Surface topography of hydroxyapatite promotes osteogenic differentiation of human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells

Ultrasound-triggered functional hydrogel promotes multistage bone regeneration

The dysfunction of bone mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs), caused by the physical and chemical properties of the inflammatory and repair phases of bone regeneration, contributes to the failure of bone regeneration. To meet the spatiotemporal needs of BMSCs in different phases, designing biocompatible materials that respond to external stimuli, improve migration in the inflammatory phase, reduce apoptosis in the proliferative phase, and clear the hurdle in the differentiation phase of BMSCs is an effective strategy for multistage repair of bone defects. In this study, we designed a cascade-response functional composite hydrogel (Gel@Eb/HA) to regulate BMSCs dysfunction in vitro and in vivo. Gel@Eb/HA improved the migration of BMSCs by upregulating the expression of chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 5 (CCL5) during the inflammatory phase. Ultrasound (US) triggered the rapid release of Ebselen (Eb), eliminating the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in BMSCs, and reversing apoptosis under oxidative stress. Continued US treatment accelerated the degradation of the materials, thereby providing Ca2+ for the osteogenic differentiation of BMSCs. Altogether, our study highlights the prospects of US-controlled intelligent system, that provides a novel strategy for addressing the complexities of multistage bone repair.

Effect of polydimethylsiloxane surface morphology on osteogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells through SIRT1 signalling pathway

Constructing surface topography with a certain roughness is a widely used, non-toxic, cost-effective and effective method for improving the microenvironment of cells, promoting the proliferation and osteogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), and promoting the osseointegration of grafts and further improving their biocompatibility under clinical environmental conditions. SIRT1 plays an important regulatory role in the osteogenic differentiation of bone marrow-derived MSCs (BM-MSCs). However, it remains unknown whether SIRT1 plays an important regulatory role in the osteogenic differentiation of BM-MSCs with regard to surface morphology. Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) with different surface morphologies were prepared using different grits of sandpaper. The value for BMSCs added on different surfaces was detected by cell proliferation assays. RT-qPCR and Western blotting were performed to detect SIRT1 activation and osteogenic differentiation of MSCs. Osteogenesis of MSCs was detected by alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and alizarin red S staining. SIRT1 inhibition experiments were performed to investigate the role of SIRT1 in the osteogenic differentiation of MSCs induced by surface morphology. We found that BM-MSCs have better value and osteogenic differentiation ability on a surface with roughness of PDMS-1000M. SIRT1 showed higher gene and protein expression on a PDMS-1000M surface with a roughness of 13.741 ± 1.388 µm. The promotion of the osteogenic differentiation of MSCs on the PDMS-1000M surface was significantly decreased after inhibiting SIRT1 expression. Our study demonstrated that a surface morphology with certain roughness can activate the SIRT1 pathway of MSCs and promote the osteogenic differentiation of BMSCs via the SIRT1 pathway.

2D fibrillar osteoid niche mimicry through inclusion of visco-elastic and topographical cues in gelatin-based networks

Given the clinical need for osteoregenerative materials incorporating controlled biomimetic and biophysical cues, a novel highly-substituted norbornene-modified gelatin was developed enabling thiol-ene crosslinking exploiting thiolated gelatin as cell-interactive crosslinker. Comparing the number of physical crosslinks, the degree of hydrolytic degradation upon modification, the network density and the chemical crosslinking type, the osteogenic effect of visco-elastic and topographical properties was evaluated. This novel network outperformed conventional gelatin-based networks in terms of osteogenesis induction, as evidenced in 2D dental pulp stem cell seeding assays, resulting from the presentation of both a local (substrate elasticity, 25-40 kPa) and a bulk (compressive modulus, 25-45 kPa) osteogenic substrate modulus in combination with adequate fibrillar cell adhesion spacing to optimally transfer traction forces from the fibrillar ECM (as evidenced by mesh size determination with the rubber elasticity theory) and resulting in a 1.7-fold increase in calcium production (compared to the gold standard gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA)).

Current advances in anisotropic structures for enhanced osteogenesis

Bone defects are a challenge to healthcare systems, as the aging population experiences an increase in bone defects. Despite the development of biomaterials for bone fillers and scaffolds, there is still an unmet need for a bone-mimetic material. Cortical bone is highly anisotropic and displays a biological liquid crystalline (LC) arrangement, giving it exceptional mechanical properties and a distinctive microenvironment. However, the biofunctions, cell-tissue interactions, and molecular mechanisms of cortical bone anisotropic structure are not well understood. Incorporating anisotropic structures in bone-facilitated scaffolds has been recognised as essential for better outcomes. Various approaches have been used to create anisotropic micro/nanostructures, but biomimetic bone anisotropic structures are still in the early stages of development. Most scaffolds lack features at the nanoscale, and there is no comprehensive evaluation of molecular mechanisms or characterisation of calcium secretion. This manuscript provides a review of the latest development of anisotropic designs for osteogenesis and discusses current findings on cell-anisotropic structure interactions. It also emphasises the need for further research. Filling knowledge gaps will enable the fabrication of scaffolds for improved and more controllable bone regeneration.

Mechanotransduction in tissue engineering: Insights into the interaction of stem cells with biomechanical cues

Stem cells in their natural microenvironment are exposed to biochemical and biophysical cues emerging from the extracellular matrix (ECM) and neighboring cells. In particular, biomechanical forces modulate stem cell behavior, biological fate, and early developmental processes by sensing, interpreting, and responding through a series of biological processes known as mechanotransduction. Local structural changes in the ECM and mechanics are driven by reciprocal activation of the cell and the ECM itself, as the initial deposition of matrix proteins sequentially affects neighboring cells. Recent studies on stem cell mechanoregulation have provided insight into the importance of biomechanical signals on proper tissue regeneration and function and have shown that precise spatiotemporal control of these signals exists in stem cell niches. Against this background, the aim of this work is to review the current understanding of the molecular basis of mechanotransduction by analyzing how biomechanical forces are converted into biological responses via cellular signaling pathways. In addition, this work provides an overview of advanced strategies using stem cells and biomaterial scaffolds that enable precise spatial and temporal control of mechanical signals and offer great potential for the fields of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine will be presented.

Osteogenic properties of bioactive titanium in inflammatory environment

OBJECTIVES

It is very important that the effects of surface modified titanium on osteogenic differentiation of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells in the process of bone regeneration. The bio-function of modified titanium could be affected by the inflammatory micro-environment. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of modified titanium on osteogenic differentiation in the inflammatory conditions and the osteogenic properties of the modified titanium dental implant in vivo.

METHODS

The medical pure titanium metals (PT-Ti) subjected to Anodic Oxidation (AO-Ti), Sand Blasting/acid etching (SLA-Ti) and Plasma-sprayed HA coating (HA coating-Ti) were used for regulating the osteogenic properties of MSCs in the normal and inflammatory conditions.

RESULTS

The amount of the MSCs in the inflammatory environment were more similar to that in the non-inflammatory environment after cultured on AO-Ti samples for 7D. However, the proliferation of the MSCs was obviously inhibited on the other groups in the inflammatory condition. The morphology of MSC cells on the modified titanium surface was affected in the inflammatory conditions and the AO-Ti was more conducive to maintain the skeletal morphology of MSCs. The results of osteogenic related proteins expression showed that the amount of BMP-2 on AO-Ti group was the highest in the inflammatory conditions, and followed the order of AO-Ti > HA coating-Ti > SLA-Ti > PT-Ti. What's more, the AO-Ti samples were more beneficial to promote the expression of osteogenic genes ALP, OCN, COL-I and Runx2 in the inflammatory conditions. The results of osteogenic properties in vivo showed that the gingival depth of the AO-Ti group was smaller than that on the other groups. Some new bone could be observed around the AO-Ti implant at two weeks. The bone binding rates on AO-Ti group was the highest of 81.3% after implanted for one year.

SIGNIFICANCE

The AO-Ti was beneficial to osteogenic differentiation than other modified titanium metals in inflammatory condition. The anodic oxidation is an effective surface modification method on titanium to promote bone regeneration.

Substrate topographies modulate the secretory activity of human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells

BACKGROUND

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) secrete a diversity of factors with broad therapeutic potential, yet current culture methods limit potency outcomes. In this study, we used topographical cues on polystyrene films to investigate their impact on the secretory profile and potency of bone marrow-derived MSCs (hBM-MSCs). hBM-MSCs from four donors were cultured on topographic substrates depicting defined roughness, curvature, grooves and various levels of wettability.

METHODS

The topographical PS-based array was developed using razor printing, polishing and plasma treatment methods. hBM-MSCs from four donors were purchased from RoosterBio and used in co-culture with peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from Cell Applications Inc. in an immunopotency assay to measure immunosuppressive capacity. Cells were cultured on low serum (2%) for 24-48 h prior to analysis. Image-based analysis was used for cell quantification and morphology assessment. Metabolic activity of BM-hMSCs was measured as the mitochondrial oxygen consumption rate using an extracellular flux analyzer. Conditioned media samples of BM-hMSCs were used to quantify secreted factors, and the data were analyzed using R statistics. Enriched bioprocesses were identify using the Gene Ontology tool enrichGO from the clusterprofiler. One-way and two-way ANOVAs were carried out to identify significant changes between the conditions. Results were deemed statistically significant for combined P < 0.05 for at least three independent experiments.

RESULTS

Cell viability was not significantly affected in the topographical substrates, and cell elongation was enhanced at least twofold in microgrooves and surfaces with a low contact angle. Increased cell elongation correlated with a metabolic shift from oxidative phosphorylation to a glycolytic state which is indicative of a high-energy state. Differential protein expression and gene ontology analyses identified bioprocesses enriched across donors associated with immune modulation and tissue regeneration. The growth of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) was suppressed in hBM-MSCs co-cultures, confirming enhanced immunosuppressive potency. YAP/TAZ levels were found to be reduced on these topographies confirming a mechanosensing effect on cells and suggesting a potential role in the immunomodulatory function of hMSCs.

CONCLUSIONS

This work demonstrates the potential of topographical cues as a culture strategy to improve the secretory capacity and enrich for an immunomodulatory phenotype in hBM-MSCs.

Spontaneous Osteogenic Differentiation of Human Mesenchymal Stem Cells by Tuna-Bone-Derived Hydroxyapatite Composites with Green Tea Polyphenol-Reduced Graphene Oxide

In recent years, bone tissue engineering (BTE) has made significant progress in promoting the direct and functional connection between bone and graft, including osseointegration and osteoconduction, to facilitate the healing of damaged bone tissues. Herein, we introduce a new, environmentally friendly, and cost-effective method for synthesizing reduced graphene oxide (rGO) and hydroxyapatite (HAp). The method uses epigallocatechin-3-O-gallate (EGCG) as a reducing agent to synthesize rGO (E-rGO), and HAp powder is obtained from Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus). The physicochemical analysis indicated that the E-rGO/HAp composites had exceptional properties for use as BTE scaffolds, as well as high purity. Moreover, we discovered that E-rGO/HAp composites facilitated not only the proliferation, but also early and late osteogenic differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs). Our work suggests that E-rGO/HAp composites may play a significant role in promoting the spontaneous osteogenic differentiation of hMSCs, and we envision that E-rGO/HAp composites could serve as promising candidates for BTE scaffolds, stem-cell differentiation stimulators, and implantable device components because of their biocompatible and bioactive properties. Overall, we suggest a new approach for developing cost-effective and environmentally friendly E-rGO/HAp composite materials for BTE application.

Recent progress in the manipulation of biochemical and biophysical cues for engineering functional tissues

Tissue engineering (TE) is currently considered a cutting-edge discipline that offers the potential for developing treatments for health conditions that negatively affect the quality of life. This interdisciplinary field typically involves the combination of cells, scaffolds, and appropriate induction factors for the regeneration and repair of damaged tissue. Cell fate decisions, such as survival, proliferation, or differentiation, critically depend on various biochemical and biophysical factors provided by the extracellular environment during developmental, physiological, and pathological processes. Therefore, understanding the mechanisms of action of these factors is critical to accurately mimic the complex architecture of the extracellular environment of living tissues and improve the efficiency of TE approaches. In this review, we recapitulate the effects that biochemical and biophysical induction factors have on various aspects of cell fate. While the role of biochemical factors, such as growth factors, small molecules, extracellular matrix (ECM) components, and cytokines, has been extensively studied in the context of TE applications, it is only recently that we have begun to understand the effects of biophysical signals such as surface topography, mechanical, and electrical signals. These biophysical cues could provide a more robust set of stimuli to manipulate cell signaling pathways during the formation of the engineered tissue. Furthermore, the simultaneous application of different types of signals appears to elicit synergistic responses that are likely to improve functional outcomes, which could help translate results into successful clinical therapies in the future.

Stereo Coverage and Overall Stiffness of Biomaterial Arrays Underly Parts of Topography Effects on Cell Adhesion

Surface topography is a biophysical factor affecting cell behaviors, yet the underlying cues are still not clear. Herein, we hypothesized that stereo coverage and overall stiffness of biomaterial arrays on the scale of single cells underly parts of topography effects on cell adhesion. We fabricated a series of microarrays (micropillar, micropit, and microtube) of poly(l-lactic acid) (PLLA) using mold casting based on pre-designed templates. The characteristic sizes of array units were less than that of a single cell, and thus, each cell could sense the micropatterns with varied roughness. With human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) as the model cell type, we examined spreading areas and cell viabilities on different surfaces. "Stereo coverage" was defined to quantify the actual cell spreading fraction on a topographic surface. Particularly in the case of high micropillars, cells were confirmed not able to touch the bottom and had to partially hang among the micropillars. Then, in our opinion, a cell sensed the overall stiffness combining the bulk stiffness of the raw material and the stiffness of the culture medium. Spreading area and single cell viability were correlated to coverage and topographic feature of the prepared microarrays in particular with the significantly protruded geometry feather. Cell traction forces exerted on micropillars were also discussed. These findings provide new insights into the surface modifications toward biomedical implants.

Periodontal bone regeneration with a degradable thermoplastic HA/PLCL bone graft

Strategic bone grafts are required to regenerate periodontal bone defects owing to limited self-healing. Current bioceramic particle or deproteinized bovine bone (DBB) products are not able to ideally meet clinical requirements, such as insufficient operability and slow degradation rates. Herein, a strong-interacted bone graft was designed and synthesized by modifying hydroxyapatite (HA) with a lactide-caprolactone copolymer (PLCL) to improve component homogeneity and mechanical properties. The physical-chemical analysis indicated that HA particles were homogenously distributed in HA/PLCL bone grafts, possessed outstanding thermoplasticity, and facilitated clinic operability and initial mechanical support. The in vitro study suggested that HA/PLCL bone graft degraded in a spatiotemporal model. Micropores were formed on the non-porous surface at the beginning, and interconnected porous structures were gradually generated. Furthermore, HA/PLCL bone grafts exhibited excellent biocompatibility and osteogenic ability as revealed in vitro cell culture and in vivo animal experiments. When applied to rat periodontal bone defects, the HA/PLCL bone graft showed a non-inferior bone regeneration compared to the commercial DBB. This study proposes a potential bone graft for periodontal bone repair with thermoplastic, spatiotemporal degraded, and osteogenic characteristics.

Construction of Vascularized Tissue Engineered Bone with nHA-Coated BCP Bioceramics Loaded with Peripheral Blood-Derived MSC and EPC to Repair Large Segmental Femoral Bone Defect

The regenerative repair of segmental bone defect (SBD) is an urgent problem in the field of orthopedics. Rapid induction of angiogenesis and osteoinductivity after implantation of scaffold is critical. In this study, a unique tissue engineering strategy with mixture of peripheral blood-derived mesenchymal stem cells (PBMSC) and endothelial progenitor cells (PBEPC) was applied in a 3D-printed biphasic calcium phosphate (BCP) scaffold with highly bioactive nano hydroxyapatite (nHA) coating (nHA/BCP) to construct a novel vascularized tissue engineered bone (VTEB) for rabbit femoral SBD repair. The 2D coculture of PBMSC and PBEPC showed that they could promote the osteogenic or angiogenic differentiation of the cells from each other, especially in the group of PBEPC/PBMSC = 75:25. Besides, the 3D coculture results exhibited that the nHA coating could further promote PBEPC/PBMSC adhesion, proliferation, and osteogenic and angiogenic differentiation on the BCP scaffold. In vivo experiments showed that among the four groups (BCP, BCP-PBEPC/PBMSC, nHA/BCP, and nHA/BCP-PBEPC/PBMSC), the nHA/BCP-PBEPC/PBMSC group induced the best formation of blood vessels and new bone and, thus, the good repair of SBD. It revealed the synergistic effect of nHA and PBEPC/PBMSC on the angiogenesis and osteogenesis of the BCP scaffold. Therefore, the construction of VTEB in this study could provide a possibility for the regenerative repair of SBD.

Frontiers of Hydroxyapatite Composites in Bionic Bone Tissue Engineering

Bone defects caused by various factors may cause morphological and functional disorders that can seriously affect patient's quality of life. Autologous bone grafting is morbid, involves numerous complications, and provides limited volume at donor site. Hence, tissue-engineered bone is a better alternative for repair of bone defects and for promoting a patient's functional recovery. Besides good biocompatibility, scaffolding materials represented by hydroxyapatite (HA) composites in tissue-engineered bone also have strong ability to guide bone regeneration. The development of manufacturing technology and advances in material science have made HA composite scaffolding more closely related to the composition and mechanical properties of natural bone. The surface morphology and pore diameter of the scaffold material are more important for cell proliferation, differentiation, and nutrient exchange. The degradation rate of the composite scaffold should match the rate of osteogenesis, and the loading of cells/cytokine is beneficial to promote the formation of new bone. In conclusion, there is no doubt that a breakthrough has been made in composition, mechanical properties, and degradation of HA composites. Biomimetic tissue-engineered bone based on vascularization and innervation show a promising future.

3D Bioprinted Hydroxyapatite or Graphene Oxide Containing Nanocellulose-Based Scaffolds for Bone Regeneration

Bone tissue is usually damaged after big traumas, tumors, and increasing aging-related diseases such as osteoporosis and osteoarthritis. Current treatments are based on implanting grafts, which are shown to have several inconveniences. In this regard, tissue engineering through the 3D bioprinting technique has arisen to manufacture structures that would be a feasible therapeutic option for bone regenerative medicine. In this study, nanocellulose-alginate (NC-Alg)-based bioink is improved by adding two different inorganic components such as hydroxyapatite (HAP) and graphene oxide (GO). First, ink rheological properties and biocompatibility are evaluated as well as the influence of the sterilization process on them. Then, scaffolds are characterized. Finally, biological studies of embedded murine D1 mesenchymal stem cells engineered to secrete erythropoietin are performed. Results show that the addition of both HAP and GO prevents NC-Alg ink from viscosity lost in the sterilization process. However, GO is reduced due to short cycle autoclave sterilization, making it incompatible with this ink. In addition, HAP and GO have different influences on scaffold architecture and surface as well as in swelling capacity. Scaffolds mechanics, as well as cell viability and functionality, are promoted by both elements addition. Additionally, GO demonstrates an enhanced bone differentiation capacity.

Effect of microtopography on osseointegration of implantable biomaterials and its modification strategies

Orthopedic implants are widely used for the treatment of bone defects caused by injury, infection, tumor and congenital diseases. However, poor osseointegration and implant failures still occur frequently due to the lack of direct contact between the implant and the bone. In order to improve the biointegration of implants with the host bone, surface modification is of particular interest and requirement in the development of implant materials. Implant surfaces that mimic the inherent surface roughness and hydrophilicity of native bone have been shown to provide osteogenic cells with topographic cues to promote tissue regeneration and new bone formation. A growing number of studies have shown that cell attachment, proliferation and differentiation are sensitive to these implant surface microtopography. This review is to provide a summary of the latest science of surface modified bone implants, focusing on how surface microtopography modulates osteoblast differentiation in vitro and osseointegration in vivo, signaling pathways in the process and types of surface modifications. The aim is to systematically provide comprehensive reference information for better fabrication of orthopedic implants.

The influence of nanotopography on cell behaviour through interactions with the extracellular matrix – A review

Nanotopography presents an effective physical approach for biomaterial cell manipulation mediated through material-extracellular matrix interactions. The extracellular matrix that exists in the cellular microenvironment is crucial for guiding cell behaviours, such as determination of integrin ligation and interaction with growth factors. These interactions with the extracellular matrix regulate downstream mechanotransductive pathways, such as rearrangements in the cytoskeleton and activation of signal cascades. Protein adsorption onto nanotopography strongly influences the conformation and distribution density of extracellular matrix and, therefore, subsequent cell responses. In this review, we first discuss the interactive mechanisms of protein physical adsorption on nanotopography. Secondly, we summarise advances in creating nanotopographical features to instruct desired cell behaviours. Lastly, we focus on the cellular mechanotransductive pathways initiated by nanotopography. This review provides an overview of the current state-of-the-art designs of nanotopography aiming to provide better biomedical materials for the future.

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A comprehensive overview of nanotopography fabrication, and nanotopography regulates various cell behaviours.

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The interactive physical adsorption between nanotopography and extracellular matrix.

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Nanotopography initiates the cellular mechanotransductive pathways and downstream signalling cascades.

Chitosan-CaP microflowers and metronidazole loaded calcium alginate sponges with enhanced antibacterial, hemostatic and osteogenic properties for the prevention of dry socket after tooth removal

Tooth removal, particularly for patients with severe periodontitis, can frequently cause massive bleeding, postoperative infection, and bone resorption, resulting in a dry socket. Thus, developing bio-multifunctional materials with excellent antibacterial, hemostatic, and osteogenic characteristics for the prevention of dry sockets after tooth removal is highly desirable in clinical applications. Herein, chitosan-CaP microflowers (CM) and metronidazole (MD) loaded calcium alginate (CA) sponges (CA@CM/MD) with enhanced antibacterial, hemostatic, and osteogenic properties were developed via Ca²⁺ crosslinking, lyophilization, and electrostatic interaction for the prevention of dry socket after tooth removal. The fabricated CM particles display 3-dimensional, relatively homogeneous, and flower-shaped architectures. The CA@CM/MD composite sponges were facilely shaped into the tooth root as well as exhibit interconnected porous and lamellar structures with remarkable porosity, suitable maximum swelling ratio, as well as excellent compressive and hemostatic performance. Besides, the in vitro cellular assessment demonstrates that the prepared CA@CM/MD composite sponges possess satisfactory cytocompatibility. Importantly, the designed sponges significantly suppress the growth of S. aureus and E. coli, as well as promote cellular osteogenic differentiation by upregulating the formation of alkaline phosphatase. Our findings indicate that the tooth root-shaped composite sponges hold great promise for wound management after tooth removal.

Micro- and nanotechnology in biomedical engineering for cartilage tissue regeneration in osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis, which typically arises from aging, traumatic injury, or obesity, is the most common form of arthritis, which usually leads to malfunction of the joints and requires medical interventions due to the poor self-healing capacity of articular cartilage. However, currently used medical treatment modalities have reported, at least in part, disappointing and frustrating results for patients with osteoarthritis. Recent progress in the design and fabrication of tissue-engineered microscale/nanoscale platforms, which arises from the convergence of stem cell research and nanotechnology methods, has shown promising results in the administration of new and efficient options for treating osteochondral lesions. This paper presents an overview of the recent advances in osteochondral tissue engineering resulting from the application of micro- and nanotechnology approaches in the structure of biomaterials, including biological and microscale/nanoscale topographical cues, microspheres, nanoparticles, nanofibers, and nanotubes.

Rotary Jet-Spun Polycaprolactone/Hydroxyapatite and Carbon Nanotube Scaffolds Seeded with Bone Marrow Mesenchymal Stem Cells Increase Bone Neoformation

Clinically, bone tissue replacements and/or bone repair are challenging. Strategies based on well-defined combinations of osteoconductive materials and osteogenic cells are promising to improve bone regeneration but still require improvement. Herein, we combined polycaprolactone (PCL) fibers, carbon nanotubes (CNT), and hydroxyapatite (nHap) nanoparticles to develop the next generation of bone regeneration material. Fibers formed by rotary jet spinning (RJS) instead of traditional electrospinning (ES) with embedded bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMMSCs) showed the best outcomes to repair rat calvarial defects after 6 weeks. To understand this, it was observed that different morphologies were formed depending on the manufacturing method used. RJS fibers presented a particular topography with rough fibers, which allowed for better cellular growth and cell spreading in vitro around and into a three-dimensional (3D) mesh, while fibers made by ES were more smooth and cellular growth was only measured on the 3D mesh surface. The fibers with incorporated nHap/CNT nanoparticles enhanced in vitro cell performance as indicated by more cellular proliferation, alkaline phosphatase activity, proliferation, and deposition of calcium. Greater bone neoformation occurred by combining three characteristics: the presence of nHap and CNT nanoparticles, the topography of the RJS fibers, and the addition of BMMSCs. RJS fibers with nanoparticles and seeded with BMMSCs showed 10 136 mm³ of bone neoformation, meaning a 10-fold increase compared to using RJS only and BMMSCs (0.853 mm³) and a 5-fold increase from using ES only (2054 mm³) after 6 weeks of implantation. Conversely, none of these approaches used individually showed any significant difference for in vivo bone neoformation, suggesting that their combination is essential for optimizing bone formation. In summary, our work generated a potential material composed of well-defined combinations of suitable scaffolds seeded with BMMSCs for enhancing numerous orthopedic tissue engineering applications.

The Bumpy Road to Stem Cell Therapies: Rational Design of Surface Topographies to Dictate Stem Cell Mechanotransduction and Fate

Cells sense and respond to a variety of physical cues from their surrounding microenvironment, and these are interpreted through mechanotransductive processes to inform their behavior. These mechanisms have particular relevance to stem cells, where control of stem cell proliferation, potency, and differentiation is key to their successful application in regenerative medicine. It is increasingly recognized that surface micro- and nanotopographies influence stem cell behavior and may represent a powerful tool with which to direct the morphology and fate of stem cells. Current progress toward this goal has been driven by combined advances in fabrication technologies and cell biology. Here, the capacity to generate precisely defined micro- and nanoscale topographies has facilitated the studies that provide knowledge of the mechanotransducive processes that govern the cellular response as well as knowledge of the specific features that can drive cells toward a defined differentiation outcome. However, the path forward is not fully defined, and the "bumpy road" that lays ahead must be crossed before the full potential of these approaches can be fully exploited. This review focuses on the challenges and opportunities in applying micro- and nanotopographies to dictate stem cell fate for regenerative medicine. Here, key techniques used to produce topographic features are reviewed, such as photolithography, block copolymer lithography, electron beam lithography, nanoimprint lithography, soft lithography, scanning probe lithography, colloidal lithography, electrospinning, and surface roughening, alongside their advantages and disadvantages. The biological impacts of surface topographies are then discussed, including the current understanding of the mechanotransductive mechanisms by which these cues are interpreted by the cells, as well as the specific effects of surface topographies on cell differentiation and fate. Finally, considerations in translating these technologies and their future prospects are evaluated.

Effect of Controlled Microtopography on Osteogenic Differentiation of Mesenchymal Stem Cells

Various kinds of controlled microtopographies can promote osteogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), such as microgrooves, micropillars, and micropits. However, the optimal shape, size, and mechanism remain unclear. In this review, we summarize the relationship between the parameters of different microtopographies and the behavior of MSCs. Then, we try to reveal the potential mechanism between them. The results showed that the microgrooves with a width of 4–60 μm and ridge width <10 μm, micropillars with parameters less than 10 μm, and square micropits had the full potential to promote osteogenic differentiation of MSCs, while the micromorphology of the same size could induce larger focal adhesions (FAs), well-organized cytoskeleton, and superior cell areas. Therefore, such events are possibly mediated by microtopography-induced mechanotransduction pathways.

The restricted adhesion of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells by stepped structures on surfaces of hydroxyapatite

Currently, many researches have developed several strategies to design the surface structures of hydroxyapatite (HA), and have proved that the surface structures are pivotal in guiding the adhesion of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) as well as subsequent cellular behaviours. Most of these strategies, such as altering roughness and constructing surface patterning of HA, involve the construction of geometric topographies at the micro/nanoscale. However, besides geometric topographies, crystal defects are also important characteristics of surface structures and would alter many local physicochemical properties, which is critical for contact between cells and bioceramic surfaces. For the practical applications of crystal defects, a major hindrance is that crystal defects are usually unstable and easily eliminated during crystallization, which limits the large-scale fabrication of materials with crystal defects. In this work, given that stepped structures contain massive stable crystal defects on their step edges and kinks, we proposed a feasible and efficient method to fabricate HA dishes with stepped structures on their surfaces. First, plate-like HA mesocrystals were prepared from CaHPO₄via topotactic transformation, and were shaped into HA dishes by vacuum-filtration. Then, a sintering process was applied to facilitate the formation of stepped structures on the surfaces. We demonstrated that the generation of stepped structures could restrict the adhesion of BMSCs and showed the restriction effect is highly correlated with the density of exposed stepped structures. This phenomenon is interesting and the construction of a cell adhesion model is robust and easy, the underlying mechanisms of which deserve further exploration. Furthermore, constructing stepped structures on surfaces may be a new useful strategy to regulate cell adhesion and could also cooperate with other methods that do not need change in the surface crystal structure.

Stepped structures largely exposed on surfaces of HA significantly restrict the adhesion of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells.

Phosphorous pentoxide-free bioactive glass exhibits dose-dependent angiogenic and osteogenic capacities which are retained in glass polymeric composite scaffolds

Bioactive glasses (BGs) are attractive materials for bone tissue engineering because of their bioactivity and osteoinductivity. In this study, we report the synthesis of a novel phosphorous pentoxide-free, silicate-based bioactive glass (52S-BG) composed of 52.1% SiO₂, 23.2% Na₂O and 22.6% CaO (wt%). The glass was thoroughly characterized. The biocompatibility and osteogenic properties of 52S-BG particles were analyzed in vitro with human adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (AdMSCs) and human osteoblasts. 52S-BG particles were biocompatible and induced mineralized matrix deposition and the expression of osteogenic markers (RunX2, alkaline phosphatase, osteocalcin, osteopontin, collagen I) and the angiogenic marker vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). Angiogenic properties were additionally confirmed in a zebrafish embryo model. 52S-BG was added to poly-ε-caprolactone (PCL) to obtain a composite with 10 wt% glass content. Composite PCL/52S-BG scaffolds were fabricated by additive manufacturing and displayed high porosity (76%) and pore interconnectivity. The incorporation of 52S-BG particles increased the Young's modulus of PCL scaffolds from 180 to 230 MPa. AdMSC seeding efficiency and proliferation were higher in PCL/52S-BG compared to PCL scaffolds, indicating improved biocompatibility. Finally, 52S-BG incorporation improved the scaffolds' osteogenic and angiogenic properties by increasing mineral deposition and inducing relevant gene expression and VEGF protein secretion. Overall, 52S-BG particles and PCL/52S-BG composites may be attractive for diverse bone engineering applications requiring concomitant angiogenic properties.

Surface Epitaxial Nano-Topography Facilitates Biomineralization to Promote Osteogenic Differentiation and Osteogenesis

Biomimetic modification of hydroxyapatite on a polymer surface is a potent strategy for activating biological functions in bone tissue engineering applications. However, the polymer surface is bioinert, and it is difficult to introduce a uniform calcium phosphate (CaP) layer. To overcome this limitation, we constructed a specific nano-topographical structure onto a poly(ε-caprolactone) substrate via surface-directed epitaxial crystallization. Formation of the CaP layer on the nano-topological surface was enhanced by 2.34-fold compared to that on a smooth surface. This effect was attributed to the abundant crystallization sites for CaP deposition because of the increased surface area and roughness. Bone marrow mesenchymal stromal cells (BMSCs) were used to examine the biological effect of biomineralized surfaces. We clearly demonstrated that BMSCs responded to surface biomineralization. Osteogenic differentiation and proliferation of BMSCs were significantly promoted on the biomineralized nano-topological surface. The expression of alkaline phosphatase and osteogenic-related genes as well as extracellular matrix mineralization was significantly enhanced. The proposed strategy shows potential for designing bone repair scaffolds.

Hierarchically hybrid biocoatings on Ti implants for enhanced antibacterial activity and osteogenesis

Titanium (Ti) is widely applied as bone-anchoring implants in dental and orthopedic applications owing to its superior mechanical characteristics, high corrosion resistance, and excellent biocompatibility. Nevertheless, Ti-based implants with the deficiencies of insufficient osteoinduction and associated infections can result in implant failure, which significantly limits its applications in some cases. In this work, hierarchically hybrid biocoatings on Ti implants are developed by gradual incorporation of polydopamine (PDA), ZnO nanoparticles (nZnO), and chitosan (CS)/nanocrystal hydroxyapatite (nHA) via oxidative self-polymerization, nanoparticle deposition, solvent casting and evaporation methods for enhancing their antibacterial activity and osteogenesis. The modification of PDA on porous reticular Ti substrates greatly reduces the surface roughness, wettability, protein adsorption, and provides high adhesion to the deposited nZnO. Further, incorporating nZnO on PDA-coated Ti surfaces affects the surface structure and wettability, significantly inhibits the growth of both Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. Moreover, the CS/nHA-doped coating on the nZnO-modified Ti surfaces remarkably improves cytocompatibility and enhances the osteogenic differentiation of MC3T3-E1 cells by upregulating the protein expression of alkaline phosphatase. This work offers a promising alternative for developing Ti implants with long-lifetime bioactivity to achieve strong antibacterial ability and enhanced bone formation for potential dental/orthopedic applications.

Bone physiological microenvironment and healing mechanism: Basis for future bone-tissue engineering scaffolds

Bone-tissue defects affect millions of people worldwide. Despite being common treatment approaches, autologous and allogeneic bone grafting have not achieved the ideal therapeutic effect. This has prompted researchers to explore novel bone-regeneration methods. In recent decades, the development of bone tissue engineering (BTE) scaffolds has been leading the forefront of this field. As researchers have provided deep insights into bone physiology and the bone-healing mechanism, various biomimicking and bioinspired BTE scaffolds have been reported. Now it is necessary to review the progress of natural bone physiology and bone healing mechanism, which will provide more valuable enlightenments for researchers in this field. This work details the physiological microenvironment of the natural bone tissue, bone-healing process, and various biomolecules involved therein. Next, according to the bone physiological microenvironment and the delivery of bioactive factors based on the bone-healing mechanism, it elaborates the biomimetic design of a scaffold, highlighting the designing of BTE scaffolds according to bone biology and providing the rationale for designing next-generation BTE scaffolds that conform to natural bone healing and regeneration.

Biomaterial Properties Modulating Bone Regeneration

Biomaterial scaffolds have been gaining momentum in the past several decades for their potential applications in the area of tissue engineering. They function as three-dimensional porous constructs to temporarily support the attachment of cells, subsequently influencing cell behaviors such as proliferation and differentiation to repair or regenerate defective tissues. In addition, scaffolds can also serve as delivery vehicles to achieve sustained release of encapsulated growth factors or therapeutic agents to further modulate the regeneration process. Given the limitations of current bone grafts used clinically in bone repair, alternatives such as biomaterial scaffolds have emerged as potential bone graft substitutes. This review summarizes how physicochemical properties of biomaterial scaffolds can influence cell behavior and its downstream effect, particularly in its application to bone regeneration.

An overview of signaling pathways regulating YAP/TAZ activity

YAP and TAZ are ubiquitously expressed homologous proteins originally identified as penultimate effectors of the Hippo signaling pathway, which plays a key role in maintaining mammalian tissue/organ size. Presently, it is known that YAP/TAZ also interact with various non-Hippo signaling pathways, and have diverse roles in multiple biological processes, including cell proliferation, tissue regeneration, cell lineage fate determination, tumorigenesis, and mechanosensing. In this review, we first examine the various microenvironmental cues and signaling pathways that regulate YAP/TAZ activation, through the Hippo and non-Hippo signaling pathways. This is followed by a brief summary of the interactions of YAP/TAZ with TEAD1-4 and a diverse array of other non-TEAD transcription factors. Finally, we offer a critical perspective on how increasing knowledge of the regulatory mechanisms of YAP/TAZ signaling might open the door to novel therapeutic applications in the interrelated fields of biomaterials, tissue engineering, regenerative medicine and synthetic biology.

Biodegradable materials for bone defect repair

Compared with non-degradable materials, biodegradable biomaterials play an increasingly important role in the repairing of severe bone defects, and have attracted extensive attention from researchers. In the treatment of bone defects, scaffolds made of biodegradable materials can provide a crawling bridge for new bone tissue in the gap and a platform for cells and growth factors to play a physiological role, which will eventually be degraded and absorbed in the body and be replaced by the new bone tissue. Traditional biodegradable materials include polymers, ceramics and metals, which have been used in bone defect repairing for many years. Although these materials have more or fewer shortcomings, they are still the cornerstone of our development of a new generation of degradable materials. With the rapid development of modern science and technology, in the twenty-first century, more and more kinds of new biodegradable materials emerge in endlessly, such as new intelligent micro-nano materials and cell-based products. At the same time, there are many new fabrication technologies of improving biodegradable materials, such as modular fabrication, 3D and 4D printing, interface reinforcement and nanotechnology. This review will introduce various kinds of biodegradable materials commonly used in bone defect repairing, especially the newly emerging materials and their fabrication technology in recent years, and look forward to the future research direction, hoping to provide researchers in the field with some inspiration and reference.

Topography: A Biophysical Approach to Direct the Fate of Mesenchymal Stem Cells in Tissue Engineering Applications

Tissue engineering is a promising strategy to treat tissue and organ loss or damage caused by injury or disease. During the past two decades, mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have attracted a tremendous amount of interest in tissue engineering due to their multipotency and self-renewal ability. MSCs are also the most multipotent stem cells in the human adult body. However, the application of MSCs in tissue engineering is relatively limited because it is difficult to guide their differentiation toward a specific cell lineage by using traditional biochemical factors. Besides biochemical factors, the differentiation of MSCs also influenced by biophysical cues. To this end, much effort has been devoted to directing the cell lineage decisions of MSCs through adjusting the biophysical properties of biomaterials. The surface topography of the biomaterial-based scaffold can modulate the proliferation and differentiation of MSCs. Presently, the development of micro- and nano-fabrication techniques has made it possible to control the surface topography of the scaffold precisely. In this review, we highlight and discuss how the main topographical features (i.e., roughness, patterns, and porosity) are an efficient approach to control the fate of MSCs and the application of topography in tissue engineering.

Gene Expression Regulation and Secretory Activity of Mesenchymal Stem Cells upon In Vitro Contact with Microarc Calcium Phosphate Coating

The manufacture of biomaterial surfaces with desired physical and chemical properties that can directly induce osteogenic differentiation without the need for biochemical additives is an excellent strategy for controlling the behavior of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) in vivo. We studied the cellular and molecular reactions of MSCs to samples with a double-sided calcium phosphate (CaP) coating and an average roughness index (Ra) of 2.4-4.6 µm. The study aimed to evaluate the effect of a three-dimensional matrix on the relative mRNA expression levels of genes associated with the differentiation and maturation of MSCs toward osteogenesis (RUNX2, BMP2, BMP6, BGLAP, and ALPL) under conditions of distant interaction in vitro. Correlations were revealed between the mRNA expression of some osteogenic and cytokine/chemokine genes and the secretion of cytokines and chemokines that may potentiate the differentiation of cells into osteoblasts, which indicates the formation of humoral components of the extracellular matrix and the creation of conditions supporting the establishment of hematopoietic niches.

Physicochemical properties and cytocompatibility assessment of non-degradable scaffolds for bone tissue engineering applications

Bone is a dynamic tissue with an amazing but yet limited capacity of self-healing. Bone is the second most transplanted tissue in the world and there is a huge need for bone grafts and substitutes which lead to a decrease in bone banks donors. In this study, we developed three-dimensional scaffolds based on Ti₆Al₄V, ZrO₂ and PEEK targeting bone tissue engineering applications. Experimental mechanical compressive tests and finite element analyses were carried out to study the mechanical performance of the scaffolds. Overall, the scaffolds presented different hydrophilicity properties and a reduced elastic modulus when compared with the corresponding solid materials which can in some extension minimize the phenomenon of stress shielding. The ability as a scaffold material for bone tissue regeneration applications was evaluated in vitro by seeding human osteosarcoma (SaOS-2) cells onto the scaffolds. Then, the successful culture of SaOS-2 cells on developed scaffolds was monitored by assessment of cell's viability, proliferation and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity up to 14 days of culturing. The in vitro results revealed that Ti₆Al₄V, ZrO₂ and PEEK scaffolds were cytocompatible allowing the successful culture of an osteoblastic cell line, suggesting their potential application in bone tissue engineering. Statement of Significance. The work presented is timely and relevant since it gathers both the mechanical and cellular study of non-degradable cellular structures with the potential to be used as bone scaffolds. This work allow to investigate three possible bone scaffolds solutions which exhibit a significantly reduced elastic modulus when compared with conventional solid materials. While it is generally accepted that the Ti₆Al₄V, ZrO₂ and PEEK are candidates for such applications a further study of their features and their comparison is extremely important for a better understanding of their potential.

Experimental and theoretical investigations of the influences of one-dimensional hydroxyapatite nanostructures on cytocompatibility

Due to their simple crystal structures, one-dimensional hydroxyapatite (HA) nanostructures are easily to be applied to understand the fundamental concepts about the influences of HA dimensionality on physical, chemical, and biological properties. So, in this work, three typical HA one-dimensional nanostructures, HA nanotubes, HA nanowires, and HA nanospheres, were prepared, whose theoretical structures were built also. in vitro cytocompatibility test proved that, contrasting with TCPS, HA one-dimensional nanostructures had certain degree of cytotoxicity because HA nanostructures increase the generation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and intracellular calcium. Theoretical simulation indicated that HA nanosphere has higher intracellular ROS generation and lower ROS storage amount than HA nanowire and HA nanotube, which were the possible reasons for its stronger cytotoxicity. Among these typical one-dimensional nanostructures, owing to higher drug storage amount and sustained delivery ability, HA nanotube was more potential application in orthopedics. The tubular structure of HA nanotubes could be used as reservoirs for small molecule drugs or growth factors. The cytocompatibility of HA nanostructures can be improved obviously when they were produced into two-dimensional structures. The prepared multilayer structure can simulate lamellar structures of Harvard system and enhance the cytocompatibility of Ti substrate. Therefore, the method used in this work is a prospective method to improve the inherently bio-inert of Ti when used in hard tissue repairing.

Role of YAP/TAZ in Cell Lineage Fate Determination and Related Signaling Pathways

The penultimate effectors of the Hippo signaling pathways YAP and TAZ, are transcriptional co-activator proteins that play key roles in many diverse biological processes, ranging from cell proliferation, tumorigenesis, mechanosensing and cell lineage fate determination, to wound healing and regeneration. In this review, we discuss the regulatory mechanisms by which YAP/TAZ control stem/progenitor cell differentiation into the various major lineages that are of interest to tissue engineering and regenerative medicine applications. Of particular interest is the key role of YAP/TAZ in maintaining the delicate balance between quiescence, self-renewal, proliferation and differentiation of endogenous adult stem cells within various tissues/organs during early development, normal homeostasis and regeneration/healing. Finally, we will consider how increasing knowledge of YAP/TAZ signaling might influence the trajectory of future progress in regenerative medicine.

Coating biopolymer nanofibers with carbon nanotubes accelerates tissue healing and bone regeneration through orchestrated cell- and tissue-regulatory responses

Tailoring the surface of biomaterial scaffolds has been a key strategy to modulate the cellular interactions that are helpful for tissue healing process. In particular, nanotopological surfaces have been demonstrated to regulate diverse behaviors of stem cells, such as initial adhesion, spreading and lineage specification. Here, we tailor the surface of biopolymer nanofibers with carbon nanotubes (CNTs) to create a unique bi-modal nanoscale topography (500 nm nanofiber with 25 nm nanotubes) and report the performance in modulating diverse in vivo responses including inflammation, angiogenesis, and bone regeneration. When administered to a rat subcutaneous site, the CNT-coated nanofiber exhibited significantly reduced inflammatory signs (down-regulated pro-inflammatory cytokines and macrophages gathering). Moreover, the CNT-coated nanofibers showed substantially promoted angiogenic responses, with enhanced neoblood vessel formation and angiogenic marker expression. Such stimulated tissue healing events by the CNT interfacing were evidenced in a calvarium bone defect model. The in vivo bone regeneration of the CNT- coated nanofibers was significantly accelerated, with higher bone mineral density and up-regulated osteogenic signs (OPN, OCN, BMP2) of in vivo bone forming cells. The in vitro studies using MSCs could demonstrate accelerated adhesion and osteogenic differentiation and mineralization, supporting the osteo-promoting mechanism behind the in vivo bone forming event. These findings highlight that the CNTs interfacing of biopolymer nanofibers is highly effective in reducing inflammation, promoting angiogenesis, and driving adhesion and osteogenesis of MSCs, which eventually orchestrate to accelerate tissue healing and bone regeneration process. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Here we demonstrate that the interfacing of biopolymer nanofibers with carbon nanotubes (CNTs) could modulate multiple interactions of cells and tissues that are ultimately helpful for the tissue healing and bone regeneration process. The CNT-coated scaffolds significantly reduced the pro-inflammatory signals while stimulating the angiogenic marker expressions. Furthermore, the CNT-coated scaffolds increased the bone matrix production of bone forming cells in vivo as well as accelerated the adhesion and osteogenic differentiation of MSCs in vitro. These collective findings highlight that the CNTs coated on the biopolymer nanofibers allow the creation of a promising platform for nanoscale engineering of biomaterial surface that can favor tissue healing and bone regeneration process, through a series of orchestrated events in anti-inflammation, pro-angiogenesis, and stem cell stimulation.

The role of calcium phosphate surface structure in osteogenesis and the mechanisms involved

Calcium phosphate (CaP) ceramics have been widely used for bone regeneration because of their ability to induce osteogenesis. Surface properties, including chemical composition and surface structure, are known to play a crucial role in osteoconduction and osteoinduction. This review systematically analyzes the effects of surface properties, in particular the surface structure, of CaP scaffolds on cell behavior and new bone formation. We also summarize the possible signaling pathways involved in the osteogenic differentiation of bone-related cells when cultured on surfaces with various structures in vitro. The significant immune response initiated by surface structure involved in osteogenic differentiation of cells is also discussed in this review. Taken together, the new biological principle for advanced biomaterials is not only to directly stimulate osteogenic differentiation of bone-related cells but also to modulate the immune response in vivo. Although the reaction mechanism responsible for bone formation induced by CaP surface structure is not clear yet, the insights on surface structure-mediated osteogenic differentiation and osteoimmunomodulation could aid the optimization of CaP-based biomaterials for bone regeneration. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: CaP ceramics have similar inorganic composition with natural bone, which have been widely used for bone tissue scaffolds. CaP themselves are not osteoinductive; however, osteoinductive properties could be introduced to CaP materials by surface engineering. This paper systematically summarizes the effects of surface properties, especially surface structure, of CaP scaffolds on bone formation. Additionally, increasing evidence has proved that the bone healing process is not only affected by the osteogenic differentiation of bone-related cells, but also relevant to the the cooperation of immune system. Thus, we further review the possible signaling pathways involved in the osteogenic differentiation and immune response of cells cultured on scaffold surface. These insights into surface structure-mediated osteogenic differentiation and osteoimmunomodulated-based strategy could aid the optimization of CaP-based biomaterials.

Calcification Microstructure Reflects Breast Tissue Microenvironment

Microcalcifications are important diagnostic indicators of disease in breast tissue. Tissue microenvironments differ in many aspects between normal and cancerous cells, notably extracellular pH and glycolytic respiration. Hydroxyapatite microcalcification microstructure is also found to differ between tissue pathologies, including differential ion substitutions and the presence of additional crystallographic phases. Distinguishing between tissue pathologies at an early stage is essential to improve patient experience and diagnostic accuracy, leading to better disease outcome. This study explores the hypothesis that microenvironment features may become immortalised within calcification crystallite characteristics thus becoming indicators of tissue pathology. In total, 55 breast calcifications incorporating 3 tissue pathologies (benign - B2, ductal carcinoma in-situ - B5a and invasive malignancy - B5b) from archive formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded core needle breast biopsies were analysed using X-ray diffraction. Crystallite size and strain were determined from 548 diffractograms using Williamson-Hall analysis. There was an increased crystallinity of hydroxyapatite with tissue malignancy compared to benign tissue. Coherence length was significantly correlated with pathology grade in all basis crystallographic directions (P < 0.01), with a greater difference between benign and in situ disease compared to in-situ disease and invasive malignancy. Crystallite size and non-uniform strain contributed to peak broadening in all three pathologies. Furthermore, crystallite size and non-uniform strain normal to the basal planes increased significantly with malignancy (P < 0.05). Our findings support the view that tissue microenvironments can influence differing formation mechanisms of hydroxyapatite through acidic precursors, leading to differential substitution of carbonate into the hydroxide and phosphate sites, causing significant changes in crystallite size and non-uniform strain.

Surface Epitaxial Crystallization-Directed Nanotopography for Accelerating Preosteoblast Proliferation and Osteogenic Differentiation

Surface nanotopography provides a physical stimulus to direct cell fate, especially in the case of osteogenic differentiation. However, fabrication of nanopatterns usually suffers from complex procedures. Herein, a feasible and versatile method was presented to create unique nanosheets on a poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) substrate via surface epitaxial crystallization. The thickness, periodic distance, and root-mean-square nanoroughness of surface nanosheets were tunable by simply altering the PCL concentration in the growth solution. Epitaxial nanosheets possessed an identical composition as the substrate, being a prerequisite to revealing the independent effect of biophysical linkage on the osteogenic mechanism of the patterned surface. Preosteoblasts' response to the epitaxial nanosheets was examined in the aspect of preosteoblast proliferation and osteogenic differentiation. The expression of alkaline phosphatase, collagen type I, osteopontin, and osteocalcin as well as mineralization was significantly promoted by the epitaxial nanosheets. Acceleration of osteogenic differentiation was attributed to activating the TAZ/RUNX2 signaling pathway. The findings demonstrate that surface epitaxial crystallization is a feasible approach to design and construct nanotopography for bone tissue engineering.

Comprehensive In Vitro Testing of Calcium Phosphate-Based Bioceramics with Orthopedic and Dentistry Applications

Recently, a large spectrum of biomaterials emerged, with emphasis on various pure, blended, or doped calcium phosphates (CaPs). Although basic cytocompatibility testing protocols are referred by International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 10993 (parts 1-22), rigorous in vitro testing using cutting-edge technologies should be carried out in order to fully understand the behavior of various biomaterials (whether in bulk or low-dimensional object form) and to better gauge their outcome when implanted. In this review, current molecular techniques are assessed for the in-depth characterization of angiogenic potential, osteogenic capability, and the modulation of oxidative stress and inflammation properties of CaPs and their cation- and/or anion-substituted derivatives. Using such techniques, mechanisms of action of these compounds can be deciphered, highlighting the signaling pathway activation, cross-talk, and modulation by microRNA expression, which in turn can safely pave the road toward a better filtering of the truly functional, application-ready innovative therapeutic bioceramic-based solutions.

Verification of osteoblast differentiation on airborne-particle abrasion, large-grit, acid-etched surface of titanium implants regulated by yes-associated protein and transcriptional coactivator with PDZ-binding motif

Although airborne-particle abrasion, large-grit, acid-etched (SLA) surface technology can promote implant osseointegration; its mechanism remains unclear. By preparing the SLA titanium (Ti) plate (SLA Ti) and Polished Ti plate (Polished Ti), this experiment investigates the expression and distribution of the Yes-associated protein (YAP) and transcriptional coactivator with the PDZ-binding motif (TAZ) in MC3T3-E1 cells. In addition, gene YAP and TAZ silencing on the SLA Ti was conducted to observe changes in the osteoblast differentiation markers, runt-related transcription factor-2 (Runx2) and bone sialoprotein (BSP). The results demonstrated that SLA Ti surface microtopography could induce YAP/TAZ's transfer from the cytoplasm to the nuclei of MC3T3-E1 cells. The expression of YAP/TAZ increased in terms of mRNA and protein. After silencing the YAP/TAZ genes, Runx2 and BSP decreased, suggesting that YAP/TAZ plays an important regulatory role in this process. Meanwhile, the results also showed that SLA microtopography enhanced the expression of integrins α1, α2, and β1. After silencing the integrin α1, α2, and β1 genes, YAP and TAZ decreased in terms of mRNA and protein. Therefore, this experiment was the first to confirm that SLA surface microtopography facilitates osteoblast differentiation by regulating YAP/TAZ and confirms that the process can be related to integrins α1, α2, and β1.

Biomaterials and engineered microenvironments to control YAP/TAZ-dependent cell behaviour

Mechanical signals are increasingly recognized as overarching regulators of cell behaviour, controlling stemness, organoid biology, tissue development and regeneration. Moreover, aberrant mechanotransduction is a driver of disease, including cancer, fibrosis and cardiovascular defects. A central question remains how cells compute a host of biomechanical signals into meaningful biological behaviours. Biomaterials and microfabrication technologies are essential to address this issue. Here we review a large body of evidence that connects diverse biomaterial-based systems to the functions of YAP/TAZ, two highly related mechanosensitive transcriptional regulators. YAP/TAZ orchestrate the response to a suite of engineered microenviroments, emerging as a universal control system for cells in two and three dimensions, in static or dynamic fashions, over a range of elastic and viscoelastic stimuli, from solid to fluid states. This approach may guide the rational design of technological and material-based platforms with dramatically improved functionalities and inform the generation of new biomaterials for regenerative medicine applications.

Emerging Strategies for Stem Cell Lineage Commitment in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine

Stem cells have transformed the fields of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, and their potential to further advance these fields cannot be overstated. The stem cell niche is a dynamic microenvironment that determines cell fate during development and tissue repair following an injury. Classically, stem cells were studied in isolation of their microenvironment; however, contemporary research has produced a myriad of evidence that shows the importance of multiple aspects of the stem cell niche in regulating their processes. In the context of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine studies, the niche is an artificial environment provided by culture conditions. In vitro culture conditions may involve coculturing with other cell types, developing specific biomaterials, and applying relevant forces to promote the desired lineage commitment. Considerable advance has been made over the past few years toward directed stem cell differentiation; however, the unspecific differentiation of stem cells yielding a mixed population of cells has been a challenge. In this review, we provide a systematic review of the emerging strategies used for lineage commitment within the context of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. These strategies include scaffold pore-size and pore-shape gradients, stress relaxation, sonic and electromagnetic effects, and magnetic forces. Finally, we provide insights and perspectives into future directions focusing on signaling pathways activated during lineage commitment using external stimuli.

Quantifying the ultrastructure changes of air-dried and irradiated human amniotic membrane using atomic force microscopy: a preliminary study

Air-dried and sterilized amnion has been widely used as a dressing to treat burn and partial thickness wounds. Sterilisation at the standard dose of 25 kGy was reported to cause changes in the morphological structure as observed under the scanning electron microscope. This study aimed to quantify the changes in the ultrastructure of the air-dried amnion after gamma-irradiated at several doses by using atomic force microscope. Human placentae were retrieved from mothers who had undergone cesarean elective surgery. Amnion separated from chorion was processed and air-dried for 16 h. It was cut into 10 × 10 mm, individually packed and exposed to gamma irradiation at 5, 15, 25 and 35 kGy. Changes in the ultrastructural images of the amnion were quantified in term of diameter of the epithelial cells, size of the intercellular gap and membrane surface roughness. The longest diameter of the amnion cells reduced significantly after radiation (p < 0.01) however the effect was not dose dependent. No significant changes in the shortest diameter after radiation, except at 35 kGy which decreased significantly when compared to 5 kGy (p < 0.01). The size of the irradiated air-dried amnion cells reduced in the same direction without affecting the gross ultrastructure. At 15 kGy the intercellular gap decreased significantly (p < 0.01) with Ra and Rq, values reflecting surface roughness, were significantly the highest (p < 0.01). Changes in the ultrastructure quantified by using atomic force microscope could complement results from other microscopic techniques.

Topographical cues of direct metal laser sintering titanium surfaces facilitate osteogenic differentiation of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells through epigenetic regulation

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the role of hierarchical micro/nanoscale topography of direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) titanium surfaces in osteogenic differentiation of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs), as well as the possible underlying epigenetic mechanism.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Three groups of titanium specimens were prepared, including DMLS group, sandblasted, large-grit, acid-etched (SLA) group and smooth titanium (Ti) group. BMSCs were cultured on discs followed by surface characterization. Cell adhesion and proliferation were examined by SEM and CCK-8 assay, while osteogenic-related gene expression was detected by real-time RT-PCR. Immunofluorescence, western blotting and in vivo study were also performed to evaluate the potential for osteogenic induction of materials. In addition, to investigate the underlying epigenetic mechanisms, immunofluorescence and western blotting were performed to evaluate the global level of H3K4me3 during osteogenesis. The H3K4me3 and H3K27me3 levels at the promoter area of the osteogenic gene Runx2 were detected by ChIP assay.

RESULTS

The DMLS surface exhibits greater protein adsorption ability and shows better cell adhesion performance than SLA and Ti surfaces. Moreover, both in vitro and in vivo studies demonstrated that the DMLS surface is more favourable for the osteogenic differentiation of BMSCs than SLA and Ti surfaces. Accordingly, osteogenesis-associated gene expression in BMSCs is efficiently induced by a rapid H3K27 demethylation and increase in H3K4me3 levels at gene promoters upon osteogenic differentiation on DMLS titanium surface.

CONCLUSIONS

Topographical cues of DMLS surfaces have greater potential for the induction of osteogenic differentiation of BMSCs than SLA and Ti surfaces both in vitro and in vivo. A potential epigenetic mechanism is that the appropriate topography allows rapid H3K27 demethylation and an increased H3K4me3 level at the promoter region of osteogenesis-associated genes during the osteogenic differentiation of BMSCs.

Biomimetic oyster shell-replicated topography alters the behaviour of human skeletal stem cells

The regenerative potential of skeletal stem cells provides an attractive prospect to generate bone tissue needed for musculoskeletal reparation. A central issue remains efficacious, controlled cell differentiation strategies to aid progression of cell therapies to the clinic. The nacre surface from Pinctada maxima shells is known to enhance bone formation. However, to date, there is a paucity of information on the role of the topography of P. maxima surfaces, nacre and prism. To investigate this, nacre and prism topographical features were replicated onto polycaprolactone and skeletal stem cell behaviour on the surfaces studied. Skeletal stem cells on nacre surfaces exhibited an increase in cell area, increase in expression of osteogenic markers ALP (p < 0.05) and OCN (p < 0.01) and increased metabolite intensity (p < 0.05), indicating a role of nacre surface to induce osteogenic differentiation, while on prism surfaces, skeletal stem cells did not show alterations in cell area or osteogenic marker expression and a decrease in metabolite intensity (p < 0.05), demonstrating a distinct role for the prism surface, with the potential to maintain the skeletal stem cell phenotype.

Non-Washed Resorbable Blasting Media (NWRBM) on Titanium Surfaces could Enhance Osteogenic Properties of MSCs through Increase of miRNA-196a And VCAM1

Surface topography of Titanium (Ti) dental implants strongly influences osseointegration. In the present work, we have analyzed the influence of two Ti implant surfaces characterized by similar microtopography but different nanotopography and chemistry on the osteoblastic phenotype of Dental Pulp Stem Cells (DPSCs). The effect on osteogenic differentiation, extracellular matrix (ECM) and cell adhesion molecules production have been evaluated by means of molecular biology analyses. The morphology of the cells grown onto these surfaces has been analyzed with SEM and immunofluorescence (IF), and the safety of the surfaces has been tested by using karyotype analysis, Ames test and hemocompatibility assay. Results showed that starting from 15 days of DPSCs culture, a substantial expression of osteoblast specific markers and a strong increase of cell adhesion molecules can be detected. In particular, when DPSCs are seeded on the Ti implants expression of microRNA (miRNA)-196a, which is involved in osteoblastic commitment of stem cells, and of Vascular Cell Adhesion Molecule 1 (VCAM1), a factor involved in angiogenesis, is strongly enhanced.

Implementation of a stratified approach and gene immobilization to enhance the osseointegration of a silk-based ligament graft

A silk scaffold exhibits high potential for the human anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) reconstruction due to its exceptional mechanics as well as biocompatibility. Inefficient ACL interface restoration is thought to be a major hurdle for the common implementation of a silk-based ligament graft. By integrating a stratified approach and gene immobilization, here we developed a gene-immobilized triphasic silk scaffold to enhance ACL osseointegration. Isotropic silk was divided into three regions (respectively corresponding to a ligament, fibrocartilage and the bone region of the native ACL interface) using a custom-made divider, and the lentiviral vector-encoded transforming growth factor beta-3 (TGF-β3) and bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP2) was further, respectively, immobilized to phosphatidylserine (PS)-coated fibrocartilage and the bone region of the triphasic silk scaffold. The in vitro assessments displayed that this gene-immobilized triphasic silk scaffold significantly promotes bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell (BMSC) proliferation and differentiation into corresponding cell lineage. Moreover, the gene-modified triphasic silk scaffold combined with BMSCs alone, which was rolled into a compact shaft to be implanted onto rabbit ACL-defect models, revealed roughly complete osseointegration restoration as a result of apparent three-layered tissue formation and robust mechanical ability as early as 12 weeks postoperatively. These outcomes demonstrated that employing the stratified approach and gene immobilization efficiently expedites silk-mediated ACL interface formation, expanding the therapeutic potential of the silk-based ligament graft for ACL reconstruction.