Doxorubicin-loaded dendritic-Fe3O4 supramolecular nanoparticles for magnetic drug targeting and tumor regression in spheroid murine melanoma model

Advancements in nanoparticle-based treatment approaches for skin cancer therapy

Skin cancer has emerged as the fifth most commonly reported cancer in the world, causing a burden on global health and the economy. The enormously rising environmental changes, industrialization, and genetic modification have further exacerbated skin cancer statistics. Current treatment modalities such as surgery, radiotherapy, conventional chemotherapy, targeted therapy, and immunotherapy are facing several issues related to cost, toxicity, and bioavailability thereby leading to declined anti-skin cancer therapeutic efficacy and poor patient compliance. In the context of overcoming this limitation, several nanotechnological advancements have been witnessed so far. Among various nanomaterials, nanoparticles have endowed exorbitant advantages by acting as both therapeutic agents and drug carriers for the remarkable treatment of skin cancer. The small size and large surface area to volume ratio of nanoparticles escalate the skin tumor uptake through their leaky vasculature resulting in enhanced therapeutic efficacy. In this context, the present review provides up to date information about different types and pathology of skin cancer, followed by their current treatment modalities and associated drawbacks. Furthermore, it meticulously discusses the role of numerous inorganic, polymer, and lipid-based nanoparticles in skin cancer therapy with subsequent descriptions of their patents and clinical trials.

Effect of the Synthetic Approach on the Formation and Magnetic Properties of Iron-Based Nanophase in Branched Polyester Polyol Matrix

This article shows the success of using the chemical reduction method, the polyol thermolytic process, the sonochemistry method, and the hybrid sonochemistry/polyol process method to design iron-based magnetically active composite nanomaterials in a hyperbranched polyester polyol matrix. Four samples were obtained and characterized by transmission and scanning electron microscopy, infrared spectroscopy and thermogravimetry. In all cases, the hyperbranched polymer is an excellent stabilizer of the iron and iron oxides nanophase. In addition, during the thermolytic process and hybrid method, the branched polyol exhibits the properties of a good reducing agent. The use of various approaches to the synthesis of iron nanoparticles in a branched polyester polyol matrix makes it possible to control the composition, geometry, dispersity, and size of the iron-based nanophase and to create new promising materials with colloidal stability, low hemolytic activity, and good magnetic properties. The NMR relaxation method proved the possibility of using the obtained composites as tomographic probes.

Trends in iron oxide nanoparticles: a nano-platform for theranostic application in breast cancer

Breast cancer (BC) is the deadliest malignant disorder globally, with a significant mortality rate. The development of tolerance throughout cancer treatment and non-specific targeting limits the drug's response. Currently, nano therapy provides an interdisciplinary area for imaging, diagnosis, and targeted drug delivery for BC. Several overexpressed biomarkers, proteins, and receptors are identified in BC, which can be potentially targeted by using nanomaterial for drug/gene/immune/photo-responsive therapy and bio-imaging. In recent applications, magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (IONs) have shown tremendous attention to the researcher because they combine selective drug delivery and imaging functionalities. IONs can be efficaciously functionalised for potential application in BC therapy and diagnosis. In this review, we explored the current application of IONs in chemotherapeutics delivery, gene delivery, immunotherapy, photo-responsive therapy, and bio-imaging for BC based on their molecular mechanism. In addition, we also highlighted the effect of IONs' size, shape, dimension, and functionalization on BC targeting and imaging. To better comprehend the functionalization potential of IONs, this paper provides an outline of BC cellular development. IONs for BC theranostic are also reviewed based on their clinical significance and future aspects.

Bismuth lipophilic nanoparticles (BisBAL NP) inhibit the growth of tumor cells in a mouse melanoma model

AIM

The objective of this study was to analyze the antitumor effect of BisBAL NP in a mouse melanoma model.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The antitumor activity of BisBAL NP on murine B16-F10 melanoma cells was determined both in vitro (PrestoBlue cell viability assay and Live/Dead fluorescence) and in vivo, in a mouse model, with the following 15-day treatments: BisBAL NP, negative control (PBS), and cell-death control (docetaxel; DTX). Mouse survival and weight, as well as the tumor volume were recorded daily during the in vivo study.

RESULTS

BisBAL NP were homogeneous in size (mean diameter, 14.7 nm) and bismuth content. In vitro, 0.1 mg/mL BisBAL NP inhibited B16-F10 cell growth stronger (88%) than 0.1 mg/mL DTX (82%) (p<0.0001). In vivo, tumors in mice treated with BisBAL NP (50 mg/kg/day) or DTX (10 mg/kg/day) were 76% and 85% smaller than the tumors of negative control mice (p<0.0001). The average weight of mice was 18.1 g and no statistically significant difference was detected among groups during the study. Alopecia was only observed in all DTX-treated mice. The survival rate was 100% for the control and BisBAL NP groups, but one DTX- treated mouse died at the end of the treatment period. The histopathological analysis revealed that exposure to BisBAL NP was cytotoxic for tumor tissue only, without affecting the liver or kidney.

CONCLUSION

BisBAL NP decreased the tumor growing in a mouse melanoma model without secondary effects, constituting an innovative low-cost alternative to treat melanoma.

Phenotypic Switching of B16F10 Melanoma Cells as a Stress Adaptation Response to Fe3O4/Salicylic Acid Nanoparticle Therapy

Melanoma is a melanocyte-derived skin cancer that has a high heterogeneity due to its phenotypic plasticity, a trait that may explain its ability to survive in the case of physical or molecular aggression and to develop resistance to therapy. Therefore, the therapy modulation of phenotypic switching in combination with other treatment modalities could become a common approach in any future therapeutic strategy. In this paper, we used the syngeneic model of B16F10 melanoma implanted in C57BL/6 mice to evaluate the phenotypic changes in melanoma induced by therapy with iron oxide nanoparticles functionalized with salicylic acid (SaIONs). The results of this study showed that the oral administration of the SaIONs aqueous dispersion was followed by phenotypic switching to highly pigmented cells in B16F10 melanoma through a cytotoxicity-induced cell selection mechanism. The hyperpigmentation of melanoma cells by the intra- or extracellular accumulation of melanic pigment deposits was another consequence of the SaIONs therapy. Additional studies are needed to assess the reversibility of SaIONs-induced phenotypic switching and the impact of tumor hyperpigmentation on B16F10 melanoma’s progression and metastasis abilities.

Deferoxamine-Modified Hybrid Materials for Direct Chelation of Fe(III) Ions from Aqueous Solutions and Indication of the Competitiveness of In Vitro Complexing toward a Biological System

Deferoxamine (DFO) is one of the most potent iron ion complexing agent belonging to a class of trihydroxamic acids. The extremely high stability constant of the DFO-Fe complex (log β = 30.6) prompts the use of deferoxamine as a targeted receptor for scavenging Fe(III) ions. The following study aimed at deferoxamine immobilization on three different supports: poly(methyl vinyl ether-alt-maleic anhydride), silica particles, and magnetite nanoparticles, leading to a class of hybrid materials exhibiting effectiveness in ferric ion adsorption. The formed deferoxamine-loaded hybrid materials were characterized with several analytical techniques. Their adsorptive properties toward Fe(III) ions in aqueous samples, including pH-dependence, isothermal, kinetic, and thermodynamic experiments, were investigated. The materials were described with high values of maximal adsorption capacity q _m, which varied between 87.41 and 140.65 mg g^-1, indicating the high adsorptive potential of the DFO-functionalized materials. The adsorption processes were also described as intense, endothermic, and spontaneous. Moreover, an exemplary magnetically active deferoxamine-modified material has been proven for competitive in vitro binding of ferric ions from the biological complex protoporphyrin IX-Fe(III), which may lead to a further examination of the materials' biological or medical applicability.

The Use of Alternative Strategies for Enhanced Nanoparticle Delivery to Solid Tumors

Nanomaterial (NM) delivery to solid tumors has been the focus of intense research for over a decade. Classically, scientists have tried to improve NM delivery by employing passive or active targeting strategies, making use of the so-called enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect. This phenomenon is made possible due to the leaky tumor vasculature through which NMs can leave the bloodstream, traverse through the gaps in the endothelial lining of the vessels, and enter the tumor. Recent studies have shown that despite many efforts to employ the EPR effect, this process remains very poor. Furthermore, the role of the EPR effect has been called into question, where it has been suggested that NMs enter the tumor via active mechanisms and not through the endothelial gaps. In this review, we provide a short overview of the EPR and mechanisms to enhance it, after which we focus on alternative delivery strategies that do not solely rely on EPR in itself but can offer interesting pharmacological, physical, and biological solutions for enhanced delivery. We discuss the strengths and shortcomings of these different strategies and suggest combinatorial approaches as the ideal path forward.

A photoluminescent folic acid-derived carbon dot functionalized magnetic dendrimer as a pH-responsive carrier for targeted doxorubicin delivery

A fluorescent folic acid carbon dot-grafted magnetic dendrimer was synthesized as a potential carrier for targeted delivery of DOX drug in an acidic medium (pH 5). The carrier showed biodegradability, high colloidal stability, and good biocompatibility towards A549 cells.

Magnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticle (IONP) Synthesis to Applications: Present and Future

Iron oxides are chemical compounds which have different polymorphic forms, including γ-Fe2O3 (maghemite), Fe3O4 (magnetite), and FeO (wustite). Among them, the most studied are γ-Fe2O3 and Fe3O4, as they possess extraordinary properties at the nanoscale (such as super paramagnetism, high specific surface area, biocompatible etc.), because at this size scale, the quantum effects affect matter behavior and optical, electrical and magnetic properties. Therefore, in the nanoscale, these materials become ideal for surface functionalization and modification in various applications such as separation techniques, magnetic sorting (cells and other biomolecules etc.), drug delivery, cancer hyperthermia, sensing etc., and also for increased surface area-to-volume ratio, which allows for excellent dispersibility in the solution form. The current methods used are partially and passively mixed reactants, and, thus, every reaction has a different proportion of all factors which causes further difficulties in reproducibility. Direct active and complete mixing and automated approaches could be solutions to this size- and shape-controlled synthesis, playing a key role in its exploitation for scientific or technological purposes. An ideal synthesis method should be able to allow reliable adjustment of parameters and control over the following: fluctuation in temperature; pH, stirring rate; particle distribution; size control; concentration; and control over nanoparticle shape and composition i.e., crystallinity, purity, and rapid screening. Iron oxide nanoparticle (IONP)-based available clinical applications are RNA/DNA extraction and detection of infectious bacteria and viruses. Such technologies are important at POC (point of care) diagnosis. IONPs can play a key role in these perspectives. Although there are various methods for synthesis of IONPs, one of the most crucial goals is to control size and properties with high reproducibility to accomplish successful applications. Using multiple characterization techniques to identify and confirm the oxide phase of iron can provide better characterization capability. It is very important to understand the in-depth IONP formation mechanism, enabling better control over parameters and overall reaction and, by extension, properties of IONPs. This work provides an in-depth overview of different properties, synthesis methods, and mechanisms of iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) formation, and the diverse range of their applications. Different characterization factors and strategies to confirm phase purity in the IONP synthesis field are reviewed. First, properties of IONPs and various synthesis routes with their merits and demerits are described. We also describe different synthesis strategies and formation mechanisms for IONPs such as for: wustite (FeO), hematite (α-Fe2O3), maghemite (ɤ-Fe2O3) and magnetite (Fe3O4). We also describe characterization of these nanoparticles and various applications in detail. In conclusion, we present a detailed overview on the properties, size-controlled synthesis, formation mechanisms and applications of IONPs.

Mitoxantrone-Loaded Nanoparticles for Magnetically Controlled Tumor Therapy-Induction of Tumor Cell Death, Release of Danger Signals and Activation of Immune Cells

Stimulating the patient’s immune system represents a promising therapeutic strategy to fight cancer. However, low immunogenicity of the tumor cells within an immune suppressive milieu often leads to weak anti-tumor immune responses. Additionally, the immune system may be impaired by accompanying aggressive chemotherapies. We show that mitoxantrone, bound to superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) as the transport system, can be magnetically accumulated in adherent HT-29 colon carcinoma cells, thereby inducing the same cell death phenotype as its soluble counterpart, a chemotherapeutic agent and prototypic inductor of immunogenic cell death. The nanoparticle-loaded drug induces cell cycle stop, apoptosis and secondary necrosis in a dose- and time-dependent manner comparable to the free drug. Cell death was accompanied by the release of interleukin-8 and damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) such as HSP70 and ATP, which fostered chemotactic migration of monocytes and maturation of dendritic cells. We furthermore ensured absence of endotoxin contaminations and compatibility with erythrocytes and platelets and investigated the influence on plasma coagulation in vitro. Summarizing, with magnetic enrichment, mitoxantrone can be accumulated at the desired place, sparing healthy peripheral cells and tissues, such as immune cells. Conserving immune competence in cancer patients in the future might allow combined therapeutic approaches with immune therapies (e.g., checkpoint inhibitors).

Regeneration of hyaline cartilage in osteochondral lesion model using L-lysine magnetic nanoparticles labeled mesenchymal stem cells and their in vivo imaging

Treatment of osteochondral defects continues to pose a major challenge for patients and orthopedic surgeons due to the limited healing potential of articular cartilage. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) possess therapeutic potential for the treatment of osteochondral pain and pathology. However, it is necessary to use proper labeling and imaging agent of stem cells that can decipher its role posttransplantation. A major limitation of routinely used contrast agents is signal dilution over a period of time which limits its use for further studies. At the same time, regeneration of fibrocartilage over native hyaline cartilage also limits the use of conventional therapies. The present study evaluates the efficacy of bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) for the treatment of osteochondral defect in rats with the regeneration of hyaline cartilage in situ and in vivo monitoring of the stem cells using L-lysine functionalized magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (lys-IONPs). L-lysine stabilizes the iron oxide nanoparticles, enhances the biocompatibility, and provides functionalities for efficient stem cell labeling. in vitro toxic effects of lys-IONPs on mitochondrial impairment, morphological alterations, and actin cytoskeleton reveal minimum damage to BM-MSCs. Histological data (H and E, Masson's trichrome and immunohistochemistry) describe the early initiation of healing and regeneration of hyaline-like cartilage over fibrocartilage in stem cell treated groups. MR scans demonstrate generation of hypointense signals in lys-IONPs-BMSCs with improved signal intensity and minimum loss over 28 days revealing its use as a long-term stem cell labeling and imaging agent.

Iron Oxide Nanoparticles as Carriers for DOX and Magnetic Hyperthermia after Intratumoral Application into Breast Cancer in Mice: Impact and Future Perspectives

There is still a need for improving the treatment of breast cancer with doxorubicin (DOX). In this paper, we functionalized magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) with DOX and studied the DOX-induced antitumor effects in breast cancer cells (BT474) in the presence of magnetic hyperthermia (43 °C, 1 h). We show that i) intratumoral application of DOX-functionalized MNPs (at least at a concentration of 9.6 nmol DOX/100 mm³ tumor volume) combined with magnetic hyperthermia favors tumor regression in vivo, and there is evidence for an increased effect compared to magnetic hyperthermia alone or to the intratumoral application of free DOX and ii) the presence of the pseudopeptide NucAnt (N6L) on the MNP surface might well be beneficial in its function as carrier for MNP internalization into breast cancer cells in vitro, which could further augment the possibility of the induction of intracellular heating spots and cell death in the future.

Combined chemo-magnetic field-photothermal breast cancer therapy based on porous magnetite nanospheres

The efficacy of different modalities of treating breast cancer is inhibited by several limitations such as off-targeted drug distribution, rapid drug clearance, and drug resistance. To overcome these limitations, we developed Lf-Doxo-PMNSs for combined chemo-MF-PTT. The PMNSs were synthesized by hydrothermal method and their physicochemical properties were examined by FE-SEM, TEM, DLS, TGA, XRD investigations. The cytotoxicity of as-synthesized NPs against 4T1 cells was carried out by MTT and flow cytometry assays. Afterwards, the anti-cancer activities of as-synthesized Lf-Doxo-PMNSs on the tumor status, drug distribution and apoptosis mechanism were evaluated. The anti-cancer assays showed that Lf-Doxo-PMNSs significantly suppressed the cancer cell proliferation and tumor weight by prolonging drug availability and potential drug loading in tumor cells; whereas they showed a minimum cytotoxicity against non-cancerous cells. Likewise, combined chemo-MF-PTT using Lf-Doxo-PMNSs displayed the highest anti-cancer activity followed by combined chemo-PTT and combined chemo-MF therapy based on altering the apoptosis mechanism. Therefore, these results showed that combined chemo-MF-PTT based on Lf-Doxo-PMNSs can be used as a promising therapeutic platform with potential targeted drug delivery and high loading capacity features as well as reducing cancer drug resistance.

Antibacterial magnetic nanoparticles for therapeutics: a review

Along with the extensive range of exotic nanoparticle (NPs) applications, investigation of magnetic NPs (MNPs) in vitro has ushered modern antibacterial studies into an increasingly attractive research area. A great number of microorganisms exist in the size scales from nanometre to micrometre regions. The enormous potential of engineered MNPs in therapeutic procedures against various drug-resistant bacteria has declined the menace of fatal bacterial infections. Many biocompatible MNPs have been introduced that possess remarkable impacts on various bacterial strains. Conventional synthesis methods such as co-precipitation or hydrothermal techniques have been widely adopted in the production of MNPs. The MNPs for antibacterial applications are mainly required to be superparamagnetic, recyclable and biocompatible. To implement novel strategies in developing new generation antimicrobial magnetic nanomaterials, it is essential to obtain a comprehensive preview of recent achievements in synthesis, proposed antibacterial mechanisms and characterisation techniques of these nanomaterials. This review highlights notable aspects of antibacterial activity in engineered MNPs and nanocomposites including their particle properties (size, shape and saturation magnetisation), antibacterial mechanisms, synthesis methods, testing methods, surface modifications and minimum inhibitory concentrations.

A review of small molecules and drug delivery applications using gold and iron nanoparticles

Conventional cancer treatment techniques show several limitations including low or no specificity and consequently a low efficacy in discriminating between cancer cells and healthy cells. Recent nanotechnology developments have introduced smart and novel therapeutic nanomaterials that take advantage of various targeting approaches. The use of nanotechnology in medicine and, more specifically, drug delivery is set to spread even more rapidly than it has over the past two decades. Currently, many nanoparticles (NPs) are under investigation for drug delivery including those for cancer therapy. Targeted nanomaterials bind selectively to cancer cells and greatly affect them with only a minor effect on healthy cells. Gold nanoparticles (Au-NPs), specifically, have been identified as significant candidates for new cancer therapeutic modalities because of their biocompatibility, easy functionalization and fabrication, optical tunable characteristics, and chemophysical stability. In the last decade, there has been significant research on Au-NPs and their biomedical applications. Functionalized Au-NPs represent highly attractive and promising candidates for drug delivery, owing to their unique dimensions, tunable surface functionalities, and controllable drug release. Further, iron oxide NPs due to their "superparamagnetic" properties have been studied and have demonstrated successful employment in numerous applications. In targeted drug delivery systems, drug-loaded iron oxide NPs can accumulate at the tumor site with the aid of an external magnetic field. This can lead to incremental effectiveness in drug release to the tumor site and vanquish cancer cells without harming healthy cells. In order for the application of iron oxide NPs in the human body to be realized, they should be biodegradable and biocompatible to minimize toxicity. This review illustrates recent advances in the field drug and small molecule delivery such as fluorouracil, folic acid, doxorubicin, paclitaxel, and daunorubicin, specifically when using gold and iron oxide NPs as carriers of anticancer therapeutic agents.

Iron Oxide Nanoparticles for Biomedical Applications: A Perspective on Synthesis, Drugs, Antimicrobial Activity, and Toxicity

Medical applications and biotechnological advances, including magnetic resonance imaging, cell separation and detection, tissue repair, magnetic hyperthermia and drug delivery, have strongly benefited from employing iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) due to their remarkable properties, such as superparamagnetism, size and possibility of receiving a biocompatible coating. Ongoing research efforts focus on reducing drug concentration, toxicity, and other side effects, while increasing efficacy of IONPs-based treatments. This review highlights the methods of synthesis and presents the most recent reports in the literature regarding advances in drug delivery using IONPs-based systems, as well as their antimicrobial activity against different microorganisms. Furthermore, the toxicity of IONPs alone and constituting nanosystems is also addressed.