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Dudas A, Nakahara TS, Pellissier LP, Chamero P. Parenting behaviors in mice: Olfactory mechanisms and features in models of autism spectrum disorders. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2024; 161:105686. [PMID: 38657845 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Revised: 03/24/2024] [Accepted: 04/20/2024] [Indexed: 04/26/2024]
Abstract
Rodents, along with numerous other mammals, heavily depend on olfactory cues to navigate their social interactions. Processing of olfactory sensory inputs is mediated by conserved brain circuits that ultimately trigger social behaviors, such as social interactions and parental care. Although innate, parenting is influenced by internal states, social experience, genetics, and the environment, and any significant disruption of these factors can impact the social circuits. Here, we review the molecular mechanisms and social circuits from the olfactory epithelium to central processing that initiate parental behaviors and their dysregulations that may contribute to the social impairments in mouse models of autism spectrum disorders (ASD). We discuss recent advances of the crucial role of olfaction in parental care, its consequences for social interactions, and the reciprocal influence on social interaction impairments in mouse models of ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Dudas
- Team biology of GPCR Signaling systems (BIOS), CNRS, INRAE, University of Tours, PRC, Nouzilly F-37380, France
| | - Thiago S Nakahara
- Team Neuroendocrine Integration of Reproduction and Behavior (INERC), CNRS, INRAE, University of Tours, PRC, Nouzilly F-37380, France
| | - Lucie P Pellissier
- Team biology of GPCR Signaling systems (BIOS), CNRS, INRAE, University of Tours, PRC, Nouzilly F-37380, France.
| | - Pablo Chamero
- Team Neuroendocrine Integration of Reproduction and Behavior (INERC), CNRS, INRAE, University of Tours, PRC, Nouzilly F-37380, France.
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2
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Goodkey K, Wischmeijer A, Perrin L, Watson AES, Qureshi L, Cordelli DM, Toni F, Gnazzo M, Benedicenti F, Elmaleh-Bergès M, Low KJ, Voronova A. Olfactory bulb anomalies in KBG syndrome mouse model and patients. BMC Med 2024; 22:158. [PMID: 38616269 PMCID: PMC11017579 DOI: 10.1186/s12916-024-03363-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2023] [Accepted: 03/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/16/2024] Open
Abstract
ANKRD11 (ankyrin repeat domain 11) is a chromatin regulator and the only gene associated with KBG syndrome, a rare neurodevelopmental disorder. We have previously shown that Ankrd11 regulates murine embryonic cortical neurogenesis. Here, we show a novel olfactory bulb phenotype in a KBG syndrome mouse model and two diagnosed patients. Conditional knockout of Ankrd11 in murine embryonic neural stem cells leads to aberrant postnatal olfactory bulb development and reduced size due to reduction of the olfactory bulb granule cell layer. We further show that the rostral migratory stream has incomplete migration of neuroblasts, reduced cell proliferation as well as aberrant differentiation of neurons. This leads to reduced neuroblasts and neurons in the olfactory bulb granule cell layer. In vitro, Ankrd11-deficient neural stem cells from the postnatal subventricular zone display reduced migration, proliferation, and neurogenesis. Finally, we describe two clinically and molecularly confirmed KBG syndrome patients with anosmia and olfactory bulb and groove hypo-dysgenesis/agenesis. Our report provides evidence that Ankrd11 is a novel regulator of olfactory bulb development and neuroblast migration. Moreover, our study highlights a novel clinical sign of KBG syndrome linked to ANKRD11 perturbations in mice and humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kara Goodkey
- Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine & Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2H7, Canada
- Women and Children's Health Research Institute, University of Alberta, 5-083 Edmonton Clinic Health Academy, Edmonton, AB, T6G 1C9, Canada
| | - Anita Wischmeijer
- Clinical Genetics Service and Coordination Center for Rare Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Regional Hospital of Bolzano, Bolzano, Italy
| | | | - Adrianne E S Watson
- Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine & Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2H7, Canada
- Women and Children's Health Research Institute, University of Alberta, 5-083 Edmonton Clinic Health Academy, Edmonton, AB, T6G 1C9, Canada
| | - Leenah Qureshi
- Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine & Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2H7, Canada
| | - Duccio Maria Cordelli
- IRCCS Istituto Delle Scienze Neurologiche Di Bologna, UOC Neuropsichiatria Dell'età Pediatrica, Bologna, Italy
| | - Francesco Toni
- IRCCS Istituto Delle Scienze Neurologiche Di Bologna, Programma Di Neuroradiologia Con Tecniche Ad Elevata Complessità (PNTEC), Bologna, Italy
| | - Maria Gnazzo
- Laboratory of Medical Genetics, Translational Cytogenomics Research Unit, Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, IRCCS, 00165, Rome, Italy
| | - Francesco Benedicenti
- Clinical Genetics Service and Coordination Center for Rare Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Regional Hospital of Bolzano, Bolzano, Italy
| | | | - Karen J Low
- Department of Academic Child Health, Bristol Medical School, Population Health Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
- Clinical Genetics Service, St. Michaels Hospital, Bristol, UK
| | - Anastassia Voronova
- Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine & Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2H7, Canada.
- Women and Children's Health Research Institute, University of Alberta, 5-083 Edmonton Clinic Health Academy, Edmonton, AB, T6G 1C9, Canada.
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine & Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2H7, Canada.
- Faculty of Medicine & Dentistry, Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2E1, Canada.
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Sweat SC, Cheetham CEJ. Deficits in olfactory system neurogenesis in neurodevelopmental disorders. Genesis 2024; 62:e23590. [PMID: 38490949 PMCID: PMC10990073 DOI: 10.1002/dvg.23590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2023] [Revised: 02/07/2024] [Accepted: 02/26/2024] [Indexed: 03/17/2024]
Abstract
The role of neurogenesis in neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) merits much attention. The complex process by which stem cells produce daughter cells that in turn differentiate into neurons, migrate various distances, and form synaptic connections that are then refined by neuronal activity or experience is integral to the development of the nervous system. Given the continued postnatal neurogenesis that occurs in the mammalian olfactory system, it provides an ideal model for understanding how disruptions in distinct stages of neurogenesis contribute to the pathophysiology of various NDDs. This review summarizes and discusses what is currently known about the disruption of neurogenesis within the olfactory system as it pertains to attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, autism spectrum disorder, Down syndrome, Fragile X syndrome, and Rett syndrome. Studies included in this review used either human subjects, mouse models, or Drosophila models, and lay a compelling foundation for continued investigation of NDDs by utilizing the olfactory system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean C Sweat
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Claire E J Cheetham
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
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Lipp HP, Krackow S, Turkes E, Benner S, Endo T, Russig H. IntelliCage: the development and perspectives of a mouse- and user-friendly automated behavioral test system. Front Behav Neurosci 2024; 17:1270538. [PMID: 38235003 PMCID: PMC10793385 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2023.1270538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2023] [Accepted: 10/18/2023] [Indexed: 01/19/2024] Open
Abstract
IntelliCage for mice is a rodent home-cage equipped with four corner structures harboring symmetrical double panels for operant conditioning at each of the two sides, either by reward (access to water) or by aversion (non-painful stimuli: air-puffs, LED lights). Corner visits, nose-pokes and actual licks at bottle-nipples are recorded individually using subcutaneously implanted transponders for RFID identification of up to 16 adult mice housed in the same home-cage. This allows for recording individual in-cage activity of mice and applying reward/punishment operant conditioning schemes in corners using workflows designed on a versatile graphic user interface. IntelliCage development had four roots: (i) dissatisfaction with standard approaches for analyzing mouse behavior, including standardization and reproducibility issues, (ii) response to handling and housing animal welfare issues, (iii) the increasing number of mouse models had produced a high work burden on classic manual behavioral phenotyping of single mice. and (iv), studies of transponder-chipped mice in outdoor settings revealed clear genetic behavioral differences in mouse models corresponding to those observed by classic testing in the laboratory. The latter observations were important for the development of home-cage testing in social groups, because they contradicted the traditional belief that animals must be tested under social isolation to prevent disturbance by other group members. The use of IntelliCages reduced indeed the amount of classic testing remarkably, while its flexibility was proved in a wide range of applications worldwide including transcontinental parallel testing. Essentially, two lines of testing emerged: sophisticated analysis of spontaneous behavior in the IntelliCage for screening of new genetic models, and hypothesis testing in many fields of behavioral neuroscience. Upcoming developments of the IntelliCage aim at improved stimulus presentation in the learning corners and videotracking of social interactions within the IntelliCage. Its main advantages are (i) that mice live in social context and are not stressfully handled for experiments, (ii) that studies are not restricted in time and can run in absence of humans, (iii) that it increases reproducibility of behavioral phenotyping worldwide, and (iv) that the industrial standardization of the cage permits retrospective data analysis with new statistical tools even after many years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans-Peter Lipp
- Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Evolutionary Medicine, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Sven Krackow
- Institute of Pathology and Molecular Pathology, University Hospital Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Emir Turkes
- Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Seico Benner
- Center for Health and Environmental Risk Research, National Institute for Environmental Studies, Ibaraki, Japan
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Dias BG. Legacies of salient environmental experiences-insights from chemosensation. Chem Senses 2024; 49:bjae002. [PMID: 38219073 PMCID: PMC10825851 DOI: 10.1093/chemse/bjae002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2023] [Indexed: 01/15/2024] Open
Abstract
Evidence for parental environments profoundly influencing the physiology, biology, and neurobiology of future generations has been accumulating in the literature. Recent efforts to understand this phenomenon and its underlying mechanisms have sought to use species like rodents and insects to model multi-generational legacies of parental experiences like stress and nutritional exposures. From these studies, we have come to appreciate that parental exposure to salient environmental experiences impacts the cadence of brain development, hormonal responses to stress, and the expression of genes that govern cellular responses to stress in offspring. Recent studies using chemosensory exposure have emerged as a powerful tool to shed new light on how future generations come to be influenced by environments to which parents are exposed. With a specific focus on studies that have leveraged such use of salient chemosensory experiences, this review synthesizes our current understanding of the concept, causes, and consequences of the inheritance of chemosensory legacies by future generations and how this field of inquiry informs the larger picture of how parental experiences can influence offspring biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian G Dias
- Developmental Neuroscience and Neurogenetics Program, The Saban Research Institute, Los Angeles, CA, United States
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Children’s Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
- Department of Pediatrics, Keck School of Medicine of USC, Los Angeles, CA, United States
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Lyons-Warren AM, Tantry EK, Moss EH, Kochukov MY, Belfort BDW, Ortiz-Guzman J, Freyberg Z, Arenkiel BR. Co-transmitting interneurons in the mouse olfactory bulb regulate olfactory detection and discrimination. Cell Rep 2023; 42:113471. [PMID: 37980561 PMCID: PMC10872518 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2023.113471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2023] [Revised: 10/20/2023] [Accepted: 11/03/2023] [Indexed: 11/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Co-transmission of multiple neurotransmitters from a single neuron increases the complexity of signaling information within defined neuronal circuits. Superficial short-axon cells in the olfactory bulb release both dopamine and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), yet the specific targets of these neurotransmitters and their respective roles in olfaction have remained unknown. Here, we implement intersectional genetics in mice to selectively block GABA or dopamine release from superficial short-axon cells to identify their distinct cellular targets, impact on circuit function, and behavioral contribution of each neurotransmitter toward olfactory behaviors. We provide functional and anatomical evidence for divergent superficial short-axon cell signaling onto downstream neurons to shape patterns of mitral cell firing that contribute to olfactory-related behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ariel M Lyons-Warren
- Department of Pediatrics, Section of Pediatric Neurology and Developmental Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, 1250 Moursund Street, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Evelyne K Tantry
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, 1250 Moursund Street, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Elizabeth H Moss
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, 1250 Moursund Street, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Mikhail Y Kochukov
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, 1250 Moursund Street, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Benjamin D W Belfort
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, 1250 Moursund Street, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Medical Scientist Training Program, Baylor College of Medicine, 1 Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Joshua Ortiz-Guzman
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, 1250 Moursund Street, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Zachary Freyberg
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA; Department of Cell Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Benjamin R Arenkiel
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, 1250 Moursund Street, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
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Petitpierre G, Dind J, De Blasio C. Olfactive short-term habituation in children and young people with profound intellectual and multiple disabilities. RESEARCH IN DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES 2023; 140:104569. [PMID: 37473626 DOI: 10.1016/j.ridd.2023.104569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2022] [Revised: 06/21/2023] [Accepted: 07/04/2023] [Indexed: 07/22/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Despite its importance for learning, the existence of the habituation process and its characteristics in people with profound intellectual and multiple disabilities (PIMD) remains understudied. Habituation is, however, considered the simplest form of learning, and a significant neuroadaptive mechanism. Even though habituation occurs in all sensory modalities, the olfactory system is where it manifests itself very visibly. AIM This study explores the olfactory short-term habituation abilities of children and young people with PIMD. METHOD Twenty children and young people with PIMD (7-18 years) were presented six times successively with a 30-second habituating olfactory stimulus. The interstimulus interval was 15 s. A new odour was presented on the seventh trial. The scenario was carried out two times with two pairs of stimuli. The participants' head alignment duration on the odour was measured. RESULTS Seventeen participants out of 20 manifested a decline in response, which reached about 50 % between the first and sixth presentation of the habituation odour. All habituators also showed a distinctive response when exposed to a novel odour. The participants who did not habituate showed a strong, non-fluctuating response to the stimulus throughout the presentations. Three participants only habituated to one of the two habituation stimuli. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS The results raise theoretical, scientific, and practical issues. They question the factors explaining olfactory habituation mechanisms, namely the stimulus properties and the severity of impairment, reveal the need for points of comparison for interpreting this population's responses, and point to the consequences of stimuli repetition and or variety in therapeutic or educational settings for these individuals' learning and cognitive functioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geneviève Petitpierre
- Université de Fribourg, Département de Pédagogie spécialisée, R. St Pierre Canisius 21, Fribourg CH-1700, Switzerland.
| | - Juliane Dind
- Université de Fribourg, Département de Pédagogie spécialisée, R. St Pierre Canisius 21, Fribourg CH-1700, Switzerland
| | - Catherine De Blasio
- Université de Fribourg, Département de Pédagogie spécialisée, R. St Pierre Canisius 21, Fribourg CH-1700, Switzerland
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Zayan U, Caccialupi Da Prato L, Muscatelli F, Matarazzo V. Modulation of the thermosensory system by oxytocin. Front Mol Neurosci 2023; 15:1075305. [PMID: 36698777 PMCID: PMC9868264 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2022.1075305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2022] [Accepted: 12/06/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Oxytocin (OT) is a neurohormone involved early in neurodevelopment and is implicated in multiple functions, including sensory modulation. Evidence of such modulation has been observed for different sensory modalities in both healthy and pathological conditions. This review summarizes the pleiotropic modulation that OT can exercise on an often overlooked sensory system: thermosensation. This system allows us to sense temperature variations and compensate for the variation to maintain a stable core body temperature. Oxytocin modulates autonomic and behavioral mechanisms underlying thermoregulation at both central and peripheral levels. Hyposensitivity or hypersensitivity for different sensory modalities, including thermosensitivity, is a common feature in autism spectrum disorder (ASD), recapitulated in several ASD mouse models. These sensory dysregulations occur early in post-natal development and are correlated with dysregulation of the oxytocinergic system. In this study, we discussed the potential link between thermosensory atypia and the dysregulation of the oxytocinergic system in ASD.
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Petitpierre G, Dind J, De Blasio C, Gremaud G. Odour detection in children and young people with profound intellectual and multiple disabilities. JOURNAL OF APPLIED RESEARCH IN INTELLECTUAL DISABILITIES 2021; 35:519-530. [PMID: 34859541 PMCID: PMC9299868 DOI: 10.1111/jar.12963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2021] [Revised: 11/10/2021] [Accepted: 11/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Olfaction provides information on very important dimensions of the environment; however the olfactory abilities of children and young people with profound intellectual and multiple disabilities (PIMD) remain largely unknown. This within-subjects study explores olfactory detection abilities in children with PIMD. METHOD Twenty-two children and young people with PIMD (7-18 years) were presented with 18 medium intensity odours and an odourless control stimulus. Odorants were presented one by one in a randomised order. The neutral stimulus was presented prior to each odorant. Participants' responses were measured using 21 behavioural indicators. RESULTS Results show that participants make a clear distinction between odorous and neutral conditions, between food and non-food, and between pleasant and unpleasant odours. The detection abilities are manifested by several behaviours, in particular by the duration of the head alignment on the odorant. CONCLUSIONS This study shows that participants detect the stimuli and act differently depending on the category.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Juliane Dind
- Department of Special Education, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Catherine De Blasio
- Department of Special Education, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Germaine Gremaud
- Department of Special Education, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
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Recent evidence for the impacts of olfactory disorders on food enjoyment and ingestive behavior. Curr Opin Food Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cofs.2021.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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Caretta A, Mucignat-Caretta C. Are Multiple Chemosensory Systems Accountable for COVID-19 Outcome? J Clin Med 2021; 10:5601. [PMID: 34884303 PMCID: PMC8658083 DOI: 10.3390/jcm10235601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2021] [Revised: 11/26/2021] [Accepted: 11/27/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Chemosensory systems (olfaction, taste, trigeminus nerve, solitary chemoreceptor cells, neuroendocrine pulmonary cells, and carotid body, etc.) detect molecules outside or inside our body and may share common molecular markers. In addition to the impairment of taste and olfaction, the detection of the internal chemical environment may also be incapacitated by COVID-19. If this is the case, different consequences can be expected. (1) In some patients, hypoxia does not trigger distressing dyspnea ("silent" hypoxia): Long-term follow-up may determine whether silent hypoxia is related to malfunctioning of carotid body chemoreceptors. Moreover, taste/olfaction and oxygen chemoreceptors may be hit simultaneously: Testing olfaction, taste, and oxygen chemoreceptor functions in the early stages of COVID-19 allows one to unravel their connections and trace the recovery path. (2) Solitary chemosensory cells are also involved in the regulation of the innate mucosal immune response: If these cells are affected in some COVID-19 patients, the mucosal innate immune response would be dysregulated, opening one up to massive infection, thus explaining why COVID-19 has lethal consequences in some patients. Similar to taste and olfaction, oxygen chemosensory function can be easily tested with a non-invasive procedure in humans, while functional tests for solitary chemosensory or pulmonary neuroendocrine cells are not available, and autoptic investigation is required to ascertain their involvement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Caretta
- Department of Food and Drug Science, University of Parma, 43100 Parma, Italy;
- NIBB—National Institute for Biostructures and Biosystems, 00136 Rome, Italy
| | - Carla Mucignat-Caretta
- NIBB—National Institute for Biostructures and Biosystems, 00136 Rome, Italy
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy
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