology , Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic , Cleveland , OH , USA
| | - Min Shen
- b Department of Rheumatic and Immunologic Disease , Orthopaedic and Rheumatologic Institute, Cleveland Clinic , Cleveland , OH , USA
| | - Erin E Johnson
- c Department of Biology , John Carroll University, University Heights , OH , USA
| | - Amrita Kabi
- a Department of Pathobiology , Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic , Cleveland , OH , USA
| | - Qingping Yao
- b Department of Rheumatic and Immunologic Disease , Orthopaedic and Rheumatologic Institute, Cleveland Clinic , Cleveland , OH , USA
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Pink A, Anzengruber F, Navarini A. Acne and hidradenitis suppurativa. Br J Dermatol 2018; 178:619-631. [DOI: 10.1111/bjd.16231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/26/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- A. Pink
- St John's Institute of Dermatology; Division of Genetics and Molecular Medicine; Guy's Hospital; King's College; London SE1 9RT U.K
| | - F. Anzengruber
- Department of Dermatology; University Hospital Zurich; Zurich 8091 Switzerland
| | - A.A. Navarini
- Department of Dermatology; University Hospital Zurich; Zurich 8091 Switzerland
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NOD1 and NOD2: Molecular targets in prevention and treatment of infectious diseases. Int Immunopharmacol 2017; 54:385-400. [PMID: 29207344 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2017.11.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2017] [Revised: 11/23/2017] [Accepted: 11/27/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (NOD) 1 and NOD2 are pattern-recognition receptors responsible for sensing fragments of bacterial peptidoglycan known as muropeptides. Stimulation of innate immunity by systemic or local administration of NOD1 and NOD2 agonists is an attractive means to prevent and treat infectious diseases. In this review, we discuss novel data concerning structural features of selective and non-selective (dual) NOD1 and NOD2 agonists, main signaling pathways and biological effects induced by NOD1 and NOD2 stimulation, including induction of pro-inflammatory cytokines, type I interferons and antimicrobial peptides, induction of autophagy, alterations of metabolism. We also discuss interactions between NOD1/NOD2 and Toll-like receptor agonists in terms of synergy and cross-tolerance. Finally, we review available animal data on the role of NOD1 and NOD2 in protection against infections, and discuss how these data could be applied in human infectious diseases.
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Abstract
The pathophysiology of Crohn's disease (CD), a chronic inflammatory bowel disease, remains imperfectly elucidated. Consequently, the therapeutic armamentarium remains limited and has not changed the natural history of CD hitherto. Accordingly, physicians need to identify new therapeutic targets to be able to alter the intestinal damage. The most recent hypothesis considered CD as resulting from an abnormal interaction between microbiota and host immune system influenced by genetics and environmental factors. Several experimental and genetic evidence point out intestinal macrophages in CD etiology. An increase of macrophages number and the presence of granulomas are especially observed in the intestinal mucosa of patients with CD. These macrophages could be defective and particularly in responses to infectious agents like CD-associated Escherichia coli. This review focuses on, what is currently known regarding the role of macrophages, macrophages/E. coli interaction, and the impact of CD therapies on macrophages in CD. We also speculate that macrophages modulation could lead to important translational implications in CD with the end goal of promoting gut health.
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Haile PA, Votta BJ, Marquis RW, Bury MJ, Mehlmann JF, Singhaus R, Charnley AK, Lakdawala AS, Convery MA, Lipshutz DB, Desai BM, Swift B, Capriotti CA, Berger SB, Mahajan MK, Reilly MA, Rivera EJ, Sun HH, Nagilla R, Beal AM, Finger JN, Cook MN, King BW, Ouellette MT, Totoritis RD, Pierdomenico M, Negroni A, Stronati L, Cucchiara S, Ziółkowski B, Vossenkämper A, MacDonald TT, Gough PJ, Bertin J, Casillas LN. The Identification and Pharmacological Characterization of 6-(tert-Butylsulfonyl)-N-(5-fluoro-1H-indazol-3-yl)quinolin-4-amine (GSK583), a Highly Potent and Selective Inhibitor of RIP2 Kinase. J Med Chem 2016; 59:4867-80. [PMID: 27109867 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.6b00211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
RIP2 kinase is a central component of the innate immune system and enables downstream signaling following activation of the pattern recognition receptors NOD1 and NOD2, leading to the production of inflammatory cytokines. Recently, several inhibitors of RIP2 kinase have been disclosed that have contributed to the fundamental understanding of the role of RIP2 in this pathway. However, because they lack either broad kinase selectivity or strong affinity for RIP2, these tools have only limited utility to assess the role of RIP2 in complex environments. We present, herein, the discovery and pharmacological characterization of GSK583, a next-generation RIP2 inhibitor possessing exquisite selectivity and potency. Having demonstrated the pharmacological precision of this tool compound, we report its use in elucidating the role of RIP2 kinase in a variety of in vitro, in vivo, and ex vivo experiments, further clarifying our understanding of the role of RIP2 in NOD1 and NOD2 mediated disease pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Máire A Convery
- Platform Technology and Science, GlaxoSmithKline, Medicines Research Centre , Stevenage, SG1 2NY, UK
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Maria Pierdomenico
- Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development (ENEA) , 00196 Rome, Italy
| | - Anna Negroni
- Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development (ENEA) , 00196 Rome, Italy
| | - Laura Stronati
- Department of Cellular Biotechnology and Hematology, Sapienza University Hospital Umberto I , 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Salvatore Cucchiara
- Department of Pediatrics, Pediatric Gastroenterology and Liver Unit, Sapienza University Hospital Umberto I , 00161 Rome, Italy
| | | | - Anna Vossenkämper
- Centre for Immunobiology, Blizard Institute, Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London , E1 2AD London, U.K
| | - Thomas T MacDonald
- Centre for Immunobiology, Blizard Institute, Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London , E1 2AD London, U.K
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Cellulose alters the expression of nuclear factor kappa B-related genes and Toll-like receptor-related genes in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. J Funct Foods 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jff.2015.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
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Kim TH, Park JH, Park YM, Ryu SW, Shin SJ, Park JH, Kim DJ. Synergistic effect of muramyl dipeptide with heat shock protein 70 from Mycobacterium tuberculosis on immune activation. Immunobiology 2015; 220:26-31. [PMID: 25446399 DOI: 10.1016/j.imbio.2014.09.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2014] [Revised: 09/16/2014] [Accepted: 09/24/2014] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Heat shock protein 70 from Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb Hsp70) has been known to modulate immune response including dendritic cell activation. Muramyl dipeptide (MDP) is an immunoreactive derivative of peptidoglycan from all Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria and recognized to be responsible for function of Freund's complete adjuvant. In this study, we evaluated effect of MDP on in vitro activation of bone marrow derived dendritic cells (BMDCs) and in vivo production of cytokines and chemokines induced by Mtb Hsp70. MDP treatment with Mtb Hsp70 dramatically increased production of IL-6, IL-12p40 and TNF-α in BMDCs compared with Mtb Hsp70 alone whereas these effects were abolished in Nod2-deficient BMDCs. Phosphorylation of IκB-α and ERK and impairment of phagocytosis, which is an indicator of DC maturation were enhanced by MDP co-treatment with Mtb hsp70 in BMDCs. In addition, ability of Mtb Hsp70-stimulated BMDCs to induce IFN-γ productions of T cells was increased by MDP co-treatment. Finally, intraperitoneal injection of MDP with Mtb Hsp70 dramatically increased production of IL-6, CXCL-1 and CCL2 in serum compared with Mtb hsp70 injection. Our study showed the synergistic effects of MDP with Mtb Hsp70 on DCs and in vivo immune activation. The use of MDP with Mtb Hsp70 to induce immune activation may provide an effective strategy for vaccination to treat cancer and protect against pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tae-Hyoun Kim
- Laboratory Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea; BK21 PLUS Program for Creative Veterinary Science Research, Research Institute for Veterinary Science and College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Republic of Korea
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Retrofitting the battlements: tight junction remodeling as a novel antimicrobial approach. Future Med Chem 2015; 7:9-13. [DOI: 10.4155/fmc.14.146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium ΔmsbB triggers exacerbated inflammation in Nod2 deficient mice. PLoS One 2014; 9:e113645. [PMID: 25423082 PMCID: PMC4244092 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0113645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2014] [Accepted: 10/27/2014] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The intracellular pathogen Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium causes intestinal inflammation characterized by edema, neutrophil influx and increased pro-inflammatory cytokine expression. A major bacterial factor inducing pro-inflammatory host responses is lipopolysaccharide (LPS). S. Typhimurium ΔmsbB possesses a modified lipid A, has reduced virulence in mice, and is being considered as a potential anti-cancer vaccine strain. The lack of a late myristoyl transferase, encoded by MsbB leads to attenuated TLR4 stimulation. However, whether other host receptor pathways are also altered remains unclear. Nod1 and Nod2 are cytosolic pattern recognition receptors recognizing bacterial peptidoglycan. They play important roles in the host's immune response to enteric pathogens and in immune homeostasis. Here, we investigated how deletion of msbB affects Salmonella's interaction with Nod1 and Nod2. S. Typhimurium Δ msbB-induced inflammation was significantly exacerbated in Nod2−/− mice compared to C57Bl/6 mice. In addition, S. Typhimurium ΔmsbB maintained robust intestinal colonization in Nod2−/− mice from day 2 to day 7 p.i., whereas colonization levels significantly decreased in C57Bl/6 mice during this time. Similarly, infection of Nod1−/− and Nod1/Nod2 double-knockout mice revealed that both Nod1 and Nod2 play a protective role in S. Typhimurium ΔmsbB-induced colitis. To elucidate why S. Typhimurium ΔmsbB, but not wild-type S. Typhimurium, induced an exacerbated inflammatory response in Nod2−/− mice, we used HEK293 cells which were transiently transfected with pathogen recognition receptors. Stimulation of TLR2-transfected cells with S. Typhimurium ΔmsbB resulted in increased IL-8 production compared to wild-type S. Typhimurium. Our results indicate that S. Typhimurium ΔmsbB triggers exacerbated colitis in the absence of Nod1 and/or Nod2, which is likely due to increased TLR2 stimulation. How bacteria with “genetically detoxified” LPS stimulate various innate responses has important implications for the development of safe and effective bacterial vaccines and adjuvants.
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Magni S, Buoli Comani G, Elli L, Vanessi S, Ballarini E, Nicolini G, Rusconi M, Castoldi M, Meneveri R, Muckenthaler MU, Bardella MT, Barisani D. miRNAs affect the expression of innate and adaptive immunity proteins in celiac disease. Am J Gastroenterol 2014; 109:1662-74. [PMID: 25070052 DOI: 10.1038/ajg.2014.203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2014] [Accepted: 06/17/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES microRNAs (miRNAs) are short RNAs that regulate gene expression in various processes, including immune response. Altered immune response is a pivotal event in the pathogenesis of celiac disease (CD), and miRNAs could have a role in modulating both innate and adaptive response to gluten in celiac patients. METHODS We compared miRNA profiles in duodenal biopsies of controls and CD patients by miRNA array. Differentially expressed miRNAs were validated in controls, Marsh 3A-B, and Marsh 3C patients by quantitative PCR (qPCR). Target gene expression was assessed by qPCR, western blotting, and immunohistochemistry, and the effect of gliadin was evaluated by in vitro stimulation experiments on duodenal biopsies. RESULTS Seven miRNAs were identified as significantly downregulated in the duodenum of adult CD patients as compared with controls. qPCR validated the decreased expression of miR-192-5p, miR-31-5p, miR-338-3p, and miR-197, in particular in patients with more severe histological lesions (Marsh 3C). In silico analysis of possible miRNA targets identified several genes involved in innate and adaptive immunity. Among these, chemokine C-X-C motif ligand 2 (CXCL2) and NOD2 showed significantly increased mRNA and protein level in Marsh 3C patients and a significant inverse correlation with the regulatory miR-192-5p. In addition, forkhead box P3 (FOXP3), Run-related transcription factor 1, and interleukin-18 (targets of miR-31-5p, miR-338-3p, and miR-197, respectively) showed upregulation in CD patients. Furthermore, alterations in CXCL2 and NOD2, FOXP3, miR-192-5p, and miR-31-5p expression were triggered by gliadin exposure in CD patients. CONCLUSIONS miRNA expression is significantly altered in duodenal mucosa of CD patients, and this alteration can increase the expression of molecules involved in immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Serena Magni
- Department of Health Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Milano-Bicocca, Monza, Italy
| | - Gaia Buoli Comani
- Department of Health Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Milano-Bicocca, Monza, Italy
| | - Luca Elli
- Center for the Prevention and Diagnosis of Celiac Disease and UOC Gastroenterologia ed Endoscopia, Fondazione IRCCS Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Dipartimento di Fisiopatologia Medico-Chirurgica e dei Trapianti, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Samanta Vanessi
- Department of Health Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Milano-Bicocca, Monza, Italy
| | - Elisa Ballarini
- Experimental Neurology Unit, Department of Surgery and Translational Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Milano-Bicocca, Monza, Italy
| | - Gabriella Nicolini
- Experimental Neurology Unit, Department of Surgery and Translational Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Milano-Bicocca, Monza, Italy
| | - Michela Rusconi
- Department of Health Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Milano-Bicocca, Monza, Italy
| | - Mirco Castoldi
- 1] Department of Pediatric Oncology, Hematology and Immunology, University Hospital of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany [2] Clinic for Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Raffaella Meneveri
- Department of Health Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Milano-Bicocca, Monza, Italy
| | - Martina U Muckenthaler
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Hematology and Immunology, University Hospital of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Maria Teresa Bardella
- Center for the Prevention and Diagnosis of Celiac Disease and UOC Gastroenterologia ed Endoscopia, Fondazione IRCCS Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Dipartimento di Fisiopatologia Medico-Chirurgica e dei Trapianti, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Donatella Barisani
- 1] Department of Health Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Milano-Bicocca, Monza, Italy [2] International Research Center for Hepato-Biliary-Pancreatic Diseases-IRCHD, University of Milano-Bicocca, Monza, Italy
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Skoczek DA, Walczysko P, Horn N, Parris A, Clare S, Williams MR, Sobolewski A. Luminal microbes promote monocyte-stem cell interactions across a healthy colonic epithelium. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2014; 193:439-51. [PMID: 24907348 PMCID: PMC4067517 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1301497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The intestinal epithelium forms a vital barrier between luminal microbes and the underlying mucosal immune system. Epithelial barrier function is maintained by continuous renewal of the epithelium and is pivotal for gut homeostasis. Breaching of the barrier causes mobilization of immune cells to promote epithelial restitution. However, it is not known whether microbes at the luminal surface of a healthy epithelial barrier influence immune cell mobilization to modulate tissue homeostasis. Using a mouse colonic mucosal explant model, we demonstrate that close proximity of luminal microbes to a healthy, intact epithelium results in rapid mucus secretion and movement of Ly6C+7/4+ monocytes closer to epithelial stem cells. These early events are driven by the epithelial MyD88-signaling pathway and result in increased crypt cell proliferation and intestinal stem cell number. Over time, stem cell number and monocyte–crypt stem cell juxtapositioning return to homeostatic levels observed in vivo. We also demonstrate that reduced numbers of tissue Ly6C+ monocytes can suppress Lgr5EGFP+ stem cell expression in vivo and abrogate the response to luminal microbes ex vivo. The functional link between monocyte recruitment and increased crypt cell proliferation was further confirmed using a crypt–monocyte coculture model. This work demonstrates that the healthy gut epithelium mediates communication between luminal bacteria and monocytes, and monocytes can modulate crypt stem cell number and promote crypt cell proliferation to help maintain gut homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dagmara A Skoczek
- Gut Health and Food Safety Institute Strategic Program, Institute of Food Research, Norwich, Norfolk NR4 7UA, United Kingdom
| | - Petr Walczysko
- Gut Health and Food Safety Institute Strategic Program, Institute of Food Research, Norwich, Norfolk NR4 7UA, United Kingdom
| | - Nikki Horn
- Gut Health and Food Safety Institute Strategic Program, Institute of Food Research, Norwich, Norfolk NR4 7UA, United Kingdom
| | - Alyson Parris
- School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, Norfolk NR4 7TJ, United Kingdom; and
| | - Simon Clare
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire CB10 1SA, United Kingdom
| | - Mark R Williams
- School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, Norfolk NR4 7TJ, United Kingdom; and
| | - Anastasia Sobolewski
- Gut Health and Food Safety Institute Strategic Program, Institute of Food Research, Norwich, Norfolk NR4 7UA, United Kingdom;
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Abstract
Cells can innately recognize generic products of viruses, bacteria, fungi, or injured tissue by engagement of pattern recognition receptors. Innate immune cells rapidly respond to this engagement to control commensals, thwart pathogens, and/or prompt repair. Insufficient or excessive activation of the innate immune response results in disease. This review focuses on pattern recognition receptors and cells of the innate immune system that are important for intestinal function. Our improving knowledge pertaining to this important aspect of our immune response is opening potential important new therapeutic opportunities for the treatment of disease.
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Zouiten-Mekki L, Serghini M, Fekih M, Kallel L, Matri S, Ben Mustapha N, Boubaker J, Filali A. Rôle de la cellule épithéliale dans l’homéostasie intestinale et les maladies inflammatoires chroniques de l’intestin. Med Sci (Paris) 2013; 29:1145-50. [DOI: 10.1051/medsci/20132912019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
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Salem M, Seidelin JB, Rogler G, Nielsen OH. Muramyl dipeptide responsive pathways in Crohn's disease: from NOD2 and beyond. Cell Mol Life Sci 2013; 70:3391-404. [PMID: 23275943 PMCID: PMC11113952 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-012-1246-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2012] [Revised: 12/12/2012] [Accepted: 12/13/2012] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Crohn's disease (CD) is one of main disease entities under the umbrella term chronic inflammatory bowel disease. The etiology of CD involves alterations in genetic, microbiological, and immunological factors. This review is devoted to the role of the bacterial wall compound muramyl dipeptide (MDP) for the activation of inflammatory pathways involved in the pathogenesis of CD. The importance of this molecule is underscored by the fact that (1) MDP, which is found in most Gram-negative and -positive bacteria, is able to trigger several immunological responses in the intestinal system, and (2) that alterations in several mediators of the MDP response including-but not restricted to-nucleotide oligomerization domain 2 (NOD2) are associated with CD. The normalization of MDP signaling is one of several important factors that influence the intestinal inflammatory response, a fact which emphasizes the pathogenic importance of MDP signaling for the pathogenesis of CD. The important aspects of NOD2 and non-NOD2 mediated effects of MDP for the development of CD are highlighted, as well as how alterations in these pathways might translate into the development of new therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Salem
- Department of Gastroenterology D, Medical Section, Herlev Hospital, University of Copenhagen, Herlev Ringvej 75, 2730 Herlev, Denmark
| | - Jakob Benedict Seidelin
- Department of Gastroenterology D, Medical Section, Herlev Hospital, University of Copenhagen, Herlev Ringvej 75, 2730 Herlev, Denmark
- Department of Internal Medicine, Bispebjerg Hospital, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Gerhard Rogler
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Zürich University Hospital, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Ole Haagen Nielsen
- Department of Gastroenterology D, Medical Section, Herlev Hospital, University of Copenhagen, Herlev Ringvej 75, 2730 Herlev, Denmark
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW To use insights from evolutionary biology to assess the current evidence for the causes, treatment, and prevention of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). RECENT FINDINGS When analyzed in the context of evolutionary adaptation, recent assessments of genetic, microbial, and environmental associations with IBD implicate infectious causation. SUMMARY An evolutionary perspective provides insight into the causes of IBD, interpretation of its manifestations, and assessment of interventions. The evidence implicating infectious causation suggests that future studies of IBD would benefit from increased focus on infectious causes and interventions that prevent or inhibit them.
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Evans DJ, Fleiszig SM. Why does the healthy cornea resist Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection? Am J Ophthalmol 2013; 155:961-970.e2. [PMID: 23601656 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajo.2013.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2012] [Revised: 03/01/2013] [Accepted: 03/04/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To provide our perspective on why the cornea is resistant to infection based on our research results with Pseudomonas (P) aeruginosa. We focus on our current understanding of the interplay between bacteria, tear fluid, and the corneal epithelium that determines health as the usual outcome, and propose a theoretical model for how contact lens wear might change those interactions to enable susceptibility to P aeruginosa infection. METHODS Use of "null-infection" in vivo models, cultured human corneal epithelial cells, contact lens-wearing animal models, and bacterial genetics help to elucidate mechanisms by which P aeruginosa survives at the ocular surface, adheres, and traverses multilayered corneal epithelia. These models also help elucidate the molecular mechanisms of corneal epithelial innate defense. RESULTS Tear fluid and the corneal epithelium combine to make a formidable defense against P aeruginosa infection of the cornea. Part of that defense involves the expression of antimicrobials such as β-defensins, the cathelicidin LL-37, cytokeratin-derived antimicrobial peptides, and RNase7. Immunomodulators such as SP-D and ST2 also contribute. Innate defenses of the cornea depend in part on MyD88, a key adaptor protein of TLR and IL-1R signaling, but the basal lamina represents the final barrier to bacterial penetration. Overcoming these defenses involves P aeruginosa adaptation, expression of the type III secretion system, proteases, and P aeruginosa biofilm formation on contact lenses. CONCLUSION After more than 2 decades of research focused on understanding how contact lens wear predisposes to P aeruginosa infection, our working hypothesis places blame for microbial keratitis on bacterial adaptation to ocular surface defenses, combined with changes to the biochemistry of the corneal surface caused by trapping bacteria and tear fluid against the cornea under the lens.
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Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain containing 2: structure, function, and diseases. Semin Arthritis Rheum 2013; 43:125-30. [PMID: 23352252 DOI: 10.1016/j.semarthrit.2012.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2012] [Revised: 11/28/2012] [Accepted: 12/07/2012] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To systematically review literature about the structure and function of nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain containing 2 (NOD2) and its disease association. METHODS The English literature was searched using keywords "NOD2" and "disease". Relevant original and review articles were reviewed. RESULTS NOD2 is an intracellular protein and shares similar molecular structure with NOD1, pyrin, and cryopyrin. There are more than 100 NOD2 gene mutations, some of which have been linked to diseases such as Crohn disease, Blau syndrome, and NOD2-associated autoinflammatory disease (NAID). The NOD2 variants located in the leucine-rich repeat (LRR) region are susceptible to Crohn disease, and the variants in the nucleotide-binding domain (NBD) and in between the NBD and LRR are associated with Blau syndrome and NAID, respectively. No disease association with the gene variants has been found in rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, ankylosing spondylitis, psoriasis/psoriatic arthritis, adult sarcoidosis, granulomatous polyangiitis, or multiple sclerosis. The potential association of the NOD2 variants with graft-versus-host-disease remains controversial. NOD2 functions mainly through RICK or RIP2 to activate p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases and NF-κB, resulting in inflammatory response, and enhanced autophagic activity. Biologic therapy may be beneficial for NOD2-associated diseases, and new drug development may be realized based upon the signaling pathways. CONCLUSIONS NOD2 gene mutations are associated with several diseases, and some of the mutations are of diagnostic value in Blau disease and NAID. To understand the NOD2 function, disease association, and its pathogenesis is important given the ever increasing clinical significance of NOD2.
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