CD44-tropic polymeric nanocarrier for breast cancer targeted rapamycin chemotherapy

Concise review: breast cancer stems cells and their role in metastases

Background

Breast cancer stem cells (BCSCs) have been suggested to be responsible for the development of Breast cancer (BC). The aim of this study was to evaluate BCSCs and the target organs microenvironment immunophenotyping markers in common BC metastases, and therapeutic targets regarding to the mentioned criteria.

Material and methods

This narrative review involved searching international databases; PubMed, Google Scholar using predetermined keywords including breast cancer, breast cancer stem cells, breast cancer metastases, immunophenotyping, immunohistochemistry and metastases. The search results were assessed based on the title, abstract, and full text of the articles, and relevant findings were included in the review.

Results

BCSCs express high amounts of aldehyde dehydrogenase 1 (ALDH1), Ganglioside 2 (GD2), CD44 and CD133 but are negative for CD24 marker. CXCR4 and OPN have high expression in the cells and may contribute in BC metastasis to the bone. Nestin, CK5, prominin-1 (CD133) markers in BCSCs have been reported to correlate with brain metastasis. High expression of CD44 in BCSCs and CXCL12 expression in the liver microenvironment may contribute to BC metastasis to the liver. Aberrantly expressed vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) that binds to collagen and elastin fibers on pulmonary parenchyma, and CXCR4 of BCSCs and CXCL12 in lung microenvironment may promote the cells homing and metastasis to lung.

Conclusion

As in various types of BC metastases different markers that expressed by the cells and target organ microenvironment are responsible, BCSCs immunophenotyping can be used as target markers to predict the disease prognosis and treatment.

Formulation, development and evaluation of hyaluronic acid-conjugated liposomal nanoparticles loaded with regorafenib and curcumin and their in vitro evaluation on colorectal cancer cell lines

Colorectal cancer is one of the major causes of global cancer, with chemotherapy and radiation therapy being effective but limited due to low specificity. Regorafenib, a multikinase inhibitor, provides hope to patients with metastatic colorectal cancer and was approved by the FDA in 2012. However, due to resistance issues and adverse events, its efficacy is compromised, necessitating further refinement. Meanwhile, curcumin, a compound of turmeric, exhibits anticancer effects through antioxidant and anti-inflammatory actions, induction of the apoptosis, arrest of cell cycle, inhibition of angiogenesis, and modulation of signaling pathways. Unfortunately, its clinical utility is limited by its poor bioavailability, pointing towards innovative drug delivery strategies for enhanced efficacy in colorectal cancer treatment. Hyaluronic acid (HA)-decorated liposomes (LIPO) have been developed to target colorectal cells through an overexpressed CD44 receptor, increasing antitumor and antimetastasis efficacy. This study investigates the possibility of loading curcumin (CUR) or regorafenib (REGO) into a liposomal formulation for passive and HA-actively targeted treatment, evaluating its critical quality attributes (CQA) (size, zeta potential, polydispersity index) and cytotoxic activity in the HT29 colorectal cancer cell line. The average particle size of the plain liposomes and those decorated with HA was 144.00 ± 0.78 nm and 140.77 ± 1.64 nm, respectively. In contrast, curcumin-loaded plain liposomes and HA-decorated liposomes had 140 ± 2.46 nm and 164.53 ± 15.13 nm, respectively. The prepared liposomes had a spherical shape with a narrow size distribution and an acceptable zeta potential of less than -30 mV. The encapsulation efficiency was 99.2 % ± 0.3 and 99.9 ± 0.2 % for HA-decorated and bare regorafenib loaded. The % EE was 98.9 ± 0.2 % and 97.5 ± 0.2 % for bare liposomal nanoparticles loaded with curcumin and coated with curcumin. The IC50 of free REGO, CUR, REGO-LIPO, CUR-LIPO, REGO-LIPO-HA and CUR-LIPO-HA were 20.17 ± 0.78, 64.4 ± 0.33, 224.8 ± 0.06, 49.66 ± 0.22, 73.66 ± 0.6, and 27.86 ± 0.49 µM, respectively. The MTT assay in HT29 cells showed significant cytotoxic activity of the HA-decorated liposomal formulation compared to the base uncoated formulation, indicating that hyaluronic acid-targeted liposomes loaded with regorafenib or curcumin could be a promising targeted formulation against colorectal cancer cells.

Targeted Delivery of Geraniol via Hyaluronic Acid-Conjugation Enhances Its Anti-Tumor Activity Against Prostate Cancer

Background

Targeted delivery systems have been developed to improve cancer treatment by reducing side effects and enhancing drug efficacy. Geraniol, a natural product, has demonstrated promising anti-cancer effects in various cancer types, including prostate cancer, which is the most commonly diagnosed cancer in men. Hyaluronic acid (HA), a natural carrier targeting CD44-positive prostate cancer cells, can be utilized in a targeted delivery system.

Purpose

This study investigated the efficacy of a conjugate of HA and geraniol linked via a disulfide bond linker (HA-SS-Geraniol) in prostate cancer.

Materials and Methods

The cytotoxicity of HA-SS-Geraniol was evaluated on human PC-3 prostate cancer cells. Flow cytometry was used to assess its effects on mitochondrial membrane potential, apoptosis, and cell cycle arrest. Additionally, proteomic analysis was conducted to explore the underlying mechanism of action induced by HA-SS-Geraniol treatment. A subcutaneous xenograft tumor model was established in nude mice to evaluate the toxicity and efficacy of HA-SS-Geraniol in vivo.

Results

The results demonstrated that HA-SS-Geraniol exhibited potent cytotoxicity against PC-3 prostate cancer cells by inducing mitochondrial membrane potential loss and apoptosis in vitro. The proteomic analysis further supported the hypothesis that HA-SS-Geraniol induces cell death through mitochondria-mediated apoptosis, as evidenced by differential protein expression. The in vivo mouse model confirmed the safety of HA-SS-Geraniol and its ability to inhibit tumor growth.

Conclusion

HA-SS-Geraniol holds promise as a biologically safe and potentially effective therapeutic agent for prostate cancer treatment. Its targeted delivery system utilizing HA as a carrier shows potential for improving the efficacy of geraniol in cancer therapy.

Role of the mechanical microenvironment on CD-44 expression of breast adenocarcinoma in response to radiotherapy

The biological effects of ionizing radiation are exploited in the clinical practice of radiotherapy to destroy tumour cells while sparing the surrounding normal tissue. While most of the radiotherapy research focused on DNA damage and repair, recently a great attention is going to cells' interactions with the mechanical microenvironment of both malignant and healthy tissues after exposure. In fact, the stiffness of the extracellular matrix can modify cells' motility and spreading through the modulation of transmembrane proteins and surface receptors' expression, such as CD-44. CD-44 receptor has held much interest also in targeted-therapy due to its affinity with hyaluronic acid, which can be used to functionalize biodegradable nanoparticles loaded with chemotherapy drugs for targeted therapy. We evaluated changes in CD-44 expression in two mammary carcinoma cell lines (MCF10A and MDA-MB-231) after exposure to X-ray (2 or 10 Gy). To explore the role of the mechanical microenvironment, we mimicked tissues' stiffness with polyacrylamide's substrates producing two different elastic modulus values (0.5 and 15 kPa). We measured a dose dependent increase in CD-44 relative expression in tumour cells cultured in a stiffer microenvironment. These findings highlight a crucial connection between the mechanical properties of the cell's surroundings and the post-radiotherapy expression of surface receptors.

Bioproperties, Nanostructured System and Analytical and Bioanalytical Methods for Determination of Rapamycin: A Review

The drug rapamycin is a potent inhibitor of the mTOR complex, acting directly in the signaling cascade of this protein complex; interrupting cell proliferation, in addition to being an extremely efficient immunosuppressant. Currently this drug is being used in several types of cancer. Rapamycin has been a target of great interest within nanomedicine involving nanostructured systems for drug delivery aiming to increase the bioactivity and bioavailability of this drug. In addition, there is a constant search for analytical methods to identify and quantify this drug. Numerous high-performance liquid chromatography analytical techniques, mass spectrometry and immunoassay techniques have been employed efficiently in an attempt to develop increasingly sensitive analytical methods. Thus, this review sought to bring together current and relevant scientific works involving rapamycin and; besides analytical methods more used for quantification of this molecule.

Synergetic Photodynamic-Photothermal-Chemotherapy Dual Targeting Nanoplatform Effective Against Breast Cancer in-Mice Model

Introduction

Combined multimodal therapy for breast cancer is a promising therapeutic approach to increase treatment efficacy and reduce systemic toxicity. The present study aimed to develop a novel multifunctional drug release nanoplatform based on RGD-conjugated hyaluronic acid (HA)-functionalized copper sulfide (CuS) for activatable dual-targeted synergetic therapy against cancer.

Methods

The pH and NIR-responsive dual-targeting nanoplatform CuS:Ce6@HA:DOX@RGD was prepared, characterized, and evaluated for its stability and photodynamic and photothermal properties. The loading and release of the drug were measured at different pH values with or without laser radiation using the dialysis method. The cellular uptake of the platform specifically by the tumor cells treated with different formulations was investigated through fluorescence imaging. The in vitro and in vivo biosafety levels were assessed systematically. Finally, the antitumor efficiencies against breast cancer were assessed via in vitro and in vivo experiments.

Results

The spheroid CuS:Ce6@HA:DOX@RGD exhibited remarkable stability and monodispersity in solution. The photosensitive CuS and Ce6 could simultaneously absorb the near-infrared light efficiently to convert NIR light to fatal heat and to generate reactive oxygen species. The CuS:Ce6@HA:DOX@RGD dissociated under an acid environment, causing the release of DOX into the tumor to accelerate upon laser irradiation. The CuS:Ce6@HA:DOX@RGD exhibited target-specific and strong binding ability via a synergic CD44/αvβ3 receptor-mediated bimodal targeting, which led to improved therapeutic efficacy. The tumor growth was effectively inhibited using synergetic photodynamic/photothermal/chemo therapy. No evident systemic toxicity was noted during treatment.

Conclusion

The newly prepared CuS:Ce6@HA:DOX@RGD has great potential as an activatable theranostic nanoplatform for efficient dual-targeted synergistic therapy against breast cancer.

Metformin and histone deacetylase inhibitor based anti-inflammatory nanoplatform for epithelial-mesenchymal transition suppression and metastatic tumor treatment

Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), a differentiation process with aberrant changes of tumor cells, is identified as an initial and vital procedure for metastatic processes. Inflammation is a significant inducer of EMT and provides an indispensable target for blocking EMT, however, an anti-inflammatory therapeutic with highlighted safety and efficacy is deficient. Metformin is a promising anti-inflammatory agent with low side effects, but tumor monotherapy with an anti-inflammation drug could generate therapy resistance, cell adaptation or even promote tumor development. Combination therapies with various anti-inflammatory mechanisms can be favorable options improving therapeutic effects of metformin, here we develop a tumor targeting hybrid micelle based on metformin and a histone deacetylase inhibitor propofol-docosahexaenoic acid for efficient therapeutic efficacies of anti-inflammatory drugs. Triptolide is further encapsulated in hybrid micelles for orthotopic tumor therapies. The final multifunctional nanoplatforms (HAOPTs) with hyaluronic acid (HA) modification can target tumor efficiently, inhibit tumor cell EMT processes, repress metastasis establishment and suppress metastatic tumor development in a synergistic manner. Collectively, the results afford proof of concept that the tumor targeting anti-inflammatory nanoplatform can provide a potent, safe and clinical translational approach for EMT inhibition and metastatic tumor therapy.

Polymer-based drug delivery systems for anticancer drugs: A systematic review

Recent advances in nanotechnology sciences lead to the development of new treatment approaches for various diseases such as cancer. Nanotechnology advances can potentially minimize the side effects of drugs through the employment of effective and controlled drug delivery systems (DDSs). Polymers are optimal tools providing drug delivery mechanisms through the unique features of pharmacokinetics, circulation time, biocompatibility, and biodegradability. This systematic review aimed to evaluate polymer-based DDSs for anticancer drugs and their various therapeutic applications in cancer treatment. This study was conducted with no time limitation by November 2021. Related articles were collected through a deep search in English and Persian databases of SID, MagIran, Scopus, Web Of Science (WoS), PubMed, Science Direct, and Google Scholar. Keywords included drug delivery system, anticancer agent, polymeric nanostructure-based drug delivery, polymer-based drug delivery, and polymeric system. As the results showed, polymeric nanoparticles (PNPs) have influential roles in cancer treatment than conventional chemotherapy procedures. PNPs can reduce cytotoxicity following chemotherapy drug administration, improve the solubility characteristics of these therapeutic agents and inhibit the rate of tumor growth.

Receptor-Mediated Targeted Delivery of Surface-ModifiedNanomedicine in Breast Cancer: Recent Update and Challenges

Breast cancer therapeutic intervention continues to be ambiguous owing to the lack of strategies for targeted transport and receptor-mediated uptake of drugs by cancer cells. In addition to this, sporadic tumor microenvironment, prominent restrictions with conventional chemotherapy, and multidrug-resistant mechanisms of breast cancer cells possess a big challenge to even otherwise optimal and efficacious breast cancer treatment strategies. Surface-modified nanomedicines can expedite the cellular uptake and delivery of drug-loaded nanoparticulate constructs through binding with specific receptors overexpressed aberrantly on the tumor cell. The present review elucidates the interesting yet challenging concept of targeted delivery approaches by exploiting different types of nanoparticulate systems with multiple targeting ligands to target overexpressed receptors of breast cancer cells. The therapeutic efficacy of these novel approaches in preclinical models is also comprehensively discussed in this review. It is concluded from critical analysis of related literature that insight into the translational gap between laboratories and clinical settings would provide the possible future directions to plug the loopholes in the process of development of these receptor-targeted nanomedicines for the treatment of breast cancer.

Mesoporous silica nanoparticles loaded with fluorescent coumarin-5-fluorouracil conjugates as mitochondrial-targeting theranostic probes for tumor cells

In this study, a nanodrug carrier (mesoporous silica nanoparticle (MSN)-SS-cysteamine hydrochloride (CS)-hyaluronic acid (HA)) for targeted drug delivery was prepared using MSNs, in which HA was used as a targeting ligand and blocking agent to control drug release. Coumarin is a fluorescent molecule that targets mitochondria. Two conjugates (XDS-DJ and 5-FUA-4C-XDS) were synthesized by chemically coupling nitrogen mustard and 5-fluorouracil with coumarin, which was further loaded into MSN-SS-CS-HA nanocarriers. MTT analysis demonstrated that the nanocomposite MSN-SS-CS@5-FUA-4C-XDS/HA displayed stronger cytotoxicity toward HCT-116 cells than HeLa or QSG-7701 cells. Furthermore, MSN-SS-CS@5-FUA-4C-XDS/HA was able to target the mitochondria of HCT-116 cells, causing decreased mitochondrial membrane potential and excessive production of reactive oxygen species. These results indicate that MSN-SS-CS@5-FUA-4C-XDS/HA has the potential to be a nanodrug delivery system for the treatment of colon cancer.

Bioproperties, Nanostructured System and Analytical and Bioanalytical Methods for Determination of Rapamycin: A Review

The drug rapamycin is a potent inhibitor of the mTOR complex, acting directly in the signaling cascade of this protein complex; interrupting cell proliferation, in addition to being an extremely efficient immunosuppressant. Currently this drug is being used in several types of cancer. Rapamycin has been a target of great interest within nanomedicine involving nanostructured systems for drug delivery aiming to increase the bioactivity and bioavailability of this drug. In addition, there is a constant search for analytical methods to identify and quantify this drug. Numerous high-performance liquid chromatography analytical techniques, mass spectrometry and immunoassay techniques have been employed efficiently in an attempt to develop increasingly sensitive analytical methods. Thus, this review sought to bring together current and relevant scientific works involving rapamycin and; besides analytical methods more used for quantification of this molecule.

Nanoparticle-Based Drug Delivery System: A Patient-Friendly Chemotherapy for Oncology

Chemotherapy is widely used to treat cancer. The toxic effect of conventional chemotherapeutic drugs on healthy cells leads to serious toxic and side effects of conventional chemotherapy. The application of nanotechnology in tumor chemotherapy can increase the specificity of anticancer agents, increase the killing effect of tumors, and reduce toxic and side effects. Currently, a variety of formulations based on nanoparticles (NPs) for delivering chemotherapeutic drugs have been put into clinical use, and several others are in the stage of development or clinical trials. In this review, after briefly introducing current cancer chemotherapeutic methods and their limitations, we describe the clinical applications and advantages and disadvantages of several different types of NPs-based chemotherapeutic agents. We have summarized a lot of information in tables and figures related to the delivery of chemotherapeutic drugs based on NPs and the design of NPs with active targeting capabilities.

The Microfluidic Technique and the Manufacturing of Polysaccharide Nanoparticles

The microfluidic technique has emerged as a promising tool to accelerate the clinical translation of nanoparticles, and its application affects several aspects, such as the production of nanoparticles and the in vitro characterization in the microenvironment, mimicking in vivo conditions. This review covers the general aspects of the microfluidic technique and its application in several fields, such as the synthesis, recovering, and samples analysis of nanoparticles, and in vitro characterization and their in vivo application. Among these, advantages in the production of polymeric nanoparticles in a well-controlled, reproducible, and high-throughput manner have been highlighted, and detailed descriptions of microfluidic devices broadly used for the synthesis of polysaccharide nanoparticles have been provided. These nanoparticulate systems have drawn attention as drug delivery vehicles over many years; nevertheless, their synthesis using the microfluidic technique is still largely unexplored. This review deals with the use of the microfluidic technique for the synthesis of polysaccharide nanoparticles; evaluating features of the most studied polysaccharide drug carriers, such as chitosan, hyaluronic acid, and alginate polymers. The critical assessment of the most recent research published in literature allows us to assume that microfluidics will play an important role in the discovery and clinical translation of nanoplatforms.

Breast cancer stem cells: Biology and therapeutic implications

Breast cancer remains to be a dreadful disease even with several advancements in radiation and chemotherapies, owing to the drug resistance and tumor relapse caused by breast cancer stem cells. Cancer stem cells are a minute population of cells of solid tumors which show self-renewal and differentiation properties as well as tumorigenic potential. Several signaling pathways including Notch, Hippo, Wnt and Hedgehog and tumor-stroma exchanges play a critical role in the self-renewal and differentiation of cancer stem cells in breast cancer. Cancer stem cells can grow anchorage-independent manner so they disseminate to different parts of the body to form secondary tumors. Cancer stem cells promote angiogenesis by dedifferentiating to endothelial cells as well as secreting proangiogenic and angiogenic factors. Moreover, multidrug resistance genes and drug efflux transporters expressed in breast cancer stem cells confer resistance to various conventional chemotherapeutic drugs. Indeed, these therapies are recognised to enhance the percent of cancer stem cell population in tumors leading to cancer relapse with increased aggressiveness. Hence, devising the therapeutic interventions to target cancer stem cells would be useful in increasing patients' survival rates. In addition, targeting the self-renewal pathways and tumor-stromal cross-talk helps in eradicating this population. Reversal of the cancer stem cell-mediated drug resistance would increase the sensitivity to various conventional drugs for the effective management of breast cancer. In this review, we have discussed the cancer stem cell origin and their involvement in angiogenesis, metastasis and therapy-resistance. We have also summarized different therapeutic approaches to eradicate the same for the successful treatment of breast cancer.

Hyaluronate/lactoferrin layer-by-layer-coated lipid nanocarriers for targeted co-delivery of rapamycin and berberine to lung carcinoma

The self-tumor targeting polymers, lactoferrin (LF) and hyaluronic acid (HA) were utilized to develop layer-by-layer (LbL) lipid nanoparticles (NPs) for dual delivery of berberine (BER) and rapamycin (RAP) to lung cancer. To control its release from the NPs, BER was hydrophobically ion paired with SLS prior to incorporation into NPs. Spherical HA/LF-LbL-RAP-BER/SLS-NPs 250.5 nm in diameter, with a surface charge of -18.5 mV were successfully elaborated. The NPs exhibited sequential release pattern with faster release of BER followed by controlled release of RAP which enables sensitization of lung tumor cells to the anti-cancer action of RAP. LbL coating of the NPs was found to enhance the drug cytotoxicity against A549 lung cancer cells as augmented by remarkable increase in their cellular internalization through CD44 receptors overexpressed by tumor cells. In vivo studies in lung cancer bearing mice have revealed the superior therapeutic activity of LbL-RAP-BER/SLS-NPs over the free drugs as demonstrated by 88.09% reduction in the average number of microscopic lung foci and 3.1-fold reduction of the angiogenic factor VEGF level compared to positive control. Overall, the developed HA/LF-LbL-coated lipid NPs could be potential carriers for targeted co-delivery of BER and RAP to lung cancer cells.

Nanoplatform Assembled from a CD44-Targeted Prodrug and Smart Liposomes for Dual Targeting of Tumor Microenvironment and Cancer Cells

The tumor microenvironment (TME) plays a critical role in tumor initiation, progression, invasion, and metastasis. Therefore, a therapy that combines chemotherapeutic drugs with a TME modulator could be a promising route for cancer treatment. This paper reports a nanoplatform self-assembled from a hyaluronic acid (HA)-paclitaxel (PTX) (HA-PTX) prodrug and marimastat (MATT)-loaded thermosensitive liposomes (LTSLs) (MATT-LTSLs) for the dual targeting of the TME and cancer cells. Interestingly, the prodrug HA-PTX can self-assemble on both positively and negatively charged liposomes, forming hybrid nanoparticles (HNPs, 100 nm). Triggered by mild hyperthermia, HA-PTX/MATT-LTSLs HNPs rapidly release their payloads into the extracellular environment, and the released HA-PTX quickly enters 4T1 cells through a CD44-HA affinity. The HNPs possess promoted tumor accumulation (1.6-fold), exhibit deep tumor penetration, and significantly inhibit the tumor growth (10-fold), metastasis (100%), and angiogenesis (10-fold). Importantly, by targeting the TME and maintaining its integrity via inhibiting the expression and activity of matrix metalloproteinases (>5-fold), blocking the fibroblast activation by downregulating the TGF-β1 expression (5-fold) and suppressing the degradation of extracellular matrix, the HNPs allow for significant metastasis inhibition. Overall, these findings indicate that a prodrug of an HA-hydrophobic-active compound and liposomes can be self-assembled into a smart nanoplatform for the dual targeting of the TME and tumor cells and efficient combined treatment; additionally, the co-delivery of MATT and HA-PTX with the HNPs is a promising approach for the treatment of metastatic cancer. This study creates opportunities for fabricating multifunctional nanodevices and offers an efficient strategy for disease therapy.

CD44 targeting hyaluronic acid coated lapatinib nanocrystals foster the efficacy against triple-negative breast cancer

Lapatinib (LPT) is an orally administered drug for the treatment of metastatic breast cancer. For expanding its therapeutic horizon, we have prepared its nanocrystals (LPT-NCs) that were subsequently coated with hyaluronic acid (HA) to produce LPT-HA-NCs. The detailed in-vitro and in-vivo investigation of LPT-HA-NCs showed the superior anticancer activity due to active targeting to CD44 receptors than the counterparts LPT-NCs and free LPT. In the triple negative 4T1 cells induced breast tumor bearing female Balb/C mice; LPT-HA-NCs treatment caused significant retardation of tumor growth and overall increase in animal survival probability because of their higher tumor localization, increased residence time. Our findings clearly suggest that HA coated LPT-NCs formulation enhances the activity of LPT against triple negative breast cancer. It exhibited magnificent therapeutic outcome at low dose thus presenting a strategy to reduce dose administrations and minimize dose related toxicity.

Nanoparticles for imaging and treatment of metastatic breast cancer

INTRODUCTION

Metastatic breast cancer is one of the most devastating cancers that have no cure. Many therapeutic and diagnostic strategies have been extensively studied in the past decade. Among these strategies, cancer nanotechnology has emerged as a promising strategy in preclinical studies by enabling early identification of primary tumors and metastases, and by effective killing of cancer cells. Areas covered: This review covers the recent progress made in targeting and imaging of metastatic breast cancer with nanoparticles, and treatment using nanoparticle-enabled chemo-, gene, photothermal- and radio-therapies. This review also discusses recent developments of nanoparticle-enabled stem cell therapy and immunotherapy. Expert opinion: Nanotechnology is expected to play important roles in modern therapy for cancers, including metastatic breast cancer. Nanoparticles are able to target and visualize metastasis in various organs, and deliver therapeutic agents. Through targeting cancer stem cells, nanoparticles are able to treat resistant tumors with minimal toxicity to healthy tissues/organs. Nanoparticles are also able to activate immune cells to eliminate tumors. Owing to their multifunctional, controllable and trackable features, nanotechnology-based imaging and therapy could be a highly potent approach for future cancer research and treatment.

Layer-by-layer-coated lyotropic liquid crystalline nanoparticles for active tumor targeting of rapamycin

Aim: This work spotlights on fabrication of CD44-tropic, layer-by-layer (LbL) coated, liquid crystalline nanoparticles of rapamycin (Rap-LbL-LCNPs) to enhance its water solubility and enable its anticancer use. Methods: Rap-LCNPs were fabricated using hydrotrope method and then coated using LbL self-assembly technique. Results: LbL coating strategy successfully reduced monoolein-induced hemolysis and increased LCNPs serum stability. Lyophilized Rap-LbL-LCNPs were successfully sterilized using γ-radiations. In CD44-overexpressed MDA-MB-231 cells, Rap-LbL-LCNPs demonstrated superior cytotoxicity compared with the nontargeted formulation. Rap-LbL-LCNPs showed 3.35-fold increase in bioavailability compared with free drug. Rap-LbL-LCNPs significantly inhibited tumor growth, enhanced animal survival and reduced nephrotoxic and hyperglycemic effects of Rap. Conclusion: LbL coating strategy of Rap-LCNPs could serve as a promising approach that facilitates Rap use in cancer therapy.

CD44-specific nanoparticles for redox-triggered reactive oxygen species production and doxorubicin release

CD44-specific and redox-responsive nanoparticles were prepared by coating a bioreducible chitosan-based nanoparticles with hyaluronic acid for intracellular glutathione-triggered reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and doxorubicin (DOX) release. Chitosan (CS) was conjugated with a copper chelator, D-penicillamine (D-pen), to obtain a CS-SS-D-pen conjugate through the formation of a disulfide bond. D-pen release from the conjugate was triggered by intracellular glutathione (GSH) via reducing biologically reversible disulfide bonds. Self-assembled CS-SS-D-pen nanoparticles were prepared through ionotropic gelation with tripolyphosphate and subsequently coated with hyaluronic acid (HA). The HA-coated CS-SS-D-pen NPs were reduced by GSH to release free D-pen and trigger ROS production via a series of reactions involving Cu(II)-catalyzed D-pen oxidation and H2O2 generation. DOX was loaded into the HA-coated CS-SS-D-pen NPs by a method involving the complexation of DOX with Cu(II) ions. The Cu(II)-DOX complex-loaded NPs exhibited redox-responsive release properties which accelerated DOX release at a higher glutathione level (10mM). Confocal fluorescence microscopy demonstrated that the Cu(II)-DOX-loaded NPs effectively delivered DOX to human colon adenocarcinoma cells (HT-29) by active targeting via HA-CD44 interactions. Intracellular ROS generated from the HA-coated CS-SS-D-pen NPs sensitized cancer cells to DOX-induced cytotoxicity. In vitro cytotoxicity assays revealed that Cu(II)-DOX-loaded NPs sensitized cells to DOX-induced cytotoxicity in CD44-overexpressing HT-29 cells compared to CD44 low-expressing HCT-15 cells.

STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE

In this manuscript, we develop a CD44-targetable loaded with nanoparticles Cu(II)-DOX complex. The nanoparticles exhibited redox-responsive properties, which triggered reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and accelerated DOX release. The Cu(II)-DOX-loaded nanoparticle sensitized cells to DOX-induced cytotoxicity in CD44-overexpressing HT-29 cells. To our knowledge, this is the first report showing the combination of CD44-targeting and redox-responsive property for triggering ROS production and subsequent drug release. We believe our findings would appeal to the readership of Acta Biomaterialia because the study bring new and interesting ideals in the development of specific and stimuli-responsive nanoparticles as drug carrier for cancer therapy.

Hyaluronic acid-coated liposomes for targeted delivery of paclitaxel, in-vitro characterization and in-vivo evaluation

Breast cancer is the leading cause of cancer death in women. Chemotherapy is regarded as the most essential strategy in inhibiting the proliferation of tumor cells. Paclitaxel is a widely used taxane; however, the side effects of available Cremophor-based formulations and also the limitations of passive targeting uncovered an essential need to develop tumor-specific targeted nanocarriers. A hyaluronic acid targeted liposomal formulation of paclitaxel was prepared in which, hyaluronic acid was electrostatistically attracted to the surface of liposomes. Liposomes, had a particle size of 106.4±3.2nm, a weakly negative zeta potential of -9.7±0.8mV and an acceptable encapsulation efficiency of 92.1±1.7%. The release profile of liposomes in buffer showed that 95% of PTX was released during 40h. Confocal laser scanning microscopy and flow cytometry analysis showed the greater cellular internalization of coumarin-loaded liposomes compared to free coumarin. MTT assay on 4T1 and T47D cells demonstrated the stronger cytotoxic activity of liposomes in comparison to free paclitaxel. Cell cycle analysis showed that cells were mainly blocked at G2/M phases after 48h treatment with liposomes. In vivo real time imaging on 4T1 tumor-bearing mice revealed that the liposomal formulation mainly accumulated in the tumor area. Liposomes also had better antitumor efficacy against Cremophor-based formulation. In conclusion, hyaluronic acid targeted paclitaxel liposome can serve as a promising targeted formulation of paclitaxel for future cancer chemotherapy.

Co-delivery of chemotherapeutics and proteins for synergistic therapy

Combination therapy with chemotherapeutics and protein therapeutics, typically cytokines and antibodies, has been a type of crucial approaches for synergistic cancer treatment. However, conventional approaches by simultaneous administration of free chemotherapeutic drugs and proteins lead to limitations for further optimizing the synergistic effects, due to the distinct in vivo pharmacokinetics and distribution of small drugs and proteins, insufficient tumor selectivity and tumor accumulation, unpredictable drug/protein ratios at tumor sites, short half-lives, and serious systemic adverse effects. Consequently, to obtain optimal synergistic anti-tumor efficacy, considerable efforts have been devoted to develop the co-delivery systems for co-incorporating chemotherapeutics and proteins into a single carrier system and subsequently releasing the dual or multiple payloads at desired target sites in a more controllable manner. The co-delivery systems result in markedly enhanced blood stability and in vivo half-lives of the small drugs and proteins, elevated tumor accumulation, as well as the capability of delivering the multiple agents to the same target sites with rational drug/protein ratios, which may facilitate maximizing the synergistic effects and therefore lead to optimal antitumor efficacy. This review emphasizes the recent advances in the co-delivery systems for chemotherapeutics and proteins, typically cytokines and antibodies, for systemic or localized synergistic cancer treatment. Moreover, the proposed mechanisms responsible for the synergy of chemotherapeutic drugs and proteins are discussed.

Immunosuppressive nano-therapeutic micelles downregulate endothelial cell inflammation and immunogenicity

In this study, we developed a stable, nontoxic novel micelle nanoparticle to attenuate responses of endothelial cell (EC) inflammation when subjected to oxidative stress, such as observed in organ transplantation. Targeted Rapamycin Micelles (TRaM) were synthesized using PEG-PE-amine and N-palmitoyl homocysteine (PHC) with further tailoring of the micelle using targeting peptides (cRGD) and labeling with far-red fluorescent dye for tracking during cellular uptake studies. Our results revealed that the TRaM was approximately 10 nm in diameter and underwent successful internalization in Human Umbilical Vein EC (HUVEC) lines. Uptake efficiency of TRaM nanoparticles was improved with the addition of a targeting moiety. In addition, our TRaM therapy was able to downregulate both mouse cardiac endothelial cell (MCEC) and HUVEC production and release of the pro-inflammatory cytokines, IL-6 and IL-8 in normal oxygen tension and hypoxic conditions. We were also able to demonstrate a dose-dependent uptake of TRaM therapy into biologic tissues ex vivo. Taken together, these data demonstrate the feasibility of targeted drug delivery in transplantation, which has the potential for conferring local immunosuppressive effects without systemic consequences while also dampening endothelial cell injury responses.

The Role of CD44 in Disease Pathophysiology and Targeted Treatment

The cell-surface glycoprotein CD44 is involved in a multitude of important physiological functions including cell proliferation, adhesion, migration, hematopoiesis, and lymphocyte activation. The diverse physiological activity of CD44 is manifested in the pathology of a number of diseases including cancer, arthritis, bacterial and viral infections, interstitial lung disease, vascular disease, and wound healing. This diversity in biological activity is conferred by both a variety of distinct CD44 isoforms generated through complex alternative splicing, posttranslational modifications (e.g., N- and O-glycosylation), interactions with a number of different ligands, and the abundance and spatial distribution of CD44 on the cell surface. The extracellular matrix glycosaminoglycan hyaluronic acid (HA) is the principle ligand of CD44. This review focuses both CD44-hyaluronan dependent and independent CD44 signaling and the role of CD44–HA interaction in various pathophysiologies. The review also discusses recent advances in novel treatment strategies that exploit the CD44–HA interaction either for direct targeting or for drug delivery.