1
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Palenciano AF, González-García C, De Houwer J, Liefooghe B, Brass M. Concurrent response and action effect representations across the somatomotor cortices during novel task preparation. Cortex 2024; 177:150-169. [PMID: 38861776 DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2024.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2024] [Revised: 05/02/2024] [Accepted: 05/15/2024] [Indexed: 06/13/2024]
Abstract
Instructions allow us to fulfill novel and complex tasks on the first try. This skill has been linked to preparatory brain signals that encode upcoming demands in advance, facilitating novel performance. To deepen insight into these processes, we explored whether instructions pre-activated task-relevant motoric and perceptual neural states. Critically, we addressed whether these representations anticipated activity patterns guiding overt sensorimotor processing, which could reflect that internally simulating novel tasks facilitates the preparation. To do so, we collected functional magnetic resonance imaging data while female and male participants encoded and implemented novel stimulus-response associations. Participants also completed localizer tasks designed to isolate the neural representations of the mappings-relevant motor responses, perceptual consequences, and stimulus categories. Using canonical template tracking, we identified whether and where these sensorimotor representations were pre-activated. We found that response-related templates were encoded in advance in regions linked with action control, entailing not only the instructed responses but also their somatosensory consequences. This result was particularly robust in primary motor and somatosensory cortices. While, following our predictions, we found a systematic decrease in the irrelevant stimulus templates' representational strength compared to the relevant ones, this difference was due to below-zero estimates linked to the irrelevant category activity patterns. Overall, our findings reflect that instruction processing relies on the sensorimotor cortices to anticipate motoric and kinesthetic representations of prospective action plans, suggesting the engagement of motor imagery during novel task preparation. More generally, they stress that the somatomotor system could participate with higher-level frontoparietal regions during anticipatory task control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana F Palenciano
- Mind, Brain and Behavior Research Center, University of Granada, Granada, Spain.
| | | | - Jan De Houwer
- Department of Experimental Clinical and Health Psychology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Baptist Liefooghe
- Department of Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Marcel Brass
- Berlin School of Mind and Brain, Department of Psychology, Humboldt University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany; Department of Experimental Psychology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
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2
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Formica S, Palenciano AF, Vermeylen L, Myers NE, Brass M, González-García C. Internal attention modulates the functional state of novel stimulus-response associations in working memory. Cognition 2024; 245:105739. [PMID: 38340528 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2024.105739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2023] [Revised: 01/22/2024] [Accepted: 02/04/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024]
Abstract
Information in working memory (WM) is crucial for guiding behavior. However, not all WM representations are equally relevant simultaneously. Current theoretical frameworks propose a functional dissociation between 'latent' and 'active' states, in which relevant representations are prioritized into an optimal (active) state to face current demands, while relevant information that is not immediately needed is maintained in a dormant (latent) state. In this context, task demands can induce rapid and flexible prioritization of information from latent to active state. Critically, these functional states have been primarily studied using simple visual memories, with attention selecting and prioritizing relevant representations to serve as templates to guide subsequent behavior. It remains unclear whether more complex WM representations, such as novel stimulus-response associations, can also be prioritized into different functional states depending on their task relevance, and if so how these different formats relate to each other. In the present study, we investigated whether novel WM-guided actions can be brought into different functional states depending on current task demands. Our results reveal that planned actions can be flexibly prioritized when needed and show how their functional state modulates their influence on ongoing behavior. Moreover, they suggest the representations of novel actions of different functional states are maintained in WM via a non-orthogonal coding scheme, thus are prone to interference.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Formica
- Berlin School of Mind and Brain, Department of Psychology, Humboldt Universität zu Berlin, Berlin 10117, Germany.
| | - Ana F Palenciano
- Mind, Brain, and Behavior Research Center, University of Granada, Granada 18071, Spain
| | - Luc Vermeylen
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Ghent University, Ghent 9000, Belgium
| | - Nicholas E Myers
- School of Psychology, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Marcel Brass
- Berlin School of Mind and Brain, Department of Psychology, Humboldt Universität zu Berlin, Berlin 10117, Germany
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3
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Longman CS, Milton F, Wills AJ. Transfer of strategic task components across unique tasks that share some common structures. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2024:17470218231221046. [PMID: 38053315 DOI: 10.1177/17470218231221046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/07/2023]
Abstract
Flexible, adaptive behaviour depends on the application of prior learning to novel contexts (transfer). Transfer can take many forms, but the focus of the present study was on "task schemas"-learning strategies that guide the earliest stages of engaging in a novel task. The central aim was to examine the architecture of task schemas and determine whether strategic task components can expedite learning novel tasks that share some structural components with the training tasks. Groups of participants across two experiments were exposed to different training regimes centred around multiple unique tasks that shared some/all/none of the structural task components (the kinds of stimuli, classifications, and/or responses) but none of the surface features (the specific stimuli, classifications, and/or responses) with the test task (a dot-pattern classification task). Initial test performance was improved (to a degree) in all groups relative to a control group whose training did not include any of the structural components relevant to the test task. The strongest evidence of transfer was found in the motoric, perceptual + categorization, and full schema training groups. This observation indicates that training with some (or all) strategic task components expedited learning of a novel task that shared those components. That is, task schemas were found to be componential and were able to expedite learning a novel task where similar (learning) strategies could be applied to specific elements of the test task.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cai S Longman
- University of the West of Scotland, Paisley, UK
- University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
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4
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Van der Biest M, Pedinoff R, Verbruggen F, Brass M, Kuhlen AK. Instructing somebody else to act: motor co-representations in the instructor. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2024; 11:230839. [PMID: 38204793 PMCID: PMC10776225 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.230839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024]
Abstract
Instructions enable humans to perform novel tasks quickly. This is achieved by creating and activating the instruction representation for upcoming tasks, which can then modulate ongoing task behaviour in an almost 'reflexive' manner, an effect called instruction-based reflexivity. While most research has focused on understanding how verbal instructions are represented within the 'instructed' (i.e. the person receiving instructions), here we focus on how the instructor's (i.e. the person giving instructions) behaviour is affected through instructing. In a series of three experiments and one pooled analysis, we extended the classical instruction-based reflexivity paradigm to a novel social variant in which the instructions are given by an instructor (rather than visual computer-generated instructions). We found an instruction-based reflexivity effect for the instructor, that is, the instructor's task performance was better on congruent compared to incongruent trials (i.e. Experiments 1 and 2, pooled analysis). This suggests that the instructor represents the instructions of the instructed in an action-oriented format. However, this did not depend on the specific task of the instructed (i.e. Experiment 1), nor is it exclusively social (i.e. Experiment 3).
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathias Van der Biest
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Rebecca Pedinoff
- Berlin School of Mind and Brain/ Department of Psychology, Humboldt University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Frederick Verbruggen
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Marcel Brass
- Berlin School of Mind and Brain/ Department of Psychology, Humboldt University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Anna K. Kuhlen
- Institute of Psychology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
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5
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Wirth R, Kunde W, Pfister R. Following Affirmative and Negated Rules. Cogn Sci 2023; 47:e13378. [PMID: 37961020 DOI: 10.1111/cogs.13378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Revised: 06/28/2023] [Accepted: 11/02/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023]
Abstract
Rules are often stated in a negated manner ("no trespassing") rather than in an affirmative manner ("stay in your lane"). Here, we build on classic research on negation processing and, using a finger-tracking design on a touchscreen, we show that following negated rather than affirmative rules is harder as indicated by multiple performance measures. Moreover, our results indicate that practice has a surprisingly limited effect on negated rules, which are implemented more quickly with training, but this effect comes at the expense of reduced efficiency. Only affirmative rules are thus put into action efficiently, highlighting the importance of tailoring how rules are communicated to the peculiarities of the human mind.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Wirth
- Department of Psychology, Julius-Maximilians-University of Würzburg
| | - Wilfried Kunde
- Department of Psychology, Julius-Maximilians-University of Würzburg
| | - Roland Pfister
- Department of Psychology, Julius-Maximilians-University of Würzburg
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6
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Baumann AW, Schäfer TAJ, Ruge H. Instructional load induces functional connectivity changes linked to task automaticity and mnemonic preference. Neuroimage 2023:120262. [PMID: 37394046 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2023.120262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2023] [Revised: 06/05/2023] [Accepted: 06/29/2023] [Indexed: 07/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Learning new rules rapidly and effectively via instructions is ubiquitous in our daily lives, yet the underlying cognitive and neural mechanisms are complex. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging we examined the effects of different instructional load conditions (4 vs. 10 stimulus-response rules) on functional couplings during rule implementation (always 4 rules). Focusing on connections of lateral prefrontal cortex (LPFC) regions, the results emphasized an opposing trend of load-related changes in LPFC-seeded couplings. On the one hand, during the low-load condition LPFC regions were more strongly coupled with cortical areas mostly assigned to networks such as the fronto-parietal network and the dorsal attention network. On the other hand, during the high-load condition, the same LPFC areas were more strongly coupled with default mode network areas. These results suggest differences in automated processing evoked by features of the instruction and an enduring response conflict mediated by lingering episodic long-term memory traces when instructional load exceeds working memory capacity limits. The ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (VLPFC) exhibited hemispherical differences regarding whole-brain coupling and practice-related dynamics. Left VLPFC connections showed a persistent load-related effect independent of practice and were associated with 'objective' learning success in overt behavioral performance, consistent with a role in mediating the enduring influence of the initially instructed task rules. Right VLPFC's connections, in turn, were more susceptible to practice-related effects, suggesting a more flexible role possibly related to ongoing rule updating processes throughout rule implementation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Theo A J Schäfer
- Max-Planck-Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Hannes Ruge
- Faculty of Psychology, Technische Universität Dresden, Germany
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7
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Abstract
Flexible behavior requires guidance not only by sensations that are available immediately but also by relevant mental contents carried forward through working memory. Therefore, selective-attention functions that modulate the contents of working memory to guide behavior (inside-out) are just as important as those operating on sensory signals to generate internal contents (outside-in). We review the burgeoning literature on selective attention in the inside-out direction and underscore its functional, flexible, and future-focused nature. We discuss in turn the purpose (why), targets (what), sources (when), and mechanisms (how) of selective attention inside working memory, using visual working memory as a model. We show how the study of internal selective attention brings new insights concerning the core cognitive processes of attention and working memory and how considering selective attention and working memory together paves the way for a rich and integrated understanding of how mind serves behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Freek van Ede
- Institute for Brain and Behavior Amsterdam, and Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands;
| | - Anna C Nobre
- Departments of Experimental Psychology and Psychiatry, Oxford Centre for Human Brain Activity, and Wellcome Centre for Integrative Neuroimaging, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom;
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8
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van 't Wout F, Jarrold C. To What Extent is the Contribution of Language to Learning via Instructions Modulated by the Expression of Autism Traits? J Autism Dev Disord 2023:10.1007/s10803-022-05843-1. [PMID: 36626005 DOI: 10.1007/s10803-022-05843-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/19/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Language plays a fundamental role in enabling flexible, goal-directed behaviour. This study investigated whether the contribution of language to instruction encoding is modulated by the expression of autism traits, as measured by the Autism Spectrum Quotient (ASQ) questionnaire. Participants (N = 108) completed six choice reaction time tasks, with each task consisting of six stimulus-response mappings. During an instruction phase preceding each task, participants performed either a verbal, non-verbal or no distractor task. Participants made more errors in the verbal distractor task condition, but this detrimental effect did not differ significantly between the high (top 33%) and low (bottom 33%) ASQ groups. Hence, the contribution of language to instruction encoding does not appear to be modulated by the expression of autism traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Félice van 't Wout
- University of Exeter, Perry Road, Prince of Wales Road, EX4 4QG, Exeter, UK.
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9
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Palenciano AF, Senoussi M, Formica S, González-García C. Canonical template tracking: Measuring the activation state of specific neural representations. FRONTIERS IN NEUROIMAGING 2023; 1:974927. [PMID: 37555182 PMCID: PMC10406196 DOI: 10.3389/fnimg.2022.974927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2022] [Accepted: 12/13/2022] [Indexed: 08/10/2023]
Abstract
Multivariate analyses of neural data have become increasingly influential in cognitive neuroscience since they allow to address questions about the representational signatures of neurocognitive phenomena. Here, we describe Canonical Template Tracking: a multivariate approach that employs independent localizer tasks to assess the activation state of specific representations during the execution of cognitive paradigms. We illustrate the benefits of this methodology in characterizing the particular content and format of task-induced representations, comparing it with standard (cross-)decoding and representational similarity analyses. Then, we discuss relevant design decisions for experiments using this analysis approach, focusing on the nature of the localizer tasks from which the canonical templates are derived. We further provide a step-by-step tutorial of this method, stressing the relevant analysis choices for functional magnetic resonance imaging and magneto/electroencephalography data. Importantly, we point out the potential pitfalls linked to canonical template tracking implementation and interpretation of the results, together with recommendations to mitigate them. To conclude, we provide some examples from previous literature that highlight the potential of this analysis to address relevant theoretical questions in cognitive neuroscience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana F. Palenciano
- Mind, Brain, and Behavior Research Center, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Mehdi Senoussi
- CLLE Lab, CNRS UMR 5263, University of Toulouse, Toulouse, France
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Silvia Formica
- Department of Psychology, Berlin School of Mind and Brain, Humboldt Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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10
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Damanskyy Y, Martiny-Huenger T, Parks-Stamm EJ. Unintentional response priming from verbal action-effect instructions. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2023; 87:161-175. [PMID: 35366101 PMCID: PMC9873778 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-022-01664-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2021] [Accepted: 02/14/2022] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Action-effect learning is based on a theoretical concept that actions are associated with their perceivable consequences through bidirectional associations. Past research has mostly investigated how these bidirectional associations are formed through actual behavior and perception of the consequences. The present research expands this idea by investigating how verbally formulated action-effect instructions contribute to action-effect learning. In two online experiments (Exp. 1, N = 41, student sample; Exp. 2, N = 349, non-student sample), participants memorized a specific action-effect instruction before completing a speeded categorization task. We assessed the consequences of the instructions by presenting the instructed effect as an irrelevant stimulus in the classification task and compared response errors and response times for instruction-compatible and instruction-incompatible responses. Overall, we found evidence that verbal action-effect instructions led to associations between an action and perception (effect) that are automatically activated upon encountering the previously verbally presented effect. In addition, we discuss preliminary evidence suggesting that the order of the action-effect components plays a role; only instructions in a perception-action order showed the expected effect. The present research contributes evidence to the idea that action-effect learning is not exclusively related to actual behavior but also achievable through verbally formulated instructions, thereby providing a flexible learning mechanism that does not rely on specific actual experiences.
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11
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Kikumoto A, Mayr U, Badre D. The role of conjunctive representations in prioritizing and selecting planned actions. eLife 2022; 11:e80153. [PMID: 36314769 PMCID: PMC9651952 DOI: 10.7554/elife.80153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2022] [Accepted: 10/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
For flexible goal-directed behavior, prioritizing and selecting a specific action among multiple candidates are often important. Working memory has long been assumed to play a role in prioritization and planning, while bridging cross-temporal contingencies during action selection. However, studies of working memory have mostly focused on memory for single components of an action plan, such as a rule or a stimulus, rather than management of all of these elements during planning. Therefore, it is not known how post-encoding prioritization and selection operate on the entire profile of representations for prospective actions. Here, we assessed how such control processes unfold over action representations, highlighting the role of conjunctive representations that nonlinearly integrate task-relevant features during maintenance and prioritization of action plans. For each trial, participants prepared two independent rule-based actions simultaneously, then they were retro-cued to select one as their response. Prior to the start of the trial, one rule-based action was randomly assigned to be high priority by cueing that it was more likely to be tested. We found that both full action plans were maintained as conjunctive representations during action preparation, regardless of priority. However, during output selection, the conjunctive representation of the high-priority action plan was more enhanced and readily selected as an output. Furthermore, the strength of the high-priority conjunctive representation was associated with behavioral interference when the low-priority action was tested. Thus, multiple alternate upcoming actions were maintained as integrated representations and served as the target of post-encoding attentional selection mechanisms to prioritize and select an action from within working memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atsushi Kikumoto
- Department of Cognitive, Linguistic, and Psychological Sciences, Brown UniversityProvidenceUnited States
- RIKEN Center for Brain ScienceWakoJapan
| | - Ulrich Mayr
- Department of Psychology, University of OregonEugeneUnited States
| | - David Badre
- Department of Cognitive, Linguistic, and Psychological Sciences, Brown UniversityProvidenceUnited States
- Carney Institute for Brain Science, Brown UniversityProvidenceUnited States
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12
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Formica S, González-García C, Senoussi M, Marinazzo D, Brass M. Theta-phase connectivity between medial prefrontal and posterior areas underlies novel instructions implementation. eNeuro 2022; 9:ENEURO.0225-22.2022. [PMID: 35868857 PMCID: PMC9374157 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0225-22.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2022] [Accepted: 06/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Implementing novel instructions is a complex and uniquely human cognitive ability, that requires the rapid and flexible conversion of symbolic content into a format that enables the execution of the instructed behavior. Preparing to implement novel instructions, as opposed to their mere maintenance, involves the activation of the instructed motor plans, and the binding of the action information to the specific context in which this should be executed. Recent evidence and prominent computational models suggest that this efficient configuration of the system might involve a central role of frontal theta oscillations in establishing top-down long-range synchronization between distant and task-relevant brain areas. In the present EEG study (human subjects, 30 females, 4 males), we demonstrate that proactively preparing for the implementation of novels instructions, as opposed to their maintenance, involves a strengthened degree of connectivity in the theta frequency range between medial prefrontal and motor/visual areas. Moreover, we replicated previous results showing oscillatory features associated specifically with implementation demands, and extended on them demonstrating the role of theta oscillations in mediating the effect of task demands on behavioral performance. Taken together, these findings support our hypothesis that the modulation of connectivity patterns between frontal and task-relevant posterior brain areas is a core factor in the emergence of a behavior-guiding format from novel instructions.Significance statementEveryday life requires the use and manipulation of currently available information to guide behavior and reach specific goals. In the present study we investigate how the same instructed content elicits different neural activity depending on the task being performed. Crucially, connectivity between medial prefrontal cortex and posterior brain areas is strengthened when novel instructions have to be implemented, rather than simply maintained. This finding suggests that theta oscillations play a role in setting up a dynamic and flexible network of task-relevant regions optimized for the execution of the instructed behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Formica
- Berlin School of Mind and Brain, Department of Psychology, Humboldt Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, 10117, Germany
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Ghent University, Gent, 9000, Belgium
| | - Carlos González-García
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Ghent University, Gent, 9000, Belgium
- Mind, Brain and Behavior Research Center, Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Granada, Granada, 18071, Spain
| | - Mehdi Senoussi
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Ghent University, Gent, 9000, Belgium
| | | | - Marcel Brass
- Berlin School of Mind and Brain, Department of Psychology, Humboldt Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, 10117, Germany
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Ghent University, Gent, 9000, Belgium
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13
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Articulatory suppression during instruction encoding impedes performance in choice reaction time tasks. Psychon Bull Rev 2022; 29:1960-1968. [PMID: 35524010 PMCID: PMC9568437 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-022-02100-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Theories of instruction following assume that language contributes to our ability to understand and implement instructions. The two experiments reported here investigated that assumption. Participants (total N = 96) were required to learn a series of novel tasks, with each task consisting of six arbitrary stimulus-response rules. All tasks were preceded by an instruction phase (a visual depiction of the correct stimulus-response rules for each task), during which participants performed a verbal distractor task (articulatory suppression), a non-verbal distractor task (foot tapping) or no distractor task. Additionally, the duration of the instruction phase was varied so that it was either long (60 s) or short (30 s in Experiment 1, or 10 s in Experiment 2). In both experiments participants made more errors when they had performed articulatory suppression during the instruction interval, compared to the foot tapping and no distractor task conditions. Furthermore, Experiment 2 found that this detrimental effect of articulatory suppression was especially pronounced with a very short instruction duration. These findings demonstrate that language plays a crucial role in the encoding of novel task instructions, especially when instructions are encoded under time pressure.
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14
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Vaidya AR, Badre D. Abstract task representations for inference and control. Trends Cogn Sci 2022; 26:484-498. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2022.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2022] [Revised: 03/18/2022] [Accepted: 03/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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15
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Thériault R, Landry M, Raz A. EXPRESS: The Rubber Hand Illusion: Top-Down Attention Modulates Embodiment. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2022; 75:2129-2148. [PMID: 35073801 PMCID: PMC9516612 DOI: 10.1177/17470218221078858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The Rubber Hand Illusion (RHI) creates distortions of body ownership
through multimodal integration of somatosensory and visual inputs.
This illusion largely rests on bottom-up (automatic multisensory and
perceptual integration) mechanisms. However, the relative contribution
from top-down factors, such as controlled processes involving
attentional regulation, remains unclear. Following previous work that
highlights the putative influence of higher-order cognition in the
RHI, we aimed to further examine how modulations of working memory
load and task instructions—two conditions engaging top-down cognitive
processes—influence the experience of the RHI, as indexed by a number
of psychometric dimensions. Relying on exploratory factor analysis for
assessing this phenomenology within the RHI, our results confirm the
influence of higher-order, top-down mental processes. Whereas task
instruction strongly modulated embodiment of the rubber hand,
cognitive load altered the affective dimension of the RHI. Our
findings corroborate that top-down processes shape the phenomenology
of the RHI and herald new ways to improve experimental control over
the RHI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rémi Thériault
- Department of Psychiatry, McGill University 14845.,Department of Psychology, Université du Québec à Montréal.,Institute for Interdisciplinary Brain and Behavioral Sciences, Chapman University
| | - Mathieu Landry
- Institute for Interdisciplinary Brain and Behavioral Sciences, Chapman University 5620.,Integrated Program in Neuroscience, Montreal Neurological Institute
| | - Amir Raz
- Department of Psychiatry, McGill University 5620.,Institute for Interdisciplinary Brain and Behavioral Sciences, Chapman University.,The Lady Davis Institute at the SMBD Jewish General Hospital
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Newstead S, Lewis J, Roderique-Davies G, Heirene RM, John B. The Paradox of the Frontal Lobe Paradox. A Scoping Review. Front Psychiatry 2022; 13:913230. [PMID: 35935412 PMCID: PMC9353325 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.913230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2022] [Accepted: 06/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The "frontal lobe paradox" highlights a phenomenon in which a subset of patients who possess frontal lobe damage and exhibit marked impairments in everyday life are still able to able to verbally describe a logical course of action relating to a task and perform well in interview and test settings. Such cases pose a challenge with regard to the assessment of mental capacity within clinical settings. Recent position articles state that the frontal lobe paradox is a well-known phenomenon within the field of neuropsychology, anecdotal reports from clinicians in the UK suggest this is not the case. Consequently, we conducted a scoping review to examine the breadth and depth of literature relating to the frontal lobe paradox. Searches were conducted using electronic databases and search engines, which were supplemented with a snowball search of the references used within relevant literature. We identified and reviewed 28 documents specifically related to the frontal lobe paradox. Nearly 50% of all identified academic texts published since 2000 were position articles that cited a handful of case studies published between 1936 and 1986 as evidence for the phenomenon. We also observed instances of articles citing position articles as evidence of the frontal lobe paradox. Overall, our findings indicate a lack of readily accessible research specific to the frontal lobe paradox. In particular, there is a lack of contemporary research specific to the subject and an absence of clarification as to which syndromes and disorders are included within the term.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Newstead
- Addictions Research Group, School of Psychology and Therapeutic Studies, University of South Wales, Pontypridd, United Kingdom
| | - Julia Lewis
- Addictions Research Group, School of Psychology and Therapeutic Studies, University of South Wales, Pontypridd, United Kingdom.,Gwent Specialist Substance Misuse Service, Newport, United Kingdom
| | - Gareth Roderique-Davies
- Addictions Research Group, School of Psychology and Therapeutic Studies, University of South Wales, Pontypridd, United Kingdom
| | - Robert M Heirene
- School of Psychology, College of Health and Human Sciences, Charles Darwin University, Darwin, NT, Australia
| | - Bev John
- Addictions Research Group, School of Psychology and Therapeutic Studies, University of South Wales, Pontypridd, United Kingdom
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17
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The effect of task demands on the neural patterns generated by novel instruction encoding. Cortex 2022; 149:59-72. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2022.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2021] [Revised: 06/15/2021] [Accepted: 01/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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18
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Exploring the Link between Novel Task Proceduralization and Motor Simulation. J Cogn 2021; 4:57. [PMID: 34693200 PMCID: PMC8485871 DOI: 10.5334/joc.190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2021] [Accepted: 09/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Our ability to generate efficient behavior from novel instructions is critical for our adaptation to changing environments. Despite the absence of previous experience, novel instructed content is quickly encoded into an action-based or procedural format, facilitating automatic task processing. In the current work, we investigated the link between proceduralization and motor simulation, specifically, whether the covert activation of the task-relevant responses is used during the assembly of action-based instructions representations. Across three online experiments, we used a concurrent finger-tapping task to block motor simulation during the encoding of novel stimulus-response (S-R) associations. The overlap between the mappings and the motor task at the response level was manipulated. We predicted a greater impairment at mapping implementation in the overlapping condition, where the mappings' relevant response representations were already loaded by the motor demands, and thus, could not be used in the upcoming task simulation. This hypothesis was robustly supported by the three datasets. Nonetheless, the overlapping effect was not modulated by further manipulations of proceduralization-related variables (preparation demands in Exp.2, mapping novelty in Exp.3). Importantly, a fourth control experiment ruled out that our results were driven by alternative accounts as fatigue or negative priming. Overall, we provided strong evidence towards the involvement of motor simulation during anticipatory task reconfiguration. However, this involvement was rather general, and not restricted to novelty scenarios. Finally, these findings can be also integrated into broader models of anticipatory task control, stressing the role of the motor system during preparation.
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19
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Reimer CB, Chen Z, Verbruggen F. Benefits and costs of self-paced preparation of novel task instructions. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2021; 8:210762. [PMID: 34754496 PMCID: PMC8493201 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.210762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2021] [Accepted: 09/13/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Rapidly executing novel instructions is a critical ability. However, it remains unclear whether longer preparation of novel instructions improves performance, and if so, whether this link is modulated by performance benefits and costs of preparation. Regarding the first question, we reanalysed previous data on novel instruction implementation and ran Experiment 1. Experiment 1 consisted of multiple mini-blocks, in which participants prepared four novel stimulus-response (S-R) mappings in a self-paced instruction phase. After participants indicated they were ready, one of the four stimuli was presented and they responded. The reanalysis and Experiment 1 showed that longer preparation indeed led to better performance. To examine if preparation was modulated when the benefits of preparation were reduced, we presented the correct response with the stimulus on some trials in Experiments 2 and 3. Preparation was shorter when the probability that the correct response was presented with the stimulus increased. In Experiment 4, we manipulated the costs of preparation by changing the S-R mappings between the instruction and execution phases on some trials. This had only limited effects on preparation time. In conclusion, self-paced preparation of novel instructions comes with performance benefits and costs, and participants adjust their preparation strategy to the task context.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Zhang Chen
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
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20
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Grünbaum T, Oren F, Kyllingsbæk S. A new cognitive model of long-term memory for intentions. Cognition 2021; 215:104817. [PMID: 34171511 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2021.104817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2020] [Revised: 06/15/2021] [Accepted: 06/17/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
In this paper, we propose a new mathematical model of retrieval of intentions from long-term memory. We model retrieval as a stochastic race between a plurality of potentially relevant intentions stored in long-term memory. Psychological theories are dominated by two opposing conceptions of the role of memory in temporally extended agency - as when a person has to remember to make a phone call in the afternoon because, in the morning, she promised she would do so. According to the Working Memory conception, remembering to make the phone call is explained in terms of the construction and maintenance of intentions in working-memory. According to the Long-Term Memory conception, we should explain the episode in terms of an ability to store intentions in long-term memory. The two conceptions predict different processing profiles. The aim of this paper is to present a new mathematical model of the type of memory mechanism that could realise the long-term memory representations of intentions necessary for the Long-Term Memory conception. We present and illustrate the formal model and propose a new type of experimental paradigm that could allow us to test which of the two conceptions provides the best explanation of the role of memory in temporally extended agency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thor Grünbaum
- Section of Philosophy, University of Copenhagen, Karen Blixens Plads 8, DK-2300 Copenhagen S, Denmark; CoInAct Research Group, University of Copenhagen, Øster Farimagsgade 2A, DK-1353 Copenhagen K, Denmark.
| | - Franziska Oren
- Department of Psychology, University of Copenhagen, Øster Farimagsgade 2A, DK-1353 Copenhagen K, Denmark; CoInAct Research Group, University of Copenhagen, Øster Farimagsgade 2A, DK-1353 Copenhagen K, Denmark
| | - Søren Kyllingsbæk
- Department of Psychology, University of Copenhagen, Øster Farimagsgade 2A, DK-1353 Copenhagen K, Denmark; CoInAct Research Group, University of Copenhagen, Øster Farimagsgade 2A, DK-1353 Copenhagen K, Denmark
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21
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Woods CT, Rudd J, Gray R, Davids K. Enskilment: an Ecological-Anthropological Worldview of Skill, Learning and Education in Sport. SPORTS MEDICINE-OPEN 2021; 7:33. [PMID: 34019196 PMCID: PMC8140044 DOI: 10.1186/s40798-021-00326-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2021] [Accepted: 05/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this paper is to explore a different, more relational worldview of skill, learning and education in sport. To do this, we turn to the work of social anthropologist, Tim Ingold, leaning on the notion of enskilment, which proposes that learning is inseparable from doing and place. From this worldview, what is learned is not an established body of knowledge, transmitted into the mind of a passive recipient from an authorised being, but is a progressively deepening embodied-embedded attentiveness, where an individual learns to self-regulate by becoming more responsive to people and environmental features by ‘looking, listening and feeling’. As we discuss, Ingold’s perspectives on enskilment are rooted in the etymological connotations of education—ex-ducere, which roughly means ‘to lead out’. In applying this notion to sport, we unpack three of its entangled components, taskscapes, guided attention, and wayfinding, detailing the implications of each for the growth of enskilled sports performers. To promote the translation of these ideas, in addition to encouraging their inquiry beyond the scope of what is discussed here, sporting examples are threaded throughout the paper.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carl T Woods
- Institute for Health and Sport, Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia.
| | - James Rudd
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
| | - Rob Gray
- Human Systems Engineering, Arizona State University, Santa Catalina Hall, Mesa, USA
| | - Keith Davids
- Sport & Human Performance Research Group, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, UK
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22
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Monsell S, Graham B. Role of verbal working memory in rapid procedural acquisition of a choice response task. Cognition 2021; 214:104731. [PMID: 33992845 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2021.104731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2020] [Revised: 03/27/2021] [Accepted: 04/08/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
How quickly are instructions for a task translated into an effective task-set? If declarative working memory (dWM) is used to maintain a task's S-R rules until practice compiles them adequately into procedural memory, variables that affect retrieval from dWM should influence task performance while it is still dependent on dWM. Participants were trained on a series of 6-choice RT tasks, with a 1:1 mapping from object pictures to keys. In Experiments 1 and 2, an instruction phase - presentation of the S-R rules one by one -was followed by test trials. The phonological similarity of the objects' names significantly affected performance only during the first few encounters with the stimuli. Serial position effects were also consistent with retrieval from verbal dWM during those early trials. In Experiment 3, instruction onon the S-R rules was omitted, so participants had to learn the S-R mappings by trial and error alone; the effect of phonological similarity lasted longer, but still disappeared after a dozen encounters with each stimulus. Experiment 4 showed that instructions and just four trials of practice per S-R rule were sufficient to form a persisting representation of the S-R rules robust enough to interfere with later acquisition of a competing S-R rule after several minutes spent acquiring other task-sets. An effective and lasting task-set is rapidly compiled into procedural memory through instruction and early feedback; verbal dWM plays little role thereafter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen Monsell
- Psychology, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, UK.
| | - Brontë Graham
- Psychology, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, UK
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23
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Kübler S, Strobach T, Schubert T. The role of working memory for task-order coordination in dual-task situations. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2021; 86:452-473. [PMID: 33884485 PMCID: PMC8885531 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-021-01517-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2020] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Dual-task (DT) situations require task-order coordination processes that schedule the processing of two temporally overlapping tasks. Theories on task-order coordination suggest that these processes rely on order representations that are actively maintained and processed in working memory (WM). Preliminary evidence for this assumption stems from DT situations with variable task order, where repeating task order relative to the preceding trials results in improved performance compared to changing task order, indicating the processing of task-order information in WM between two succeeding trials. We directly tested this assumption by varying WM load during a DT with variable task order. In Experiment 1, WM load was manipulated by varying the number of stimulus–response mappings of the component tasks. In Experiment 2A, WM load was increased by embedding an additional WM updating task in the applied DT. In both experiments, the performance benefit for trials with repeated relative to trials with changed task order was reduced under high compared to low WM load. These results confirm our assumption that the processing of the task-order information relies on WM resources. In Experiment 2B, we tested whether the results of Experiment 2A can be attributed to introducing an additional task per se rather than to increased WM load by introducing an additional task with a low WM load. Importantly, in this experiment, the processing of order information was not affected. In sum, the results of the three experiments indicate that task-order coordination relies on order information which is maintained in an accessible state in WM during DT processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Kübler
- Department of Psychology, Martin-Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Halle, Germany. .,Department of Psychology, Humboldt-Universität Zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany.
| | | | - Torsten Schubert
- Department of Psychology, Martin-Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Halle, Germany.
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24
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Formica S, González-García C, Senoussi M, Brass M. Neural oscillations track the maintenance and proceduralization of novel instructions. Neuroimage 2021; 232:117870. [PMID: 33607280 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.117870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2020] [Revised: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 02/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Humans are capable of flexibly converting symbolic instructions into novel behaviors. Previous evidence and theoretical models suggest that the implementation of a novel instruction requires the reformatting of its declarative content into an action-oriented code optimized for the execution of the instructed behavior. While neuroimaging research focused on identifying the brain areas involved in such a process, the temporal and electrophysiological mechanisms remain poorly understood. These mechanisms, however, can provide information about the specific cognitive processes that characterize the proceduralization of information. In the present study, we recorded EEG activity while we asked participants to either simply maintain declaratively the content of novel S-R mappings or to proactively prepare for their implementation. By means of time-frequency analyses, we isolated the oscillatory features specific to the proceduralization of instructions. Implementation of the instructed mappings elicited stronger theta activity over frontal electrodes and suppression in mu and beta activity over central electrodes. On the contrary, activity in the alpha band, which has been shown to track the attentional deployment to task-relevant items, showed no differences between tasks. Together, these results support the idea that proceduralization of information is characterized by specific component processes such as orchestrating complex task settings and configuring the motor system that are not observed when instructions are held in a declarative format.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Formica
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Ghent University, Belgium.
| | | | - Mehdi Senoussi
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Ghent University, Belgium
| | - Marcel Brass
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Ghent University, Belgium; School of Mind and Brain/Department of Psychology, Humboldt Universität zu Berlin, Germany
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25
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González-García C, Formica S, Wisniewski D, Brass M. Frontoparietal action-oriented codes support novel instruction implementation. Neuroimage 2020; 226:117608. [PMID: 33271270 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.117608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
A key aspect of human cognitive flexibility concerns the ability to convert complex symbolic instructions into novel behaviors. Previous research proposes that this transformation is supported by two neurocognitive states: an initial declarative maintenance of task knowledge, and an implementation state necessary for optimal task execution. Furthermore, current models predict a crucial role of frontal and parietal brain regions in this process. However, whether declarative and procedural signals independently contribute to implementation remains unknown. We report the results of an fMRI experiment in which participants executed novel instructed stimulus-response associations. We then used a pattern-tracking procedure to quantify the contribution of format-unique signals during instruction implementation. This revealed independent procedural and declarative representations of novel S-Rs in frontoparietal areas, prior to execution. Critically, the degree of procedural activation predicted subsequent behavioral performance. Altogether, our results suggest an important contribution of frontoparietal regions to the neural architecture that regulates cognitive flexibility.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Silvia Formica
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Ghent University, Belgium
| | - David Wisniewski
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Ghent University, Belgium
| | - Marcel Brass
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Ghent University, Belgium; Berlin School of Mind and Brain, Department of Psychology, Humboldt University of Berlin, Germany
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26
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Schmidt JR, Liefooghe B, De Houwer J. An Episodic Model of Task Switching Effects: Erasing the Homunculus from Memory. J Cogn 2020; 3:22. [PMID: 32964181 PMCID: PMC7485406 DOI: 10.5334/joc.97] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2019] [Accepted: 03/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The Parallel Episodic Processing (PEP) model is a neural network for simulating human performance in speeded response time tasks. It learns with an exemplar-based memory store and it is capable of modelling findings from various subdomains of cognition. In this paper, we show how the PEP model can be designed to follow instructions (e.g., task rules and goals). The extended PEP model is then used to simulate a number of key findings from the task switching domain. These include the switch cost, task-rule congruency effects, response repetition asymmetries, cue repetition benefits, and the full pattern of means from a recent feature integration decomposition of cued task switching (Schmidt & Liefooghe, 2016). We demonstrate that the PEP model fits the participant data well, that the model does not possess the flexibility to match any pattern of results, and that a number of competing task switching models fail to account for key observations that the PEP model produces naturally. Given the parsimony and unique explanatory power of the episodic account presented here, our results suggest that feature-integration biases have a far greater power in explaining task-switching performance than previously assumed.
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Affiliation(s)
- James R. Schmidt
- LEAD-CNRS UMR 5022, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté (UBFC), FR
- Department of Experimental Clinical and Health Psychology, Ghent University, BE
| | - Baptist Liefooghe
- Department of Experimental Clinical and Health Psychology, Ghent University, BE
- Department of Social, Health and Organizational Psychology, Utrecht University, NL
| | - Jan De Houwer
- Department of Experimental Clinical and Health Psychology, Ghent University, BE
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27
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Schroeter ML, Eickhoff SB, Engel A. From correlational approaches to meta-analytical symptom reading in individual patients: Bilateral lesions in the inferior frontal junction specifically cause dysexecutive syndrome. Cortex 2020; 128:73-87. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2020.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2019] [Revised: 01/17/2020] [Accepted: 03/02/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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28
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Travers E, Fairhurst MT, Deroy O. Racial bias in face perception is sensitive to instructions but not introspection. Conscious Cogn 2020; 83:102952. [PMID: 32505090 DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2020.102952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2019] [Revised: 04/15/2020] [Accepted: 05/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Faces with typically African features are perceived as darker than they really are. We investigated how early in processing the bias emerges, whether participants are aware of it, and whether it can be altered by explicit instructions. We presented pairs of faces sequentially, manipulated the luminance and morphological features of each, and asked participants which was lighter, and how confident they were in their responses. In Experiment 1, pre-response mouse cursor trajectories showed that morphology affected motor output just as early as luminance did. Furthermore, participants were not slower to respond or less confident when morphological cues drove them to give a response that conflicted with the actual luminance of the faces. However, Experiment 2 showed that participants could be instructed to reduce their reliance on morphology, even at early stages of processing. All stimuli used, code to run the experiments reported, raw data, and analyses scripts and their outputs can be found at https://osf.io/brssn.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eoin Travers
- Centre for the Study of the Senses, School of Advanced Study, University of London, UK; Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College London, UK.
| | - Merle T Fairhurst
- Centre for the Study of the Senses, School of Advanced Study, University of London, UK; Munich Center for Neuroscience, Ludwig-Maximilian University, Munich, Germany
| | - Ophelia Deroy
- Centre for the Study of the Senses, School of Advanced Study, University of London, UK; Munich Center for Neuroscience, Ludwig-Maximilian University, Munich, Germany
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29
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Van der Biest M, Cracco E, Wisniewski D, Brass M, González-García C. Investigating the effect of trustworthiness on instruction-based reflexivity. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2020; 207:103085. [PMID: 32416515 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2020.103085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2020] [Revised: 03/27/2020] [Accepted: 04/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Unlike other species, humans are capable of rapidly learning new behavior from a single instruction. While previous research focused on the cognitive processes underlying the rapid, automatic implementation of instructions, the fundamentally social nature of instruction following has remained largely unexplored. Here, we investigated whether instructor trustworthiness modulates instruction implementation using both explicit and reflexive measures. In a first preregistered study, we validated a new paradigm to manipulate the perceived trustworthiness of two different virtual characters and showed that such a manipulation reliably induced implicit associations between the virtual characters and trustworthiness attributes. Moreover, we show that trustworthy instructors are followed more frequently and faster. In two additional preregistered experiments, we tested if trustworthiness towards the instructor influenced the cognitive processes underlying instruction implementation. While we show that verbally conveyed instructions led to automatic instruction implementation, this effect was not modulated by the trustworthiness of the instructor. Thus, we succeeded to design and validate a novel trustworthiness manipulation (Experiment 1) and to create a social variant of the instruction-based reflexivity paradigm (Experiments 2 and 3). However, this instruction-based reflexivity effect was not modulated by the instructors' trustworthiness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathias Van der Biest
- Ghent University, Department of Experimental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Henri Dunantlaan 2, B-9000 Gent, Belgium.
| | - Emiel Cracco
- Ghent University, Department of Experimental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Henri Dunantlaan 2, B-9000 Gent, Belgium.
| | - David Wisniewski
- Ghent University, Department of Experimental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Henri Dunantlaan 2, B-9000 Gent, Belgium
| | - Marcel Brass
- Ghent University, Department of Experimental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Henri Dunantlaan 2, B-9000 Gent, Belgium
| | - Carlos González-García
- Ghent University, Department of Experimental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Henri Dunantlaan 2, B-9000 Gent, Belgium
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30
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Abstract
Working memory bridges perception to action over extended delays, enabling flexible goal-directed behaviour. To date, studies of visual working memory – concerned with detailed visual representations such as shape and colour – have considered visual memory predominantly in the context of visual task demands, such as visual identification and search. Another key purpose of visual working memory is to directly inform and guide upcoming actions. Taking this as a starting point, I review emerging evidence for the pervasive bi-directional links between visual working memory and (planned) action, and discuss these links from the perspective of their common goal of enabling flexible and precise behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Freek van Ede
- Oxford Centre for Human Brain Activity, Wellcome Centre for Integrative Neuroimaging, Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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31
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Formica S, González-García C, Brass M. The effects of declaratively maintaining and proactively proceduralizing novel stimulus-response mappings. Cognition 2020; 201:104295. [PMID: 32334150 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2020.104295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2019] [Revised: 04/01/2020] [Accepted: 04/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Working memory (WM) allows for the maintenance and manipulation of information when carrying out ongoing tasks. Recent models propose that representations in WM can be either in a declarative format (as content of thought) or in a procedural format (in an action-oriented state that drives the cognitive operation to be performed). Current views on the implementation of novel instructions also acknowledge this distinction, assuming these are first encoded as declarative content, and then reformatted into an action-oriented procedural representation upon task demands. Although it is widely accepted that WM has a limited capacity, little is known about the reciprocal costs of maintaining instructions in a declarative format and transforming them in an action code. In a series of three experiments, we asked participants to memorize two or four S-R mappings (i.e., declarative load), and then selected a subset of them by means of a retro-cue to trigger their reformatting into an action-oriented format (i.e., procedural load). We measured the performance in the implementation of the proceduralized mapping and in the declarative recall of the entire set of memorized mappings, to test how the increased load on one component affected the functioning of the other. Our results showed a strong influence of declarative load on the processing of the procedural component, but no effects in the opposite direction. This pattern of results suggests an asymmetry in the costs of maintenance and manipulation in WM, at least when procedural representations cannot be retrieved from long term memory and need to be reformatted online. The available resources seem to be first deployed for the maintenance of all the task-relevant declarative content, and proceduralization takes place to the extent the system can direct attention to the relevant instruction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Formica
- Ghent University, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Department of Experimental Psychology, Henri Dunantlaan 2, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Carlos González-García
- Ghent University, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Department of Experimental Psychology, Henri Dunantlaan 2, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Marcel Brass
- Ghent University, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Department of Experimental Psychology, Henri Dunantlaan 2, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
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32
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Chaudhuri JD. Stimulating Intrinsic Motivation in Millennial Students: A New Generation, a New Approach. ANATOMICAL SCIENCES EDUCATION 2020; 13:250-271. [PMID: 31021529 DOI: 10.1002/ase.1884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2018] [Revised: 04/17/2019] [Accepted: 04/21/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
There has been a fundamental change in health care pedagogy to address the demands and challenges posed by the present generation of millennial students. There is also a growing recognition of the role of intrinsic motivation as a catalyst in a positive learning experience. The term intrinsic motivation refers to energizing behavior that comes from within an individual and develops due to an inherent interest in the activity at hand. However, stimulating intrinsic motivation in the present generation of millennial health care students is a daunting task, considering their diverse and disparate nature. In addition, the inherent generational differences between educators and students, and an increasing emphasis on technological tools have resulted in a dichotomy in the educational environment leading to the development of a greater incidence of burnouts among students. Hence, numerous innovative techniques have been introduced in health care education to enhance the levels of intrinsic motivation in these students. Unfortunately, most of these approaches have only been moderately successful due to their limited ability to address the unique educational expectations of millennial students. The cumulative evidence suggests that specific approaches to stimulate intrinsic motivation should aim at nurturing the learning efforts of students, bridging the generational barriers between educators and students, and ameliorating the stress associated with health care education. Hence, the specific aim of this narrative review is to suggest empirically proven curricular strategies and institutional reforms to enhance intrinsic motivation in health care students belonging to the Millennial Generation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joydeep Dutta Chaudhuri
- School of Occupational Therapy, College of Health Sciences, Husson University, Bangor, Maine
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33
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Pereg M, Meiran N. Power of instructions for task implementation: superiority of explicitly instructed over inferred rules. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2020; 85:1047-1065. [PMID: 32002616 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-020-01293-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2019] [Accepted: 01/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
"Power of instructions" originally referred to automatic response activation associated with instructed rules, but previous examination of the power of instructed rules in actual task implementation has been limited. Typical tasks involve both explicit aspects (e.g., instructed stimulus-response mapping rules) and implied, yet easily inferred aspects (e.g., be ready, attend to error beeps) and it is unknown if inferred aspects also become readily executable like their explicitly instructed counterparts. In each mini-block of our paradigm we introduced a novel two-choice task. In the instructions phase, one stimulus was explicitly mapped to a response; whereas the other stimulus' response mapping had to be inferred. Results show that, in most cases, explicitly instructed rules were implemented more efficiently than inferred rules, but this advantage was observed only in the first trial following instructions (though not in the first implementation of the rules), which suggests that the entire task set was implemented in the first trial. Theoretical implications are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maayan Pereg
- Department of Psychology and Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, 8410501, Beer-Sheva, Israel.
| | - Nachshon Meiran
- Department of Psychology and Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, 8410501, Beer-Sheva, Israel
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The Instructed Task-Switch Evaluation Effect: Is the Instruction to Switch Tasks Sufficient to Dislike Task Switch Cues? J Cogn 2020; 3:1. [PMID: 31934683 PMCID: PMC6952966 DOI: 10.5334/joc.90] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
It is often argued that people dislike situations in which there is conflict requiring cognitive control, possibly because it is effortful to resolve this conflict. In a recent study, Vermeylen, Braem, and Notebaert (2019) provided evidence for this idea in the context of task switching. They observed that participants evaluated cues signaling a task switch more negatively than cues signaling a task repetition in a task switching paradigm. The present study examined whether this evaluative bias can be observed also on the basis of mere instructions. We instructed participants that two non-words would either signal the requirement to switch or to repeat tasks in an upcoming task switching block, which was actually never administered. In Experiment 1, we did not observe more positive implicit or explicit evaluations of the instructed task repetition compared to the task switch cue. In Experiment 2, participants first completed a task switching block in which a first pair of transition cues were used. We then provided task switching instructions that described the signaling function of a second pair of cues, which would be used in an upcoming (but never administered) second task switching block. Participants showed a clear preference for both instructed and experienced task repetition cues on explicit but not on implicit evaluations. Experiment 3 replicated the instructed task-switch evaluation effect on explicit evaluations in the context of prior task experience (but not without prior experience) and extended it to implicit evaluations. We discuss theoretical implications and potential explanations of this task-switch evaluation effect.
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The role of language in novel task learning. Cognition 2020; 194:104036. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2019.104036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2019] [Revised: 07/30/2019] [Accepted: 07/31/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Attentional prioritization reconfigures novel instructions into action-oriented task sets. Cognition 2020; 194:104059. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2019.104059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2019] [Revised: 08/27/2019] [Accepted: 08/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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Wisniewski D, Forstmann B, Brass M. Outcome contingency selectively affects the neural coding of outcomes but not of tasks. Sci Rep 2019; 9:19395. [PMID: 31852993 PMCID: PMC6920387 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-55887-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2019] [Accepted: 11/29/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Value-based decision-making is ubiquitous in every-day life, and critically depends on the contingency between choices and their outcomes. Only if outcomes are contingent on our choices can we make meaningful value-based decisions. Here, we investigate the effect of outcome contingency on the neural coding of rewards and tasks. Participants performed a reversal-learning paradigm in which reward outcomes were contingent on trial-by-trial choices, and performed a ‘free choice’ paradigm in which rewards were random and not contingent on choices. We hypothesized that contingent outcomes enhance the neural coding of rewards and tasks, which was tested using multivariate pattern analysis of fMRI data. Reward outcomes were encoded in a large network including the striatum, dmPFC and parietal cortex, and these representations were indeed amplified for contingent rewards. Tasks were encoded in the dmPFC at the time of decision-making, and in parietal cortex in a subsequent maintenance phase. We found no evidence for contingency-dependent modulations of task signals, demonstrating highly similar coding across contingency conditions. Our findings suggest selective effects of contingency on reward coding only, and further highlight the role of dmPFC and parietal cortex in value-based decision-making, as these were the only regions strongly involved in both reward and task coding.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Wisniewski
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Birte Forstmann
- Integrative Model-Based Cognitive Neuroscience Research Unit, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Marcel Brass
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
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van der Kamp J, Withagen R, Orth D. On the Education About/of Radical Embodied Cognition. Front Psychol 2019; 10:2378. [PMID: 31749732 PMCID: PMC6848271 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2019] [Accepted: 10/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In mainstream or strong university education, the teacher selects and transmits knowledge and skills that students are to acquire and reproduce. Many researchers of radical embodied cognitive science still adhere to this way of teaching, even though this prescriptive pedagogy deeply contrasts with the theoretical underpinnings of their science. In this paper, we search for alternative ways of teaching that are more aligned with the central non-prescriptive and non-representational tenets of radical embodied cognitive science. To this end, we discuss recent views on education by Tim Ingold and Gert Biesta, which are based on Dewey's philosophy of pragmatism and Gibsons' ecological approach. The paper starts by introducing radical embodied cognitive science, particularly as it relates to motor skill learning, one of our prime interests in research and teaching. Next, we provide a synopsis and critique of the still dominant prescriptive and explicating pedagogy of strong education. Following Ingold and Biesta, we search for a weak alternative through a careful consideration of the education of attention and the participating teacher. To illustrate our arguments, we use examples of the first author's teaching about/of motor skill learning. The paper is concluded by briefly considering the implications of weak education for a radical embodied science of motor skill learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- John van der Kamp
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, Netherlands
- Research Center for Exercise, School and Sport, Windesheim University of Applied Sciences, Zwolle, Netherlands
| | - Rob Withagen
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, University Medical Centre Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Dominic Orth
- Department of Health and Medical Sciences, Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
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Swainson R, Prosser L, Karavasilev K, Romanczuk A. The effect of performing versus preparing a task on the subsequent switch cost. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2019; 85:364-383. [PMID: 31624918 PMCID: PMC7851012 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-019-01254-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2019] [Accepted: 10/09/2019] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Behaviour occurs not as isolated incidents, but within an ongoing sequence of events. The task-switching paradigm provides a useful way to investigate the impact of different events upon subsequent performance. An implication of two-stage task-switching models is that preparing a task without performing it might affect task readiness only to a limited extent. However, recent research has surprisingly shown larger switch costs following preparation (“cue-only” trials) than following performance (“completed” trials). We set out to conduct a rigorous comparison of the size of switch costs following cue-only versus completed trials. In Experiments 1 and 2, we controlled the timing between critical trial events. This had the effect of roughly equating, but not reversing, the relative size of switch costs. In Experiment 3, we restructured the paradigm to equate the predictability of cue and target events. Switch costs following cue-only trials were now smaller than those following completed trials. These studies confirm that task preparation alone is sufficient to drive subsequent switch costs. They also indicate that task performance might increase the size of these costs, consistent with two-stage task-switching models. Switch costs appear to be affected by both the timing and predictability of trial events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Swainson
- School of Psychology, University of Aberdeen, William Guild Building, Aberdeen, AB24 3FX, Scotland, UK.
| | - Laura Prosser
- School of Psychology, University of Aberdeen, William Guild Building, Aberdeen, AB24 3FX, Scotland, UK
| | - Kostadin Karavasilev
- School of Psychology, University of Aberdeen, William Guild Building, Aberdeen, AB24 3FX, Scotland, UK
| | - Aleksandra Romanczuk
- School of Psychology, University of Aberdeen, William Guild Building, Aberdeen, AB24 3FX, Scotland, UK
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Palenciano AF, González-García C, Arco JE, Pessoa L, Ruz M. Representational Organization of Novel Task Sets during Proactive Encoding. J Neurosci 2019; 39:8386-8397. [PMID: 31427394 PMCID: PMC6794921 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0725-19.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2019] [Revised: 07/19/2019] [Accepted: 08/13/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent multivariate analyses of brain data have boosted our understanding of the organizational principles that shape neural coding. However, most of this progress has focused on perceptual visual regions (Connolly et al., 2012), whereas far less is known about the organization of more abstract, action-oriented representations. In this study, we focused on humans' remarkable ability to turn novel instructions into actions. While previous research shows that instruction encoding is tightly linked to proactive activations in frontoparietal brain regions, little is known about the structure that orchestrates such anticipatory representation. We collected fMRI data while participants (both males and females) followed novel complex verbal rules that varied across control-related variables (integrating within/across stimuli dimensions, response complexity, target category) and reward expectations. Using representational similarity analysis (Kriegeskorte et al., 2008), we explored where in the brain these variables explained the organization of novel task encoding, and whether motivation modulated these representational spaces. Instruction representations in the lateral PFC were structured by the three control-related variables, whereas intraparietal sulcus encoded response complexity and the fusiform gyrus and precuneus organized its activity according to the relevant stimulus category. Reward exerted a general effect, increasing the representational similarity among different instructions, which was robustly correlated with behavioral improvements. Overall, our results highlight the flexibility of proactive task encoding, governed by distinct representational organizations in specific brain regions. They also stress the variability of motivation-control interactions, which appear to be highly dependent on task attributes, such as complexity or novelty.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT In comparison with other primates, humans display a remarkable success in novel task contexts thanks to our ability to transform instructions into effective actions. This skill is associated with proactive task-set reconfigurations in frontoparietal cortices. It remains yet unknown, however, how the brain encodes in anticipation the flexible, rich repertoire of novel tasks that we can achieve. Here we explored cognitive control and motivation-related variables that might orchestrate the representational space for novel instructions. Our results showed that different dimensions become relevant for task prospective encoding, depending on the brain region, and that the lateral PFC simultaneously organized task representations following different control-related variables. Motivation exerted a general modulation upon this process, diminishing rather than increasing distances among instruction representations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana F Palenciano
- Mind, Brain, and Behavior Research Center, University of Granada, 18011, Granada, Spain
| | | | - Juan E Arco
- Mind, Brain, and Behavior Research Center, University of Granada, 18011, Granada, Spain
| | - Luiz Pessoa
- Psychology Department, University of Maryland 20742
| | - María Ruz
- Mind, Brain, and Behavior Research Center, University of Granada, 18011, Granada, Spain,
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On the Assimilation of Instructions: Stimulus-response Associations are Implemented but not Stimulus-task Associations. J Cogn 2019; 2:20. [PMID: 31517238 PMCID: PMC6676922 DOI: 10.5334/joc.78] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The assimilation of instructions consists of two stages. First, a task model is formed on the basis of instructions. Second, this model is implemented, resulting in highly accessible representations, which enable reflexive behavior that guides the application of instructions. Research frequently demonstrated that instructions can lead to automatic response activation, which indicates that stimulus-response associations can be implemented on the basis of a task model. However, instructions not only indicate how to respond (stimulus-response mappings) but also when (i.e., the conditions under which mappings apply). Accordingly, we tested whether instruction implementation leads both to the activation of stimulus-response associations and of associations between stimuli and the context or task in which the instructed stimulus-response mappings are relevant (i.e., stimulus-task associations). In four experiments, we measured if implementing newly instructed stimulus-response mappings also leads to bivalence costs (i.e., shorter latencies when a stimulus can only occur in one task compared to when it can occur in two tasks), which indicate the presence of stimulus-task associations. We consistently observed automatic response activation on the basis of instructions, but no bivalence costs. A discrepancy thus exists between information conveyed in an instructed task model and the elements of that task model that are implemented. We propose that future research on automatic effects of instructions should broaden its scope and focus both on the formation of an instructed task model and its subsequent implementation.
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The instruction-based congruency effect predicts task execution efficiency: Evidence from inter- and intra-individual differences. Mem Cognit 2019; 47:1582-1591. [PMID: 31215007 DOI: 10.3758/s13421-019-00951-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
In contrast to traditional conflict paradigms, which measure interference from (over)trained associations, recent paradigms have been introduced that investigate automatic interference from newly instructed, but never executed, associations. In these prospective-instruction paradigms, participants receive new task instructions (e.g., if cat press left, if dog press right), but before they have to apply the instructions, they are first presented with another task that measures the automatic interference from the instructed task information. The resulting instruction-based congruency (IBC) effect is assumed to reflect the strength with which instructions are encoded and maintained in view of their future application. If this assumption holds true, the IBC effect should be inversely related to the speed with which the task instructions are eventually executed. To test this hypothesis, we administered a prospective-instruction paradigm to a large sample of 184 participants and observed a negative correlation between the IBC effect and mean reaction time on the instructed task. Similarly, an analysis looking at within-subject variations in the IBC effect and instructed task reaction times showed the same negative relation. Finally, we also present additional analyses suggesting this effect is independent from standard (experience-based) interference effects, and report explorative analyses that tested possible correlations with personality trait questionaires. Together, these findings confirm a key assumption of the IBC effect in prospective-instruction paradigms, and further support the use of this paradigm in instruction research.
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Brass M, Furstenberg A, Mele AR. Why neuroscience does not disprove free will. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2019; 102:251-263. [PMID: 31059730 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.04.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2019] [Revised: 04/30/2019] [Accepted: 04/30/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
While the question whether free will exists or not has concerned philosophers for centuries, empirical research on this question is relatively young. About 35 years ago Benjamin Libet designed an experiment that challenged the common intuition of free will, namely that conscious intentions are causally efficacious. Libet demonstrated that conscious intentions are preceded by a specific pattern of brain activation, suggesting that unconscious processes determine our decisions and we are only retrospectively informed about these decisions. Libet-style experiments have ever since dominated the discourse about the existence of free will and have found their way into the public media. Here we review the most important challenges to the common interpretation of Libet-style tasks and argue that the common interpretation is questionable. Brain activity preceding conscious decisions reflects the decision process rather than its outcome. Furthermore, the decision process is configured by conditional intentions that participants form at the beginning of the experiment. We conclude that Libet-style tasks do not provide a serious challenge to our intuition of free will.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcel Brass
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Ghent University, Henri Dunantlaan 2, Ghent, 9000, Belgium.
| | - Ariel Furstenberg
- Racah Institute of Physics, Edmond and Lily Safra Center for Brain Sciences, The Hebrew University Jerusalem, Edmond J. Safra Campus, Jerusalem, 9190401, Israel.
| | - Alfred R Mele
- Department of Philosophy, Florida State University, 151 Dodd Hall, Tallahassee, 32306-1500, USA.
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Abstract
Instructions are so effective that they can sometimes affect performance beyond the instructed context. Such 'automatic' effects of instructions (AEI) have received much interest recently. It has been argued that AEI are restricted to relatively simple and specific S-R tasks or action plans. The present study put this idea further to the test. In a series of experiments based on the NEXT paradigm (Meiran, Pereg, Kessler, Cole, & Braver, 2015a) we investigated the specificity of AEI. In Experiment 1, we presented category-response instructions instead of S-R instructions. Nevertheless, we observed AEI for novel stimuli from the instructed category (Experiment 1a), and abstractness of the category did not modulate the size of the NEXT effect (Experiment 1b). However, Experiment 2 revealed specificity at the response level: AEI were much smaller in conditions where the instructed GO response is semantically related to, but procedurally different from the required NEXT response, compared to a condition where the NEXT and GO responses were the same. Combined, these findings indicate that AEI can occur when S(C)-R instructions are abstract at the stimulus level, arguing against previous proposals. However, AEI does seem to require specificity at the response level. We discuss implications for recent theories of instruction-based learning and AEI.
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Palenciano AF, González-García C, Arco JE, Ruz M. Transient and Sustained Control Mechanisms Supporting Novel Instructed Behavior. Cereb Cortex 2018; 29:3948-3960. [DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhy273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2018] [Revised: 09/30/2018] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
The success of humans in novel environments is partially supported by our ability to implement new task procedures via instructions. This complex skill has been associated with the activity of control-related brain areas. Current models link fronto-parietal and cingulo-opercular networks with transient and sustained modes of cognitive control, based on observations during repetitive task settings or rest. The current study extends this dual model to novel instructed tasks. We employed a mixed design and an instruction-following task to extract phasic and tonic brain signals associated with the encoding and implementation of novel verbal rules. We also performed a representation similarity analysis to capture consistency in task-set encoding within trial epochs. Our findings show that both networks are involved while following novel instructions: transiently, during the implementation of the instruction, and in a sustained fashion, across novel trials blocks. Moreover, the multivariate results showed that task representations in the cingulo-opercular network were more stable than in the fronto-parietal one. Our data extend the dual model of cognitive control to novel demanding situations, highlighting the high flexibility of control-related regions in adopting different temporal profiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana F Palenciano
- Mind, Brain and Behavior Research Center (CIMCYC), University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | | | - Juan E Arco
- Mind, Brain and Behavior Research Center (CIMCYC), University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - María Ruz
- Mind, Brain and Behavior Research Center (CIMCYC), University of Granada, Granada, Spain
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Whitehead PS, Egner T. Frequency of prospective use modulates instructed task-set interference. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform 2018; 44:1970-1980. [PMID: 30265022 DOI: 10.1037/xhp0000586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies have demonstrated that keeping an instructed task set in working memory (WM) for prospective use can interfere with behavior on an intervening task that employs shared stimuli-the prospective task-set-interference effect. One open question is whether people have strategic control over prospective task-set interference based on their expectations of whether task instructions will have to be implemented or recalled. To answer this question, we conducted two experiments that varied the likelihood with which a set of prospective task instructions would have to be implemented or recalled. Based on the hypothesis that participants are able to strategically modulate the manner in which a prospective task set is encoded in WM, we predicted that, as the frequency of implementing task instructions increased, so too would the magnitude of the prospective task-set-interference effect. We found that task instructions held in WM caused significant task-set interference, even in mostly recall conditions, but-crucially-that this interference effect scaled positively with the likelihood of having to implement the prospective set. These data suggest that task instructions are obligatorily encoded as a procedural task set, but that the degree to which this set impinges on ongoing stimulus processing is subject to some strategic control, possibly via modulation of the associations between declarative and procedural WM contents. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).
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Bourguignon NJ, Braem S, Hartstra E, De Houwer J, Brass M. Encoding of Novel Verbal Instructions for Prospective Action in the Lateral Prefrontal Cortex: Evidence from Univariate and Multivariate Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Analysis. J Cogn Neurosci 2018; 30:1170-1184. [DOI: 10.1162/jocn_a_01270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Verbal instructions are central to humans' capacity to learn new behaviors with minimal training, but the neurocognitive mechanisms involved in verbally instructed behaviors remain puzzling. Recent functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) evidence suggests that the right middle frontal gyrus and dorsal premotor cortex (rMFG-dPMC) supports the translation of symbolic stimulus–response mappings into sensorimotor representations. Here, we set out to (1) replicate this finding, (2) investigate whether this region's involvement is specific to novel (vs. trained) instructions, and (3) study whether rMFG-dPMC also shows differences in its (voxel) pattern response indicative of general cognitive processes of instruction implementation. Participants were shown instructions, which they either had to perform later or merely memorize. Orthogonal to this manipulation, the instructions were either entirely novel or had been trained before the fMRI session. Results replicate higher rMFG-dPMC activation levels during instruction implementation versus memorization and show how this difference is restricted to novel, but not trained, instruction presentations. Pattern similarity analyses at the voxel level further reveal more consistent neural pattern responses in rMFG-dPMC during the implementation of novel versus trained instructions. In fact, this more consistent neural pattern response seemed to be specific to the first instruction presentation and disappeared after the instruction had been applied once. These results further support a role of rMFG-dPMC in the implementation of novel task instructions and highlight potentially important differences in studying this region's gross activation levels versus (the consistency of) its response patterns.
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Scheil J, Liefooghe B. Motor command inhibition and the representation of response mode during motor imagery. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2018; 186:54-62. [PMID: 29698848 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2018.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2017] [Revised: 04/17/2018] [Accepted: 04/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Research on motor imagery proposes that overt actions during motor imagery can be avoided by proactively signaling subthreshold motor commands to the effectors and by invoking motor-command inhibition. A recent study by Rieger, Dahm, and Koch (2017) found evidence in support of motor command inhibition, which indicates that MI cannot be completed on the sole basis of subthreshold motor commands. However, during motor imagery, participants know in advance when a covert response is to be made and it is thus surprising such additional motor-command inhibition is needed. Accordingly, the present study tested whether the demand to perform an action covertly can be proactively integrated by investigating the formation of task-specific action rules during motor imagery. These task-specific action rules relate the decision rules of a task to the mode in which these rules need to be applied (e.g., if smaller than 5, press the left key covertly). To this end, an experiment was designed in which participants had to switch between two numerical judgement tasks and two response modes: covert responding and overt responding. First, we observed markers of motor command inhibition and replicated the findings of Rieger and colleagues. Second, we observed evidence suggesting that task-specific action rules are created for the overt response mode (e.g., if smaller than 5, press the left key). In contrast, for the covert response mode, no task-specific action rules are formed and decision rules do not include mode-specific information (e.g., if smaller than 5, left).
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Liefooghe B, Braem S, Meiran N. The implications and applications of learning via instructions. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2018; 184:1-3. [PMID: 29033028 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2017.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2017] [Accepted: 09/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Whereas psychology knows a long tradition of studies that focused on the role of practice and training in acquiring new skills or knowledge, systematic studies into learning via instructions remain relatively scarce. This is surprising given the tremendous influence instructions have on human behavior and cognition. In recent years, however, a (re)new(ed) interest into learning via instructions resulted in new paradigms and findings that can inspire future research in this understudied domain. We offer a brief overview of the articles in this special issue, which present some of the latest empirical developments dedicated to unraveling the implications and applications of learning via instructions. The special issue offers insights into the dynamics underlying the assimilation of new instructions and highlights the strengths and limitations of what can be achieved on the basis of instructions. Furthermore, the different studies showcase various examples of recent methodological advances in testing the effects of instructions. Finally, this special issue shows how different fields in psychology share similar questions on the role of instructions in human behavior, suggesting that this topic should no longer be considered as a subsidiary of these different fields, but as a research field on its own.
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