Anti-epileptic activity of daidzin in PTZ-induced mice model by targeting oxidative stress and BDNF/VEGF signaling

Daidzein's potential in halting neurodegeneration: unveiling mechanistic insights

Neurological conditions encompassing a wide range of disorders pose significant challenges globally. The complex interactions among signaling pathways and molecular elements play pivotal roles in the initiation and progression of neurodegenerative diseases. Isoflavones have emerged as a promising candidate to fight against neurodegenerative diseases. Daidzein, a 7-hydroxy-3-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-chromen-4-one, belongs to the isoflavone class and exhibits a diverse pharmacological profile. It is found primarily in soybeans and soy products, as well as in some other legumes and herbs. Investigations into daidzein have revealed that it confers neuroprotection by inhibiting oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis, which are key contributors to neuronal damage and degeneration. Activating pathways like PI3K/Akt/mTOR and promoting neurotrophic factors like BDNF by daidzein underscore its potential in supporting neuronal function and combating neurodegeneration. Daidzein's effects on dopamine provide further avenues for intervention in conditions like Parkinson's disease. Additionally, the modulation of inflammatory and NRF-2-antioxidant signaling by daidzein reinforces its neuroprotective role. Moreover, daidzein's interaction with receptors and cellular processes like ER-β, GPR30, MAO, VEGF, and GnRH highlights its multifaceted effects across multiple pathways involved in neuroprotection and neuronal function. This review article delves into the mechanistic interplay of various mediators in mediating the neuroprotective effects of daidzein. The review article consolidates and analyzes research published over nearly two decades (2005-2024) from various databases, including PubMed, Scopus, ScienceDirect, and Web of Science, to provide a comprehensive understanding of daidzein's effects and mechanisms in neuroprotection.

Salvinorin A ameliorates pilocarpine-induced seizures by regulating hippocampal microglia polarization

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Salvia divinorum (Epling and Játiva) is a psychoactive plant traditionally used by the Latinos for various medicinal purposes. Salvinorin A (Sal A), the main bioactive constituent of S. divinorum, is a natural highly selective kappa opioid receptor (KOR) agonist. Considering the anti-inflammatory effect of S. divinorum and endogenous hippocampal dynorphin/ kappa opioid receptor (KOR) system playing an anticonvulsant function, we hypothesis that Sal A can be a potential candidate to treat epilepsy. Here, we identified whether Sal A ameliorated epileptic seizures and neuronal damages in animal model and in vitro model and investigated its underlying mechanisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Mice epilepsy model was induced by pilocarpine following seizures assessed by Racine classification. Hippocampus tissues were obtained for genetic, protein, and histological investigation. Furthermore, lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated BV2 microglial cells were utilized to validate the anti-inflammatory and microglia polarization regulation effects of Sal A.

RESULTS

Sal A treatment significantly prolonged the latency to status epileptics (SE) and shortened the duration of SE in the pilocarpine-induced model. It also alleviated neuronal damages via activation of the AMPK/JNK/p-38 MAPK pathway and inhibition of apoptosis-related protein in hippocampus tissues. Furthermore, Sal A dose-dependently reduced microglia-mediated expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and increased anti-inflammatory factors levels in SE mice and LPS-activated BV2 microglial cells by regulating microglia polarization. In addition, the effect of Sal A in vitro was totally blocked by KOR antagonist nor-BNI.

CONCLUSION

Sal A treatment protects against epileptic seizures and neuronal damages in pilocarpine-induced models by suppressing the inflammation response through regulating microglial M1/M2 polarization. This study might serve as a theoretical basis for clinical applications of Sal A and its analogs and provide a new insight into the development of anti-seizure drugs.

Saccharomyces Boulardii alleviates neuroinflammation and oxidative stress in PTZ-kindled seizure rat model

Previous research have reported that modulating the gut microbiome composition by fecal microbiota transplantation and probiotic administration can alleviate seizure occurrence and severity. Saccharomyces boulardii (SB) is a yeast probiotic that has demonstrated ameliorating effects on anxiety, memory and cognitive deficit, and brain amyloidogenesis. In this research, our goal was to examine the anti-seizure effects of SB on the pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-kindled male Wistar rats. The animals were randomly categorized into four test groups. The rats were orally administered with saline (control and PTZ groups) or S. boulardii (SB + PTZ and SB groups) for 57 days. From the 29th day of the experiment, the animals received intraperitoneally saline (control and SB groups) or PTZ (PTZ and SB + PTZ groups) on alternate days for 30 days. The administration dose of SB and PTZ was 1010 CFU/ml/day and 35 mg/kg, respectively. We assessed animal seizure behavior, neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, and the levels of matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in the hippocampus tissue. S. boulardii hindered the PTZ-induced kindling development. SB treatment elevated glutathione (GSH) and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) and reduced malondialdehyde (MDA) levels. SB also lessened the hippocampal levels of BDNF and MMP-9. Following SB supplementation, proinflammatory cytokines interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) and IL-6 were lowered, and anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 was enhanced. Overall, our data indicated, for the first time, the positive impact of SB on the PTZ-kindled seizure rat model. The anti-seizure activity of SB was mediated by modulating oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and MMP-9 and BDNF levels.

Neuroprotective role of chlorogenic acid against hippocampal neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, and apoptosis following acute seizures induced by pentylenetetrazole

This study investigated the neuroprotective effect of chlorogenic acid (CGA) on pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-induced acute epileptic seizures in mice. Epileptic animals received CGA (200 mg/kg) or sodium valproate (standard antiepileptic agent, 200 mg/kg) for four weeks. Results revealed that pre-administration of CGA significantly reversed the behavioral changes following pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) injection. Further, CGA pre-treatment caused significant increases in acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels, along with marked increases in dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin levels. Additionally, the increased antioxidant enzymes activities, along with higher glutathione (GSH) contents and upregulated nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) gene expression, were indicative of a notable improvement in the cellular antioxidant defense in mice treated with CGA. These results were associated with lowered malondialdehyde (MDA) and nitric oxide (NO) levels. Moreover, epileptic mice that received CGA showed significant declines in the content of interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), and nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB), besides downregulating inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression. Remarkably, CGA counteracted hippocampal apoptosis by lessening the levels of pro-apoptotic biomarkers [Bcl-2-associated X protein (Bax) and caspase-3] and increasing the anti-apoptogenic marker level of B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2). The hippocampal histopathological findings corroborated the abovementioned changes. In sum, these findings suggest that CGA could mediate the neuroprotective effect against PTZ-induced epilepsy via modulation of neurotransmitters, oxidative damage, neuroinflammation, and apoptosis. CGA, therefore, could be considered a valuable antiepileptic therapeutic supplement.

Piroxicam reduced the intensity of epileptic seizures in a kindling seizure model

Introduction: The close relationship between inflammatory processes and epileptic seizures is already known, although the exact pathophysiological mechanism is unclear. In this study, the anticonvulsant capacity of piroxicam, an anti-inflammatory drug, was evaluated. A rat pentylenetetrazole kindling model was used.Methods: Male Wistar rats, 8-9 weeks old, received piroxicam (0.15 and 0.30 mg/kg), diazepam (2 mg/kg) or saline for 14 days, and PTZ, on alternate days. Intraperitoneal was chosen as the route of administration. The intensity of epileptic seizures was assessed using a modified Racine scale. The open field test and object recognition analysis were performed at the beginning of the study to ensure the safety of the drugs used. At the end of the protocol, the animals were euthanized to measure the levels of inflammatory (TNF-a and IL-6) and anti-inflammatory (IL-10) cytokines in the cortex, hippocampus, and serum.Results:There were no changes in the open field test and object recognition analysis. Piroxicam was found to decrease Racine scale scores at both concentrations. The reported values for IL-6 levels remained steady in all structures, whereas the TNF-alpha level in the cortex was higher in animals treated with piroxicam than in the saline and diazepam subjects. Finally, animals treated with the anti-inflammatory drug presented reduced IL-10 levels in the cortex and hippocampus.onclusions: Using inflammation as a guiding principle, the anticonvulsant effect of PIRO could be associated with the hippocampal circuits, since this structure showed no increase in inflammatory cytokines.

Sinapic Acid Mitigates Pentylenetetrazol-induced Acute Seizures By Modulating the NLRP3 Inflammasome and Regulating Calcium/calcineurin Signaling: In Vivo and In Silico Approaches

Sinapic acid (SA) is a naturally occurring carboxylic acid found in citrus fruits and cereals. Recent studies have shown that SA has potential anti-seizure properties due to its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-apoptotic effects. The present study investigated the neuroprotective role of SA at two different dosages in a pentylenetetrazol (PTZ)-induced acute seizure model. Mice were divided into six groups: normal control, PTZ, SA (20 mg/kg), SA (20 mg/kg) + PTZ, SA (40 mg/kg), and SA (40 mg/kg) + PTZ. SA was orally administered for 21 days, followed by a convulsive dose of intraperitoneal PTZ (50 mg/kg). Seizures were estimated via the Racine scale, and animals were behaviorally tested using the Y-maze. Brain tissues were used to assess the levels of GABA, glutamate, oxidative stress markers, calcium, calcineurin, (Nod)-like receptor protein-3 (NLRP3), interleukin (IL)-1β, apoptosis-associated speck-like protein (ASC), Bcl-2-associated death protein (Bad) and Bcl-2. Molecular docking of SA using a multistep in silico protocol was also performed. The results showed that SA alleviated oxidative stress, restored the GABA/glutamate balance and calcium/calcineurin signaling, downregulated NLRP3 and apoptosis, and improved recognition and ambulatory activity in PTZ-treated mice. In silico results also revealed that SA strongly interacts with the target proteins NLRP3 and ASC. Overall, the results suggest that SA is a promising antiseizure agent and that both doses of SA are comparable, with 40 mg/kg SA being superior in normalizing glutathione, calcium and IL-1β, in addition to calcineurin, NLRP3, ASC and Bad.

Effects of BXSMD on ESR1 and ESR2 expression in CSD female mice

ETHNIC PHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Due to the rapid pace of modern society, chronic insomnia has become universal phenomenon. In China, Banxia Shumi Decoction (BXSMD) has been used in treating chronic insomnia for thousands of years, but its chemical composition and action mechanism are still unknown.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aims to explore the chemical composition of BXSMD and its effects on Estrogen receptor 1 (ESR1) and Estrogen receptor 2 (ESR2) in mice with chronic sleep deprivation (CSD).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap-MS/MS was applied in determining the chemical composition of BXSMD. After 21-day sleep deprivation (SD) in platform water environment, CSD mice model was prepared. By conducting open field test, 24-h autonomic diurnal and nocturnal activity of mice in each group was detected. ELISA was employed to measure the contents of 5-HT, DA, NE, GABA, Glu, and MT. With RT-PCR, Western blot (WB), and immunohistochemistry (IHC), mRNA and protein expressions of ESR1 and ESR2 in the hypothalamus and hippocampus were tested.

RESULTS

BXSMD included ferulic acid, kaverol, daidzein, apigenin, berberine, adenosine, aesculin, vanillin, naringin, and glycine, which might constitute the material basis forthe improvement of chronic insomnia. With BXSMD, the total moving distance and the rest time in dark period of CSD mice were shortened, while its rest time in light period was increased. Besides, BXSMD enhanced the contents of 5-HT, GABA, and MT in CSD mice, and decreased the contents of Glu, NE, and DA. BXSMD elevated the mRNA of Esr1 and Esr2, and elevated the protein expressions of ESR1 and ESR2 in the hypothalamus and hippocampus of CSD mice.

CONCLUSIONS

BXSMD contains various chemical components for sleep-wake regulation, with the mechanism of stimulating estrogen signaling pathway by regulating the expressions of ESR1 and ESR2, ultimately realizing the regulation to sleep-wake disorder caused by CSD.

The applications of the pilocarpine animal model of status epilepticus: 40 years of progress (1983-2023)

Status epilepticus is a neurological disorder that can result in various neuropathological conditions and presentations. Various studies involving animal models have been accomplished to understand and replicating its prominent manifestations including characteristics of related clinical cases. Up to these days, there are variety of methods and techniques to be utilized in inducing this disorder that can be chemically or electrically applied which depending on the experimental designs and targets of the studies. In particular, the chemically induced pilocarpine animal model of status epilepticus is a reliable choice which has evolved for 40 years from its initial discovery back in 1983. Although the development of the model can be considered as a remarkable breakthrough in understanding status epilepticus, several aspects of the model have been improved, throughout the years. Among the major issues in developing this model are the morbidity and mortality rates during induction process. Several modifications have been introduced in the process by different studies to tackle the related problems including application of dose fractionation, adaptation of pilocarpine to lithium-pilocarpine model and utilization of various drugs. Despite all challenges and drawbacks, this model has proven its pertinent and relevance with improvements that have been adapted since it was introduced 40 years ago. In this review, we emphasize on the evolution of this animal model from the beginning until now (1983 - 2023) and the related issues that have made this model still a popular choice in status epilepticus studies.

Spontaneously hypertensive rats vs. Wistar Kyoto and Wistar rats: an assessment of anxiety, motor activity, memory performance, and seizure susceptibility

Spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs) are widely accepted for modeling essential hypertension and Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). However, data concerning central nervous system changes associated with behavioral responses of this strain and usage of Wistar Kyoto (WKY) rats as controls are confounding. The objective of the present study was to assess the impact of anxiety and motor activity on the cognitive responses of SHRs compared to Wistar and WKY rats. In addition, the role of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in the hippocampus on cognitive behavior and seizure susceptibility in the three strains was evaluated. In Experiment#1, SHR demonstrated impulsive responses in the novelty suppression feeding test accompanied by impaired spatial working and associative memory in the Y maze and object recognition test compared with the Wistar rat but not WKY rats. In addition, the WKY rats exhibited diminished activity compared to Wistar rats in an actimeter. In Experiment#2, the seizure susceptibility was assessed by 3-min electroencephalographic (EEG) recording after two consecutive injections of pentylenetetrazol (PTZ) (20+40 mg/kg). The WKY rats were more vulnerable to rhythmic metrazol activity (RMA) than the Wistar rats. In contrast, Wistar rats were more prone to generalized tonic-clonic seizures (GTCS) than WKY rats and SHRs. Control SHR had lower BDNF expression in the hippocampus compared to Wistar rats. However, while the BDNF levels were elevated in the Wistar and WKY rats after PTZ injection, no change in this signaling molecule was observed in the SHR in the seizure condition. The results suggest Wistar rats as a more appropriate control of SHR than WKY rats for studying memory responses mediated by BDNF in the hippocampus. The higher vulnerability to seizures in Wistar and WKY rats compared to SHR might be linked to PTZ-induced decreased expression of BDNF in the hippocampus.

Ceftriaxone and selenium mitigate seizures and neuronal injury in pentylenetetrazole-kindled rats: Oxidative stress and inflammatory pathway

Epilepsy is one of the most serious worldwide neurological disorders that lead to the cognitive-psychosocial insults in recurrent seizures. About one third of the patients are drug-resistant, so innovative drugs are needed to manage seizures to improve the quality of life. Ceftriaxone is a cephalosporin antibiotic that increases the expression of glutamate transporters-1 and improves the neurobehavioral effects caused by increased glutamate level in the CNS. Selenium is well known antioxidant. The present study aimed to investigate ceftriaxone and selenium therapeutic effects against epilepsy in rats. Epilepsy was induced by PTZ given at a dose (50 mg/kg I.P) on alternative days for 13 days. Eighty rats were randomly divided into 8 groups: Group1-2; normal and vehicle control, Group 3; PTZ group, Group 4-8; kindled rats received selenium, ceftriaxone100, ceftriaxone200, selenium + ceftriaxone100 and selenium + ceftriaxone200 mg/kg/day respectively for a week. At the end of the study, behavioral tests were performed. Oxidative stress, inflammatory markers, neurotransmitters and GLT-1 were measured in brain tissue homogenate. Brain histopathological investigation was also done. PTZ-kindled rats exhibited increased Racine score, besides behavioral tests and histopathological changes, significant elevation in oxidative stress and inflammatory markers, with decrease in serotonin, dopamine, GABA levels and GLT-1 expressions. Selenium and Ceftriaxone alone or combined treatment decreased Racine score with remarkable improvement in behavioral and histopathological changes. The antioxidant enzymes, neurotransmitters and GLT-1 expressions were increased, along with reduced TNF-α, IL-1 levels. Current study showed that selenium + ceftriaxone100 group represents a possible approach to improve epilepsy particularly through inhibiting oxidative stress and inflammation.

14-3-3ζ Plays a key role in the modulation of neuroplasticity underlying the antidepressant-like effects of Zhi-Zi-Chi-Tang

BACKGROUND

Zhi-Zi-Chi-Tang (ZZCT) is an effective traditional Chinese medicinal formula. ZZCT has been used for the treatment of depression for centuries. Its clinical efficacy in relieving depression has been confirmed. However, the molecular mechanisms of ZZCT regarding neuroplasticity in the pathogenesis of depression have not yet been elucidated.

PURPOSE

The present study aimed to examine the effects of ZZCT on neuroplasticity in mice exposed to chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS), and to explore the underlying molecular mechanisms.

METHODS

For this purpose, a murine model of depression was established using the CUMS procedure. Following the intragastric administration of ZZCT or fluoxetine, classic behavioral experiments were performed to observe the efficacy of ZZCT as an antidepressant. Immunofluorescence was used to label and quantify microtubule-associated protein (MAP2) and postsynaptic density protein (PSD95) in the hippocampus. Golgi staining was applied to visualize the dendritic spine density of neurons in the hippocampi. Isolated hippocampal slices were prepared to induce long-term potentiation (LTP) in the CA1 area. The hippocampal protein expression levels of glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β), p-GSK-3β (Ser9), cAMP response element binding protein (CREB), p-CREB (Ser133), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and 14-3-3ζ were detected using western blot analysis. The interaction of 14-3-3ζ and p-GSK-3β (Ser9) was examined using co-immunoprecipitation. LV-shRNA was used to knockdown 14-3-3ζ by an intracerebroventricular injection.

RESULTS

ZZCT (6 g/kg) and fluoxetine (20 mg/kg) alleviated depressive-like behavior, restored hippocampal MAP2⁺ PSD95⁺ intensity, and reversed the dendritic spine density of hippocampal neurons and LTP in the CA1 region of mice exposed to CUMS. Both low and high doses of ZZCT (3 and 6 g/kg) significantly promoted the binding of 14-3-3ζ to p-GSK-3β (Ser9) in the hippocampus, and ZZCT (6 g/kg) significantly promoted the phosphorylation of GSK-3β Ser9 and CREB Ser133 in the hippocampus. ZZCT (3 and 6 g/kg) upregulated hippocampal BDNF expression in mice exposed to CUMS. LV-sh14-3-3ξ reduced the antidepressant effects of ZZCT.

CONCLUSION

ZZCT exerted antidepressant effects against CUMS-stimulated depressive-like behavior mice. The knockdown of 14-3-3ζ using lentivirus confirmed that 14-3-3ζ was involved in the ZZCT-mediated antidepressant effects through GSK-3β/CREB/BDNF signaling. On the whole, these results suggest that the antidepressant effects of ZZCT are attributed to restoring damage by neuroplasticity enhancement via the 14-3-3ζ/GSK-3β/CREB/BDNF signaling pathway.

Neuroprotective mechanism of Ajugarin-I against Vincristine-Induced neuropathic pain via regulation of Nrf2/NF-κB and Bcl2 signalling

Vincristine (VCR) is a well-known chemotherapeutic agent that frequently triggers neuropathic pain. Ajugarin-I (Aju-I) isolated from Ajuga bracteosa exerts antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective properties. The present study was designed to investigate the ameliorative potential of Aju-I against VCR-induced neuropathic pain and explored the underlying mechanism involved. The neuroprotective potential of Aju-I was first confirmed against hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂)-induced cytotoxicity and oxidative stress in PC12 cells. For neuropathic pain induction, vincristine was given intraperitoneally (i.p.) into adult male albino mice (BALB/c) of the same age (8-12 weeks old) for 10 days (days 1-10). Aju-I (1 and 5 mg/kg) doses were administered from day 11 to 21 intraperitoneally (i.p.) after the neuropathic induction. Initially, behavioral tests such as thermal hyperalgesia, mechanical allodynia, and cold allodynia were performed to investigate the antinociceptive potential of Ajugarin-I (1 and 5 mg/kg, b.w). The nuclear factor-erythroid factor 2-related factor 2(Nrf2), nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), BCL2-associated × protein (Bax), and B-cell-lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2) signaling proteins were determined by immunohistochemistry and western blot. Additionally, inflammatory cytokines, antioxidant, and oxidative stress parameters were also measured in the spinal cord and sciatic nerve. The behavioral results demonstrated that Aju-I (5 mg/kg) markedly alleviated VCR-induced neuropathic pain behaviors including hyperalgesia and allodynia. It reversed the histological alterations caused by VCR in the sciatic nerve, spinal cord, and brain. It significantly alleviated oxidative stress and inflammation by regulating the immunoreactivity of Nrf2/NF-κB signaling. It suppressed apoptosis by regulating the immunoreactivity of Bcl-2/Bax and Caspase-3. The flow cytometry and comet analysis also confirmed its anti-apoptotic potential. It considerably improved the antioxidant status and mitigated VCR-induced inflammatory cytokines. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis indicated that Aju-I crosses the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and penetrated the brain tissue. These findings suggest that Aju-I treatment inhibited vincristine-induced neuropathy via regulation of Nrf2/NF-κB and Bcl2 signaling.

Withametelin, a steroidal lactone, isolated from datura innoxa attenuates STZ-induced diabetic neuropathic pain in rats through inhibition of NF-kB/MAPK signaling

Diabetic neuropathic pain is one of the microvascular complications of diabetes mellitus characterized by symmetrical pain and sensory abnormalities. A steroidal lactone isolated from the datura innoxa plant, withametelin (WMT), exhibited significant neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anticancer properties. The current study aimed to investigate anti-neuropathic pain activity and the molecular mechanism of WMT against streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic neuropathy. Rats were given a single injection of STZ (60 mg/kg, intraperitoneally (i.p.)) for induction of diabetes on the first day of the study. After the onset of diabetic neuropathy, pregabalin (10 mg/kg, i.p.) and WMT (0.1 and 1 mg/kg, i.p.) treatments were started from day 14 up to day 42. It was found that STZ-induced neuropathic pain behaviors were markedly reduced by WMT. It inhibited the STZ-associated histopathological changes and genotoxicity in the sciatic nerve and spinal cord. Additionally, Fourier transforms infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy results revealed that STZ-induced alterations in the biochemical components of the sciatic nerve's myelin sheath were inhibited by WMT. In the spinal cord, it markedly reduced the immunoreactivity of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) signaling components such as p38-MAPK, c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), extracellular-signal-regulated-kinase (ERK), and activator-protein 1 (AP-1). It also reduced the expression levels of nuclear factor-kappa-B (NF-κB), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS). The production of inflammatory cytokines was considerably reduced by WMT. This study provides convincing evidence that WMT treatment attenuated STZ-induced diabetic neuropathic pain by inhibition of MAPK/NF-κB signaling.

Suppression of MAPK/NF-kB and activation of Nrf2 signaling by Ajugarin-I in EAE model of multiple sclerosis

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a debilitating neurodegenerative autoimmune disease of the central nervous system (CNS). The current study aimed to investigate the neuroprotective properties of Ajugarin-I (Aju-I) against the experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model of MS and explored the underlying mechanism involved. The protective potential of Aju-I was first confirmed against glutamate-induced HT22 cells and hydrogen peroxide (H₂ O₂ )-induced BV2 cells. Next, an EAE model has been established to investigate the mechanisms of MS and identify potential candidates for MS treatment. The behavioral results demonstrated that Aju-I post-immunization treatment markedly reduced the EAE-associated clinical score, motor impairment, and neuropathic pain. Evans blue and fluorescein isothiocyanate extravasation in the brain were markedly reduced by Aju-I. It effectively restored the EAE-associated histopathological changes in the brain and spinal cord. It markedly attenuated EAE-induced inflammation in the CNS by reducing the expression levels of p-38/JNK/NF-κB but increased the expression of IkB-α. It suppressed oxidative stress by increasing the expression of Nrf2 but decreasing the expression of keap-1. It suppressed EAE-induced apoptosis in the CNS by regulating Bax/Bcl-2 and Caspase-3 expression. Taken together, this study suggests that Aju-I treatment exhibits neuroprotective properties in the EAE model of MS via regulation of MAPK/NF-κB, Nrf2/Keap-1, and Bcl2/Bax signaling.

Neuroprotection impact of biochanin A against pentylenetetrazol-kindled mice: Targeting NLRP3 inflammasome/TXNIP pathway and autophagy modulation

Recurrent seizures characterize epilepsy, a complicated and multifaceted neurological disease. Several neurological alterations, such as cell death and the growth of gorse fibers, have been linked to epilepsy. The dentate gyrus of the hippocampus is particularly vulnerable to neuronal loss and abnormal neuroplastic changes in the pentylenetetrazol (PTZ) kindling model. Biochanin A has potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, according to previous evidence and its possible impact in epilepsy has never previously been claimed. The current work aimed to investigate biochanin A's anti-epileptic potential in PTZ-induced kindling model in mice. Chronic epilepsy was established in mice by giving PTZ (35 mg/kg, i.p) every other day for 21 days. Biochanin A (20 mg/kg) was given daily till the end of the experiment. Biochanin A pretreatment significantly reduced the severity of epileptogenesis by 51.7% and downregulated the histological changes in the CA3 region of the hippocampus by 42% along with displaying antioxidant/anti-inflammatory efficacy through upregulated hemeoxygenase-1 (HO-1) and, erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) levels in the brain by 1.9-fold and 2-fold respectively, parallel to reduction of malondialdehyde (MDA), myeloperoxidase (MPO), glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and L-glutamate/IL-1β/TXNIB/NLRP3 axis. Moreover, biochanin A suppressed neuronal damage by reducing the astrocytes' activation and significantly attenuated the PTZ-induced increase in LC3 levels by 55.5%. Furthermore, molecular docking findings revealed that BIOCHANIN A has a higher affinity for phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3k), threonine kinase2 (AKT2), and mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) indicating the neuroprotective and anti-epileptic characteristics of biochanin A in the brain tissue of PTZ-kindled mice.

Monosodium glutamate induces cortical oxidative, apoptotic, and inflammatory challenges in rats: the potential neuroprotective role of apigenin

Monosodium glutamate (MSG) is used as a flavor, and a taste enhancer was reported to evoke marked neuronal impairments. This study investigated the neuroprotective ability of flavonoid apigenin against neural damage in MSG-administered rats. Adult male rats were allocated into four groups: control, apigenin (20 mg/kg b.wt, orally), MSG (4 g/kg b.wt, orally), and apigenin + MSG at the aforementioned doses for 30 days. Regarding the levels of neurotransmitters, our results revealed that apigenin augmented the activity of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) markedly, and levels of brain monoamines (dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin) accompanied by lessening the activity of monoamine oxidase (MAO) as compared to MSG treatment. Moreover, apigenin counteracted the MSG-mediated oxidative stress by decreasing the malondialdehyde (MDA) levels together with elevating the glutathione (GSH) levels. In addition, pretreatment with apigenin induced notable increases in the activities of cortical superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and glutathione reductase (GR). Furthermore, apigenin attenuated the cortical inflammatory stress as indicated by lower levels of pro-inflammatory mediators such as interleukin-1 b (IL-1b), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and nitric oxide (NO) as well as downregulated inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression levels. Histopathological screening validated the abovementioned results and revealed that apigenin restored the distorted cytoarchitecture of the brain cortex. Thus, the present findings collectively suggest that apigenin exerted significant protection against MSG-induced neurotoxicity by enhancing the cellular antioxidant response and attenuating inflammatory machineries in the rat brain cortex.

Anti-nociceptive effects of magnolol via inhibition of TRPV1/P2Y and TLR4/NF-κB signaling in a postoperative pain model

AIMS

The current study explored the anti-nociceptive activity of magnolol in post-incisional inflammatory nociceptive pain.

MAIN METHODS

Preliminary, the anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and cytoprotective potential of magnolol were confirmed against hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂)-induced PC12 cells. Next, an in-vivo model of planter incision surgery was established in BALB/c mice. Tramadol 50 mg/kg intraperitoneal (i.p.) and magnolol (0.1, 1, 10 mg/kg i.p. + 10 mg/kg intra planter) were administered after plantar incision surgery and behavior parameters were measured.

KEY FINDINGS

The results indicate that magnolol significantly suppressed post-incision-induced mechanical allodynia, thermal hyperalgesia, and paw edema. Magnolol promisingly inhibited post-incision induces nitric oxide (NO), malondialdehyde (MDA), eosinophil peroxidase (EPO), and neutrophil infiltration. Magnolol strongly attenuated post-incision inducing the release of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and inhibited deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) fragmentation. Magnolol markedly reverses post-incisional histopathological changes and biochemical composition of the incised paw. Magnolol markedly down-regulated post-incisional increase expression of transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1), purinergic (P2Y) nociceptors as well as toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), nuclear factor kappa light chain enhancer of activated B cell (NF-κB), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) while upregulating the expression of inhibitor of nuclear kappa B alpha (IκB-α).

SIGNIFICANCE

The present study strongly suggests that magnolol significantly suppressed post-incisional inflammatory nociceptive pain by targeting TRPV1/P2Y and TLR4/NF-κB signaling.

Network Pharmacology and Molecular Docking Analysis Reveal Insights into the Molecular Mechanism of Shengma-Gegen Decoction on Monkeypox

Background: A new viral outbreak caused by monkeypox has appeared after COVID-19. As of yet, no specific drug has been found for its treatment. Shengma-Gegen decoction (SMGGD), a pathogen-eliminating and detoxifying agent composed of four kinds of Chinese herbs, has been demonstrated to be effective against several viruses in China, suggesting that it may be effective in treating monkeypox, however, the precise role and mechanisms are still unknown. Methods: Network pharmacology was used to investigate the monkeypox-specific SMGGD targets. These targets were analyzed via String for protein-to-protein interaction (PPI), followed by identification of hub genes with Cytoscape software. Function enrichment analysis of the hub targets was performed. The interactions between hub targets and corresponding ligands were validated via molecular docking. Results: Through screening and analysis, a total of 94 active components and 8 hub targets were identified in the TCM-bioactive compound-hub gene network. Molecular docking results showed that the active components of SMGGD have strong binding affinity for their corresponding targets. According to functional analysis, these hub genes are mainly involved in the TNF, AGE-RAGE, IL-17, and MAPK pathways, which are linked to the host inflammatory response to infection and viral replication. Therefore, SMGGD might suppress the replication of monkeypox virus through the MAPK signaling pathway while also reducing inflammatory damage caused by viral infection. Conclusion: SMGGD may have positive therapeutic effects on monkeypox by reducing inflammatory damage and limiting virus replication.

SYNTHESIS, CHARACTERIZATION, IN-SILICO, AND PHARMACOLOGICAL EVALUATION OF NEW 2-AMINO-6-TRIFLUOROMETHOXY BENZOTHIAZOLE DERIVATIVES

Alzheimer's disease (AD), a relentless neurodegenerative disorder, is still waiting for safer profile drugs, risk factors affecting AD's pathogenesis include aβ accumulation, tau protein hyperphosphorylation, and neuroinflammation. This research aimed to synthesize 2-amino-6‑trifluoromethoxy benzothiazole schiff bases. Synthesis was straightforward, combining the riluzole skeleton with compounds containing the azomethine group. Schiff bases synthesized were characterized spectroscopically using proton NMR (¹H NMR), and FTIR. In-vivo biological evaluation against scopolamine-induced neuronal damage revealed that these newly synthesized schiff bases were effective in protecting neurons against neuroinflammatory mediators. In-vitro results revealed that these compounds had remarkable potential in improving the anti-oxidant levels. It downregulated glutathione (GSH), glutathione S-transferase (GST), catalase levels, and upregulated lipid peroxidation (LPO) levels. Immunohistochemical studies revealed that groups treated with the newly synthesized schiff bases had reduced expression of inflammatory mediators such as cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2), JNK, tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α), nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kB) in contrast to the disease group. Moreover, molecular docking studies on these compounds also showed that they possessed a better binding affinity for above mentioned inflammatory mediators. The results of these studies showed that 2-amino-6-trifluoromethoxy benzothiazole schiff bases are remarkably effective against oxidative stress-mediated neuroinflammation.

HPLC and GC-MS based metabolic profiles and in vivo anticonvulsant, sedative, and antinociceptive potentials of truffles Tirmania nivea and Tirmania pinoyi hydromethanolic extracts in mice

GC-MS and HPLC analyses of the hydromethanolic extracts of the truffles Tirmania nivea (TN) and Tirmania pinoyi (TP) revealed the presence of 18 metabolites and 11 polyphenols, respectively. In vivo, TP extract protected against subcutaneous pentylenetetrazole (scPTZ) and maximal electric shock (MES)-induced convulsions faster than TN. TP (100 and 300 mg/kg) showed 100% protection and longer duration than TN in the scPTZ test. Similarly, at 300 mg/kg, TP demonstrated a quicker start (75%) and longer duration of action (100%) than TN in MES test. In scPTZ test, ED₅₀ of TP demonstrated greater anticonvulsant efficacy than TN. In mice given TP and TN treatments, the brain GABA levels were noticeably increased. TP (100 and 300mg/kg) produced a notable sedative effect in open field test, whereas TN (100 or 300 mg/kg) and TP (300 mg/kg) reduced sleep latency by 79, 52, and 45%, respectively. In writhing test, TN (100 or 300mg/kg) significantly enhanced analgesic efficacy by 50 and 87%, respectively. Comparatively, in formalin test, TP and TN at a dosage of 300 mg/kg decreased the length of the licking by 34 and 59%, respectively. For the first time, this study explains the anticonvulsant, sedative, central, and peripheral analgesic activities of truffle extracts.

Pharmacological perspectives and mechanisms involved in epileptogenesis

Background

Epileptogenesis can be defined as the process by which a previously healthy brain develops a tendency toward recurrent electrical activity, occurring in three phases: first as an initial trigger (such as stroke, infections, and traumatic brain injury); followed by the latency period and the onset of spontaneous and recurrent seizures which characterizes epilepsy.

Main body

The mechanisms that may be involved in epileptogenesis are inflammation, neurogenesis, migration of neurons to different regions of the brain, neural reorganization, and neuroplasticity.In recent years, experimental studies have enabled the discovery of several mechanisms involved in the process of epileptogenesis, mainly neuroinflammation, that involves the activation of glial cells and an increase in specific inflammatory mediators. The lack of an experimental animal model protocol for epileptogenic compounds contributes to the difficulty in understanding disease development and the creation of new drugs.

Conclusion

To solve these difficulties, a new approach is needed in the development of new AEDs that focus on the process of epileptogenesis and the consolidation of animal models for studies of antiepileptogenic compounds, aiming to reach the clinical phases of the study. Some examples of these compounds are rapamycin, which inhibits mTOR signaling, and losartan, that potentiates the antiepileptogenic effect of some AEDs. Based on this, this review discusses the main mechanisms involved in epileptogenesis, as well as its pharmacological approach.

Suppression of NF-κB signaling by ECN in an arthritic model of inflammation

Background

The 7β-(3-ethyl-cis-crotonoyloxy)-1α-(2-methylbutyryloxy)-3,14-dehydro-Z-notonipetranone (ECN), a sesquiterpenoid isolated from the Tussilago farfara Linneaus (Asteraceae), was evaluated against acute Carrageenan and chronic complete Freund’s adjuvant (CFA)-induced arthritis in mice.

Methods

Acute and chronic arthritis were induced by administering Carrageenan and CFA to the intraplantar surface of the mouse paw. Edema, mechanical allodynia, mechanical hyperalgesia, and thermal hyperalgesia were assessed in the paw. Similarly, histological and immunohistological parameters were assessed following arthritis induced by CFA. Antioxidants, inflammatory cytokines, and oxidative stress markers were also studied in all the treated groups.

Results

The ECN treatment significantly attenuated edema in the paw and elevated the nocifensive threshold following induction of this inflammatory model. Furthermore, ECN treatment markedly improved the arthritis index and distress symptoms, while attenuating the CFA-induced edema in the paw. ECN treatment also improved the histological parameters in the paw tissue compared to the control. At the same time, there was a significant reduction in edema and erosion in the ECN-treated group, as measured by radiographic analysis. Using the Comet’s assay, we showed that ECN treatment protected the DNA from chronic CFA-induced arthritis. Immunohistochemistry analysis showed a marked decrease in the expression level of p-JNK (phosphorylated C-Jun N-terminal kinase), NF-κB (Nuclear factor-kappa B), COX-2 (Cyclooxygenase-2), and TNF-α (Tumour necrosis factor-alpha) compared to the CFA-treated group. Biophysical analysis involving molecular docking, molecular dynamics simulations, and binding free energies of ECN were performed to explore the underlying mechanism.

Conclusion

ECN exhibited significant anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic activity against Carrageenan and CFA-induced models.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12906-022-03629-7.

Pharmacological mechanism of xanthoangelol underlying Nrf-2/TRPV1 and anti-apoptotic pathway against scopolamine-induced amnesia in mice

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a well-known type of age-related dementia. The present study was conducted to investigate the effect of xanthoangelol against memory deficit and neurodegeneration associated with AD. Preliminarily, xanthoangelol produced neuroprotective effect against H₂O₂-induced HT-22 cells. Furthermore, effect of xanthoangelol against scopolamine-induced amnesia in mice was determined by intraperitoneally (i.p.) administering xanthoangelol (1, 10 and 20 mg/kg), 30 min prior to induction. Mice were administered scopolamine at a concentration of 1 mg/kg; i.p. for the induction of amnesia associated with AD. Xanthoangelol dose dependently reduced the symptoms of Alzheimer's disease as observed by the results obtained from the behavioral analysis performed using Morris water maze and Y-maze test. The immunohistochemical analysis suggested that xanthoangelol significantly improved Keap-1/Nrf-2 signaling pathway. It greatly reduced the effects of oxidative stress and showed improvement in the anti-oxidant enzyme such as GSH, GST, SOD and catalase. Additionally, xanthoangelol decreased the expression of transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV-1), a nonselective cation channel, involved in synaptic plasticity and memory. It activated the anti-oxidants and attenuated the apoptotic (Bax/Bcl-2) pathway. Xanthoangelol also significantly attenuated the scopolamine-induced neuroinflammation by the inhibition of interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) levels. The histological analysis, showed a significant reduction in amyloid plaques by xanthoangelol. Therefore, the present study indicated that xanthoangelol has the ability to ameliorate the AD symptoms by attenuating neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration induced by scopolamine.

Magnolol prevented brain injury through the modulation of Nrf2-dependent oxidative stress and apoptosis in PLP-induced mouse model of multiple sclerosis

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an immune-mediated chronic inflammatory demyelinating disease of the central nervous system (CNS). The aim of the current study was to investigate the effects of magnolol in an experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model of MS in female mice. Magnolol (0.1, 1, and 10 mg/kg) was administered once daily for 21 days after immunization of mice. Magnolol post-immunization treatment significantly reversed clinical scoring, EAE-associated pain parameters, and motor dysfunction in a dose-dependent manner. Magnolol treatment significantly inhibited oxidative stress by reducing malondialdehyde (MDA), nitric oxide (NO) production, and myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity while enhancing the level of antioxidants such as reduced glutathione (GSH), glutathione-S-transferase (GST), catalase, and superoxide dismutase (SOD) in the brain and spinal cord. It reduced cytokine levels in the brain and spinal cord. It suppressed CD8+ T cells frequency in the spleen tissue. Magnolol remarkably reversed the EAE-associated histopathology of the brain and spinal cord tissue. Magnolol significantly intensifies the antioxidant defense system by enhancing the expression level of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor (Nrf2) while decreasing the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cleaved-caspase-3 in the brain. Molecular docking results showed that magnolol possesses a better binding affinity for Nrf2, iNOS, and caspase-3 proteins. Taken together, the present study demonstrated that magnolol has significant neuroprotective properties in EAE via inhibition of oxidative stress.

Effect of a Ketogenic Diet on Oxidative Posttranslational Protein Modifications and Brain Homogenate Denaturation in the Kindling Model of Epilepsy in Mice

This study focused on the ketogenic diet (KD) effects on oxidative posttranslational protein modification (PPM) as presumptive factors implicated in epileptogenesis. A 28-day of KD treatment was performed. The corneal kindling model of epileptogenesis was used. Four groups of adult male ICR mice (25-30 g) were randomized in standard rodent chow (SRC) group, KD-treatment group; SRC + kindling group; KD + kindling group (n = 10 each). Advanced oxidation protein products (AOPP) and protein carbonyl contents of brain homogenates together with differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) were evaluated. Two exothermic transitions (Exo1 and Exo2) were explored after deconvolution of the thermograms. Factor analysis was applied. The protective effect of KD in the kindling model was demonstrated with both decreased seizure score and increased seizure latency. KD significantly decreased glucose and increased ketone bodies (KB) in blood. Despite its antiseizure effect, the KD increased the AOPP level and the brain proteome's exothermic transitions, suggestive for qualitative modifications. The ratio of the two exothermic peaks (Exo2/Exo1) of the thermograms from the KD vs. SRC treated group differed more than twice (3.7 vs. 1.6). Kindling introduced the opposite effect, changing this ratio to 2.7 for the KD + kindling group. Kindling significantly increased glucose and KB in the blood whereas decreased the BW under the SRC treatment. Kindling decreased carbonyl proteins in the brain irrespectively of the diet. Further evaluations are needed to assess the nature of correspondence of calorimetric images of the brain homogenates with PPM.

Tailoring enhanced production and identification of isoflavones in the callus cultures of Pueraria thomsonii Benth and its model verification using response surface methodology (RSM): a combined in vitro and statistical optimization

Background

Scientifically, isoflavones from Pueraria thomsonii Benth possess diverse pharmacological activities and have been used to treat various diseases. In vitro propagation of callus has contributed to the reliability for large-scale production of target compounds. However, the factors affecting the biosynthesis of major isoflavones daidzin, puerarin and daidzein in the callus culture of P. thomsonii are still not known. Therefore, we aimed to enhance the in vitro production of daidzin, puerarin and daidzein by optimizing three independent factors such as temperature, NAA and 6-BA concentrations.

Results

Our findings showed that the optimal concentrations for in vitro biomass production and efficient synthesis of puerarin, daidzin and daidzein were found to be 0.158%, 0.463% and 0.057%, respectively. In addition, the HPLC fingerprint with chemo-metrics analysis was constructed by linear regression of the puerarin, daidzin and daidzein which was found to be in the range of 1.0–36.0, 5.0–72.0 and 1.0–15.0 mg/mL and the LODs and LOQs were found to be 0.15, 0.52, 0.35 and 0.28, 1.50, 0.50 mg/mL for puerarin, daidzin and daidzein, respectively. Surprisingly, our results were also in agreement with the concentration obtained from the model verification for optimal and efficient production of puerarin, daidzin and daidzein which was found to be 0.162%, 0.458% and 0.049%, respectively.

Conclusions

In summary, our present investigation provides new insights that could facilitate the enhanced production of valuable isoflavones in P. thomsonii using plant cell cultures treated with appropriate elicitor combinations and temperature. As far as the authors are concerned, this is the first report on production of daidzin, puerarin and daidzein at higher yield at laboratory level for a wide range of applications in future food, medicinal and pharmaceutical companies.

Daidzin inhibits growth and induces apoptosis through the JAK2/STAT3 in human cervical cancer HeLa cells

Daidzin, 4′, 7-dihydroxyisoflavone is an isoflavonic phytoestrogen present in leguminous plants. Traditional Chinese medicine utilizes daidzin to treat various diseases such diarrhea, fever, hepatitis, cardiac problems etc. In current study we examined the anticancer activity of daidzin against human cervical cancer in vitro. HeLa, human cervical cancer cell line was purchased from ATCC and the cells were cultured with DMEM medium. The cytotoxic effect of daidzin against HeLa cell line was analyzed with MTT assay. The IC-50 value was obtained at 20 µM hence the cells were treated with 20 µM of daidzin for further analysis. ROS generation was assessed with DCFH-DA staining and the induction of apoptosis was examined with Rhoadmine-123 staining. Acridine orange and ethidium bromide staining was done to examine the apoptotic and viable cells. Further the matrigel cell adhesion assay was done to analyze the inhibitory property of daidzin against cancer cell adhesion. Apoptotic induction of daidzin was examined by estimating the levels of Caspase 8 & 9 using ELISA technique. Inflammatory and cell proliferation signaling proteins were analyzed with qPCR analysis to confirm the anticancer activity of daidzin against human cervical cancer HeLa cell line. Daidzin significantly generated ROS and altered the mitochondrial membrane permeability in HeLa cell line. The results of AO/EtBr staining prove daidzin induced apoptosis in HeLa cell line and it also inhibited the cell adhesion property of HeLa which is reported in our matrigel cell adhesion assay. It also increased the caspases 8 & 9 which are key regulators of apoptosis. Daidzin significantly decreased the expression of inflammatory gene and cell proliferating signaling molecule. To, conclude our results confirm daidzin effectively decreased inflammation and induced apoptosis in human cervical cancer HeLa cell line.

Anti-neuropathic pain activity of a cationic palladium (II) dithiocarbamate by suppressing the inflammatory mediators in paclitaxel-induced neuropathic pain model

BACKGROUND

Neuropathic pain is a chronic pain state that negatively impacts the quality of life. Currently, available therapies for the treatment of neuropathic pain often lack efficacy and tolerability. Therefore, the search for novel drugs is crucial to obtain treatments that effectively suppress neuropathic pain.

OBJECTIVES

The present study was undertaken to investigate the antinociceptive properties of (1,4-bis-(diphenylphosphino) butane) palladium (II) chloride monohydrate (Compound 1) in a paclitaxel (PTX)-induced neuropathic pain model.

METHODS

Initially, behavioral tests such as mechanical and cold allodynia as well as thermal and tail immersion hyperalgesia were performed to investigate the antinociceptive potential of Compound 1 (5 and 10 mg/kg, b.w). RT-PCR was performed to determine the effect of Compound 1 on the mRNA expression level of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and proinflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-1β, and IL-6. In addition, antioxidant protein, nitric oxide (NO), and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels were also determined.

RESULTS

The results demonstrated that once-daily dosing of Compound 1 significantly suppressed the PTX-induced behavioral pain responses dose-dependently. The mRNA gene expressions of iNOS, COX-2, and inflammatory cytokines were markedly reduced by Compound 1. Furthermore, it enhanced the level of antioxidant enzymes and lowered the level of MDA and NO production.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that the antinociceptive potential of Compound 1 in the PTX-induced neuropathic pain model is via suppression of oxidative stress and inflammation. Thus, Compound 1 might be a potential candidate for the therapeutic management of PTX induced neuropathic pain.

Withametelin, a novel phytosterol, alleviates neurological symptoms in EAE mouse model of multiple sclerosis via modulation of Nrf2/HO-1 and TLR4/NF-κB signaling

Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory demyelinating disorder of the central nervous system (CNS) that remains incurable. Withametelin (WMT), a phytosterol, showed diverse biological activities isolated from the leaves of Datura innoxa. In the present study, we used an in vitro model of HT22 and BV-2 cell lines and an in vivo murine model of MS, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), to explore the antioxidant and anti neuroinflammatory potential of WMT. The results showed that pretreatment with WMT markedly inhibited H₂O₂-induced cytotoxicity and oxidative stress in a dose-dependent manner. Correspondingly, WMT post-immunization treatment significantly attenuated EAE-induced clinical score, weight loss, neuropathic pain behaviors, and motor dysfunction. It markedly lowers EAE-induced elevated circulating leucocytes, spinal deformity, and splenomegaly. It strikingly inhibited the Evans blue and FITC extravasation in the brain. It remarkably reversed the EAE-induced histopathological alteration of the brain, spinal cord, eye, and optic nerve. It significantly intensified the antioxidant defense mechanism by improving the expression level of nuclear factor-erythroid-related factor-2 (Nrf2), heme-oxygenase-1 (HO-1) but reducing the expression level of the Kelch-like-ECH-associated-protein-1 (keap-1), inducible-nitric-oxide-synthase (iNOS) in the CNS. Likewise, it markedly suppressed neuroinflammation by reducing the expression level of toll-like-receptor 4 (TLR4), nuclear-factor-kappa-B (NF-κB), activator-protein-1 (AP-1) but increased the expression level IkB-α in the CNS. Furthermore, molecular dynamics simulations and MMPBSA binding free energies were determined to validate the dynamic stability of complexes and shed light on the atomic level intermolecular interaction energies. Taken together, this study showed that WMT has significant neuroprotective potential in EAE via modulation of Nrf2 mediated-oxidative stress and NF-κB mediated inflammation.

PTZ kindling model for epileptogenesis, refractory epilepsy, and associated comorbidities: relevance and reliability

Pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-induced seizure is one of the gold standard mouse models for rapid evaluation of novel anticonvulsants. Synchronically, PTZ induced kindling in mice is also a simple and well accepted model of chronic epilepsy. PTZ kindling has been explored for studying epileptogenesis, epilepsy-associated comorbidities, and refractory epilepsy. This review summarizes the potential of PTZ kindling in mice and its modifications for its face, construct, and predictive validity to screen antiepileptogenic drugs, combined or add on novel and safe therapies for treatment of epilepsy-associated depression and cognitive impairment as well as effective interventions for pharmacoresistant epilepsy.

Metabolomics as a Tool to Study Underused Soy Parts: In Search of Bioactive Compounds

The valorization of agri-food by-products is essential from both economic and sustainability perspectives. The large quantity of such materials causes problems for the environment; however, they can also generate new valuable ingredients and products which promote beneficial effects on human health. It is estimated that soybean production, the major oilseed crop worldwide, will leave about 597 million metric tons of branches, leaves, pods, and roots on the ground post-harvesting in 2020/21. An alternative for the use of soy-related by-products arises from the several bioactive compounds found in this plant. Metabolomics studies have already identified isoflavonoids, saponins, and organic and fatty acids, among other metabolites, in all soy organs. The present review aims to show the application of metabolomics for identifying high-added-value compounds in underused parts of the soy plant, listing the main bioactive metabolites identified up to now, as well as the factors affecting their production.

Suppression of TRPV1/TRPM8/P2Y Nociceptors by Withametelin via Downregulating MAPK Signaling in Mouse Model of Vincristine-Induced Neuropathic Pain

Vincristine (VCR) is a widely used chemotherapy drug that induced peripheral painful neuropathy. Yet, it still lacks an ideal therapeutic strategy. The transient receptor potential (TRP) channels, purinergic receptor (P2Y), and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of neuropathic pain. Withametelin (WMT), a potential Phytosteroid isolated from datura innoxa, exhibits remarkable neuroprotective properties. The present investigation was designed to explore the effect of withametelin on VCR-induced neuropathic pain and its underlying molecular mechanism. Initially, the neuroprotective potential of WMT was confirmed against hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂)-induced PC12 cells. To develop potential candidates for neuropathic pain treatment, a VCR-induced neuropathic pain model was established. Vincristine (75 μg/kg) was administered intraperitoneally (i.p.) for 10 consecutive days (day 1-10) for the induction of neuropathic pain. Gabapentin (GBP) (60 mg/kg, i.p.) and withametelin (0.1 and 1 mg/kg i.p.) treatments were given after the completion of VCR injection on the 11th day up to 21 days. The results revealed that WMT significantly reduced VCR-induced pain hypersensitivity, including mechanical allodynia, cold allodynia, and thermal hyperalgesia. It reversed the VCR-induced histopathological changes in the brain, spinal cord, and sciatic nerve. It inhibited VCR-induced changes in the biochemical composition of the myelin sheath of the sciatic nerve. It markedly downregulated the expression levels of TRPV1 (transient receptor potential vanilloid 1); TRPM8 (Transient receptor potential melastatin 8); and P2Y nociceptors and MAPKs signaling, including ERK (Extracellular Signal-Regulated Kinase), JNK (c-Jun N-terminal kinase), and p-38 in the spinal cord. It suppressed apoptosis by regulating Bax (Bcl2-associated X-protein), Bcl-2 (B-cell-lymphoma-2), and Caspase-3 expression. It considerably attenuated inflammatory cytokines, oxidative stress, and genotoxicity. This study suggests that WMT treatment suppressed vincristine-induced neuropathic pain by targeting the TRPV1/TRPM8/P2Y nociceptors and MAPK signaling.

Identification of anti-inflammatory compounds from Zhongjing formulae by knowledge mining and high-content screening in a zebrafish model of inflammatory bowel diseases

BACKGROUND

Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) are chronic relapsing intestinal inflammations with increasing global incidence, and new drug development remains in urgent demand for IBD management. To identify effective traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) formulae and compounds in IBD treatment, we innovatively combined the techniques of knowledge mining, high-content screening and high-resolution mass spectrometry, to conduct a systematic screening in Zhongjing formulae, which is a large collection of TCM prescriptions with most abundant clinical evidences.

METHODS

Using Word2vec-based text learning, the correlations between 248 Zhongjing formulae and IBD typical symptoms were analyzed. Next, from the top three formulae with predicted relationship with IBD, TCM fractions were prepared and screened on a transgenic zebrafish IBD model for their therapeutic effects. Subsequently, the chemical compositions of the fraction hits were analyzed by mass spectrometry, and the major compounds were further studied for their anti-IBD effects and potential mechanisms.

RESULTS

Through knowledge mining, Peach Blossom Decoction, Pulsatilla Decoction, and Gegen Qinlian Decoction were predicted to be the three Zhongjing formulae mostly related to symptoms typical of IBD. Seventy-four fractions were prepared from the three formulae and screened in TNBS-induced zebrafish IBD model by high-content analysis, with the inhibition on the intestinal neutrophil accumulation and ROS level quantified as the screening criteria. Six herbal fractions showed significant effects on both pathological processes, which were subsequently analyzed by mass spectrometry to determine their chemical composition. Based on the major compounds identified by mass spectrometry, a second-round screen was conducted and six compounds (palmatine, daidzin, oroxyloside, chlorogenic acid, baicalin, aesculin) showed strong inhibitory effects on the intestinal inflammation phenotypes. The expression of multiple inflammatory factors, including il1β, clcx8a, mmp and tnfα, were increased in TNBS-treated fish, which were variously inhibited by the compounds, with aesculin showing the most potent effects. Moreover, aesculin and daidzin also upregulated e-cadherin's expression.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, we demonstrated the regulatory effects of several TCM formulae and their active compounds in the treatment of IBD, through a highly efficient research strategy, which can be applied in the discovery of effective TCM formulae and components in other diseases.

Advances in the Development of Biomarkers for Poststroke Epilepsy

Stroke is the main cause of acquired epilepsy in elderly people. Poststroke epilepsy (PSE) not only affects functional recovery after stroke but also brings considerable social consequences. While some factors such as cortical involvement, hemorrhagic transformation, and stroke severity are associated with increased seizure risk, so far that remains controversial. In recent years, there are an increasing number of studies on potential biomarkers of PSE as tools for diagnosing and predicting epileptic seizures. Biomarkers such as interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), glutamate, and S100 calcium-binding protein B (S100B) in blood are associated with the occurrence of PSE. This review is aimed at summarizing the progress on potential biomarkers of PSE.

7β-(3-Ethyl-cis-crotonoyloxy)-1α-(2-methylbutyryloxy)-3,14-dehydro-Z Notonipetranone Attenuates Neuropathic Pain by Suppressing Oxidative Stress, Inflammatory and Pro-Apoptotic Protein Expressions

7β-(3-Ethyl-cis-crotonoyloxy)-1α-(2-methylbutyryloxy)-3,14-dehydro-Z-notonipetranone (ECN), a sesquiterpenoid obtained from a natural source has proved to be effective in minimizing various side effects associated with opioids and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. The current study focused on investigating the effects of ECN on neuropathic pain induced by partial sciatic nerve ligation (PSNL) by mainly focusing on oxidative stress, inflammatory and apoptotic proteins expression in mice. ECN (1 and 10 mg/kg, i.p.), was administered once daily for 11 days, starting from the third day after surgery. ECN post-treatment was found to reduce hyperalgesia and allodynia in a dose-dependent manner. ECN remarkably reversed the histopathological abnormalities associated with oxidative stress, apoptosis and inflammation. Furthermore, ECN prevented the suppression of antioxidants (glutathione, glutathione-S-transferase, catalase, superoxide dismutase, NF-E2-related factor-2 (Nrf2), hemeoxygenase-1 and NAD(P)H: quinone oxidoreductase) by PSNL. Moreover, pro-inflammatory cytokines (tumor necrotic factor-alpha, interleukin 1 beta, interleukin 6, cyclooxygenase-2 and inducible nitric oxide synthase) expression was reduced by ECN administration. Treatment with ECN was successful in reducing the caspase-3 level consistent with the observed modulation of pro-apoptotic proteins. Additionally, ECN showed a protective effect on the lipid content of myelin sheath as evident from FTIR spectroscopy which showed the shift of lipid component bands to higher values. Thus, the anti-neuropathic potential of ECN might be due to the inhibition of oxidative stress, inflammatory mediators and pro-apoptotic proteins.

The newly synthesized compounds (NCHDH and NTHDH) attenuates LPS-induced septicemia and multi-organ failure via Nrf2/HO1 and HSP/TRVP1 signaling in mice

The sepsis is considered as serious clinic-pathological condition related with high rate of morbidity and mortality in critical care settings. In the proposed study, the hydrazides derivatives N-(benzylidene)-2-((2-hydroxynaphthalen-1-yl)diazenyl)benzohydrazides (1-2) (NCHDH and NTHDH) were investigated against the LPS-induced sepsis in rodents. The NCHDH and NTHDH markedly improved the physiological sign and symptoms associated with the sepsis such as mortality, temperature, and clinical scoring compared to negative control group, which received only LPS (i.p.). The NCHDH and NTHDH also inhibited the production of the NO and MPO compared to the negative control. Furthermore, the treatment control improved the histological changes markedly of all the vital organs. Additionally, the Masson's trichrome and PAS (Periodic Acid Schiff) staining also showed improvement in the NCHDH and NTHDH treated group in contrast to LPS-induced group. The antioxidants were enhanced by the intervention of the NCHDH and NTHDH and the level of the MDA and POD were attenuated marginally compared to the LPS-induced group. The hematology study showed marked improvement and the reversal of the LPS-induced changes in blood composition compared to the negative control. The synthetic function of the liver and kidney were preserved in the NCHDH and NTHDH treated group compared to the LPS-induced group. The NCHDH and NTHDH markedly enhanced the Nrf2, HO-1 (Heme oxygenase-1), while attenuated the Keap1 and TRPV1 expression level as compared to LPS treated group. Furthermore, the NCHDH and NTHDH treatment showed marked increased in the mRNA expression level of the HSP70/90 proteins compared to the negative control.