1
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Yeung J, DeYoung T, Spring S, de Guzman AE, Elder MW, Beauchamp A, Wong CS, Palmert MR, Lerch JP, Nieman BJ. Sex chromosomes and hormones independently influence healthy brain development but act similarly after cranial radiation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2024; 121:e2404042121. [PMID: 39207735 PMCID: PMC11388377 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2404042121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2024] [Accepted: 07/30/2024] [Indexed: 09/04/2024] Open
Abstract
The course of normal development and response to pathology are strongly influenced by biological sex. For instance, female childhood cancer survivors who have undergone cranial radiation therapy (CRT) tend to display more pronounced cognitive deficits than their male counterparts. Sex effects can be the result of sex chromosome complement (XX vs. XY) and/or gonadal hormone influence. The contributions of each can be separated using the four-core genotype mouse model (FCG), where sex chromosome complement and gonadal sex are decoupled. While studies of FCG mice have evaluated brain differences in adulthood, it is still unclear how sex chromosome and sex hormone effects emerge through development in both healthy and pathological contexts. Our study utilizes longitudinal MRI with the FCG model to investigate sex effects in healthy development and after CRT in wildtype and immune-modified Ccl2-knockout mice. Our findings in normally developing mice reveal a relatively prominent chromosome effect prepubertally, compared to sex hormone effects which largely emerge later. Spatially, sex chromosome and hormone influences were independent of one another. After CRT in Ccl2-knockout mice, both male chromosomes and male hormones similarly improved brain outcomes but did so more separately than in combination. Our findings highlight the crucial role of sex chromosomes in early development and identify roles for sex chromosomes and hormones after CRT-induced inflammation, highlighting the influences of biological sex in both normal brain development and pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonas Yeung
- Mouse Imaging Centre, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto ON M5T 3H7, Canada
- Translational Medicine, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto ON M5G 1X8, Canada
- Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto ON M5G 1L7, Canada
| | - Taylor DeYoung
- Mouse Imaging Centre, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto ON M5T 3H7, Canada
- Translational Medicine, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto ON M5G 1X8, Canada
- Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto ON M5G 1L7, Canada
| | - Shoshana Spring
- Mouse Imaging Centre, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto ON M5T 3H7, Canada
| | - A Elizabeth de Guzman
- Mouse Imaging Centre, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto ON M5T 3H7, Canada
- Translational Medicine, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto ON M5G 1X8, Canada
- Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto ON M5G 1L7, Canada
- Functional Neuroimaging Laboratory, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Rovereto TN 38068, Italy
| | - Madeline W Elder
- Mouse Imaging Centre, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto ON M5T 3H7, Canada
| | - Antoine Beauchamp
- Mouse Imaging Centre, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto ON M5T 3H7, Canada
- Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto ON M5G 1L7, Canada
| | - C Shun Wong
- Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto ON M5G 1L7, Canada
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre, Odette Cancer Centre, Toronto ON M4N 3M5, Canada
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Toronto, Toronto ON M5T 1P5, Canada
| | - Mark R Palmert
- Division of Endocrinology, The Hospital for Sick Children, University of Toronto, Toronto ON M5G 1X8, Canada
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Toronto, Toronto ON M5S 1A8, Canada
- Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto ON M5S 1A8, Canada
- Genetics and Genome Biology, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto ON M5G 1X8, Canada
| | - Jason P Lerch
- Mouse Imaging Centre, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto ON M5T 3H7, Canada
- Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto ON M5G 1L7, Canada
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Neuroimaging, Medical Sciences Division, University of Oxford, Oxford, OXF OX3 9DU, United Kingdom
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Medical Sciences Division, University of Oxford, Oxford, OXF OX3 9DU, United Kingdom
| | - Brian J Nieman
- Mouse Imaging Centre, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto ON M5T 3H7, Canada
- Translational Medicine, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto ON M5G 1X8, Canada
- Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto ON M5G 1L7, Canada
- Ontario Institute for Cancer Research, Toronto, ON M5G 0A3, Canada
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2
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Torgerson C, Ahmadi H, Choupan J, Fan CC, Blosnich JR, Herting MM. Sex, gender diversity, and brain structure in early adolescence. Hum Brain Mapp 2024; 45:e26671. [PMID: 38590252 PMCID: PMC11002534 DOI: 10.1002/hbm.26671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Revised: 02/27/2024] [Accepted: 03/13/2024] [Indexed: 04/10/2024] Open
Abstract
There remains little consensus about the relationship between sex and brain structure, particularly in early adolescence. Moreover, few pediatric neuroimaging studies have analyzed both sex and gender as variables of interest-many of which included small sample sizes and relied on binary definitions of gender. The current study examined gender diversity with a continuous felt-gender score and categorized sex based on X and Y allele frequency in a large sample of children ages 9-11 years old (N = 7195). Then, a statistical model-building approach was employed to determine whether gender diversity and sex independently or jointly relate to brain morphology, including subcortical volume, cortical thickness, gyrification, and white matter microstructure. Additional sensitivity analyses found that male versus female differences in gyrification and white matter were largely accounted for by total brain volume, rather than sex per se. The model with sex, but not gender diversity, was the best-fitting model in 60.1% of gray matter regions and 61.9% of white matter regions after adjusting for brain volume. The proportion of variance accounted for by sex was negligible to small in all cases. While models including felt-gender explained a greater amount of variance in a few regions, the felt-gender score alone was not a significant predictor on its own for any white or gray matter regions examined. Overall, these findings demonstrate that at ages 9-11 years old, sex accounts for a small proportion of variance in brain structure, while gender diversity is not directly associated with neurostructural diversity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carinna Torgerson
- Department of Population and Public Health SciencesUniversity of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesCaliforniaUSA
- Mark and Mary Stevens Neuroimaging and Informatics InstituteUniversity of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesCaliforniaUSA
| | - Hedyeh Ahmadi
- Department of Population and Public Health SciencesUniversity of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesCaliforniaUSA
| | - Jeiran Choupan
- Mark and Mary Stevens Neuroimaging and Informatics InstituteUniversity of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesCaliforniaUSA
| | - Chun Chieh Fan
- Center for Population Neuroscience and GeneticsLaureate Institute for Brain ResearchTulsaOklahomaUSA
- Department of Radiology, School of MedicineUniversity of CaliforniaSan DiegoCaliforniaUSA
| | - John R. Blosnich
- Suzanne Dworak‐Peck School of Social WorkUniversity of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesCaliforniaUSA
| | - Megan M. Herting
- Department of Population and Public Health SciencesUniversity of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesCaliforniaUSA
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3
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Examining litter specific variability in mice and its impact on neurodevelopmental studies. Neuroimage 2023; 269:119888. [PMID: 36681136 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2023.119888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2022] [Revised: 01/07/2023] [Accepted: 01/17/2023] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Our current understanding of litter variability in neurodevelopmental studies using mice may limit translation of neuroscientific findings. Higher variance of measures across litters than within, often termed intra-litter likeness, may be attributable to both pre- and postnatal environment. This study aimed to assess the litter-effect within behavioral assessments (2 timepoints) and anatomy using T1-weighted magnetic resonance images across 72 brain region volumes (4 timepoints) (36 C57bl/6J inbred mice; 7 litters: 19F/17M). Between-litter comparisons of brain and behavioral measures and their associations were evaluated using univariate and multivariate techniques. A power analysis using simulation methods was then performed on modeled neurodevelopment and to evaluate trade-offs between number-of-litters, number-of-mice-per-litter, and sample size. Our results show litter-specific developmental effects, from the adolescent period to adulthood for brain structure volumes and behaviors, and for their associations in adulthood. Our power simulation analysis suggests increasing the number-of-litters in experimental designs to achieve the smallest total sample size necessary for detecting different rates of change in specific brain regions. Our results demonstrate how litter-specific effects may influence development and that increasing the litters to the total sample size ratio should be strongly considered when designing neurodevelopmental studies.
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4
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Tsurugizawa T. Translational Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Autism Spectrum Disorder From the Mouse Model to Human. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:872036. [PMID: 35585926 PMCID: PMC9108701 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.872036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2022] [Accepted: 03/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a heterogeneous syndrome characterized by behavioral features such as impaired social communication, repetitive behavior patterns, and a lack of interest in novel objects. A multimodal neuroimaging using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in patients with ASD shows highly heterogeneous abnormalities in function and structure in the brain associated with specific behavioral features. To elucidate the mechanism of ASD, several ASD mouse models have been generated, by focusing on some of the ASD risk genes. A specific behavioral feature of an ASD mouse model is caused by an altered gene expression or a modification of a gene product. Using these mouse models, a high field preclinical MRI enables us to non-invasively investigate the neuronal mechanism of the altered brain function associated with the behavior and ASD risk genes. Thus, MRI is a promising translational approach to bridge the gap between mice and humans. This review presents the evidence for multimodal MRI, including functional MRI (fMRI), diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), and volumetric analysis, in ASD mouse models and in patients with ASD and discusses the future directions for the translational study of ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomokazu Tsurugizawa
- Human Informatics and Interaction Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Tsukuba, Japan
- Faculty of Engineering, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
- *Correspondence: Tomokazu Tsurugizawa,
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5
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Chabrun F, Dieu X, May-Panloup P, Chupin S, Bourreau J, Henrion D, Letournel F, Procaccio V, Bonneau D, Lenaers G, Mirebeau-Prunier D, Chao de la Barca JM, Reynier P. Metabolomic Sexual Dimorphism of the Mouse Brain is Predominantly Abolished by Gonadectomy with a Higher Impact on Females. J Proteome Res 2021; 20:2772-2779. [PMID: 33851846 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.1c00045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The importance of sexual dimorphism of the mouse brain metabolome was recently highlighted, in addition to a high regional specificity found between the frontal cortex, the cerebellum, and the brain stem. To address the origin of this dimorphism, we performed gonadectomy on both sexes, followed by a metabolomic study targeting 188 metabolites in the three brain regions. While sham controls, which underwent the same surgical procedure without gonadectomy, reproduced the regional sexual dimorphism of the metabolome previously identified, no sex difference was identifiable after gonadectomy, through both univariate and multivariate analyses. These experiments also made it possible to identify which sex was responsible for the dimorphism for 35 metabolites. The female sex contributed to the difference for more than 80% of them. Our results show that gonads are the main contributors to the brain sexual dimorphism previously observed, especially in females.
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Affiliation(s)
- Floris Chabrun
- Département de Biochimie et Génétique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, 49933 Angers, France.,Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) MITOVASC, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) 6015, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) U1083, Université d'Angers, 49933 Angers, France
| | - Xavier Dieu
- Département de Biochimie et Génétique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, 49933 Angers, France.,Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) MITOVASC, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) 6015, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) U1083, Université d'Angers, 49933 Angers, France
| | - Pascale May-Panloup
- Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) MITOVASC, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) 6015, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) U1083, Université d'Angers, 49933 Angers, France.,Département de Biologie de la Reproduction, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, 49933 Angers, France
| | - Stéphanie Chupin
- Département de Biochimie et Génétique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, 49933 Angers, France
| | - Jennifer Bourreau
- Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) MITOVASC, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) 6015, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) U1083, Université d'Angers, 49933 Angers, France
| | - Daniel Henrion
- Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) MITOVASC, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) 6015, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) U1083, Université d'Angers, 49933 Angers, France
| | - Franck Letournel
- Laboratoire de Neurobiologie et Neuropathologie, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, 49933 Angers, France.,Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) MINT, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) 6021, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) U1066, Université d'Angers, 49933 Angers, France
| | - Vincent Procaccio
- Département de Biochimie et Génétique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, 49933 Angers, France.,Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) MITOVASC, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) 6015, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) U1083, Université d'Angers, 49933 Angers, France
| | - Dominique Bonneau
- Département de Biochimie et Génétique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, 49933 Angers, France.,Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) MITOVASC, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) 6015, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) U1083, Université d'Angers, 49933 Angers, France
| | - Guy Lenaers
- Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) MITOVASC, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) 6015, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) U1083, Université d'Angers, 49933 Angers, France
| | - Delphine Mirebeau-Prunier
- Département de Biochimie et Génétique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, 49933 Angers, France.,Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) MITOVASC, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) 6015, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) U1083, Université d'Angers, 49933 Angers, France
| | - Juan Manuel Chao de la Barca
- Département de Biochimie et Génétique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, 49933 Angers, France.,Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) MITOVASC, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) 6015, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) U1083, Université d'Angers, 49933 Angers, France
| | - Pascal Reynier
- Département de Biochimie et Génétique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, 49933 Angers, France.,Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) MITOVASC, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) 6015, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) U1083, Université d'Angers, 49933 Angers, France
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6
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Davies W. The contribution of Xp22.31 gene dosage to Turner and Klinefelter syndromes and sex-biased phenotypes. Eur J Med Genet 2021; 64:104169. [PMID: 33610733 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmg.2021.104169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2020] [Revised: 01/11/2021] [Accepted: 02/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Turner syndrome (TS) is a rare developmental condition in females caused by complete, or partial, loss of the second sex chromosome; it is associated with a number of phenotypes including short stature, ovarian failure and infertility, as well as neurobehavioural and cognitive manifestations. In contrast, Klinefelter syndrome (KS) arises from an excess of X chromosome material in males (typical karyotype is 47,XXY); like TS, KS is associated with infertility and hormonal imbalance, and behavioural/neurocognitive differences from gonadal sex-matched counterparts. Lower dosage of genes that escape X-inactivation may partially explain TS phenotypes, whilst overdosage of these genes may contribute towards KS-related symptoms. Here, I discuss new findings from individuals with deletions or duplications limited to Xp22.31 (a region escaping X-inactivation), and consider the extent to which altered gene dosage within this small interval (and of the steroid sulfatase (STS) gene in particular) may influence the phenotypic profiles of TS and KS. The expression of X-escapees can be higher in female than male tissues; I conclude by considering how lower Xp22.31 gene dosage in males may increase their likelihood of exhibiting particular phenotypes relative to females. Understanding the genetic contribution to specific phenotypes in rare disorders such as TS and KS, and to more common sex-biased phenotypes, will be important for developing more effective, and more personalised, therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- William Davies
- School of Psychology, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK; Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences and Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK; Neuroscience and Mental Health Research Institute, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK.
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7
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Raznahan A, Disteche CM. X-chromosome regulation and sex differences in brain anatomy. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2021; 120:28-47. [PMID: 33171144 PMCID: PMC7855816 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.10.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2020] [Revised: 10/13/2020] [Accepted: 10/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Humans show reproducible sex-differences in cognition and psychopathology that may be contributed to by influences of gonadal sex-steroids and/or sex-chromosomes on regional brain development. Gonadal sex-steroids are well known to play a major role in sexual differentiation of the vertebrate brain, but far less is known regarding the role of sex-chromosomes. Our review focuses on this latter issue by bridging together two literatures that have to date been largely disconnected. We first consider "bottom-up" genetic and molecular studies focused on sex-chromosome gene content and regulation. This literature nominates specific sex-chromosome genes that could drive developmental sex-differences by virtue of their sex-biased expression and their functions within the brain. We then consider the complementary "top down" view, from magnetic resonance imaging studies that map sex- and sex chromosome effects on regional brain anatomy, and link these maps to regional gene-expression within the brain. By connecting these top-down and bottom-up approaches, we emphasize the potential role of X-linked genes in driving sex-biased brain development and outline key goals for future work in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Armin Raznahan
- Section on Developmental Neurogenomics, Human Genetics Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA.
| | - Christine M Disteche
- Department of Pathology and Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA.
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8
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Metabolomics reveals highly regional specificity of cerebral sexual dimorphism in mice. Prog Neurobiol 2020; 184:101698. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2019.101698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2019] [Revised: 07/25/2019] [Accepted: 09/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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9
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Aarde SM, Hrncir H, Arnold AP, Jentsch JD. Reversal Learning Performance in the XY ∗ Mouse Model of Klinefelter and Turner Syndromes. Front Behav Neurosci 2019; 13:201. [PMID: 31551728 PMCID: PMC6742981 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2019.00201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2019] [Accepted: 08/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Klinefelter syndrome (KS; 47, XXY) and Turner syndrome (TS; 45, XO) are caused by two relatively common sex chromosome aneuploidies. These conditions are associated with an increased odds of neuropsychiatric disorders, including attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), as well as impairments in cognition that include learning delays, attentional dysfunction and impulsivity. We studied cognitive functions in the XY∗ mouse model, which allows comparison of XXY to XY males (KS model), and XO to XX females (TS model). We evaluated adult mice with and without gonads, using a version of an operant reversal-learning task (RLT) that can be used to measure various facets of learning, impulsivity and attention. In the KS model, only one measure related to impulsivity – perseverative responding under reversal conditions – reliably discriminated gonadally intact XXY and XY mice. In contrast, a fundamental learning impairment (more trials to criterion in acquisition phase) in XXY mice, as compared to XY, was observed in gonadectomized subjects. No other task measures showed differences consistent with KS. In the TS mouse model, XO mice did not show a pattern of results consistent with TS, similar to past observations. Thus, the application of this RLT to these XY∗ models reveals only limited behavioral impairments relevant to KS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shawn M Aarde
- Department of Integrative Biology and Physiology, Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology of the Brain Research Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Haley Hrncir
- Department of Integrative Biology and Physiology, Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology of the Brain Research Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Arthur P Arnold
- Department of Integrative Biology and Physiology, Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology of the Brain Research Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - James D Jentsch
- Department of Psychology, Binghamton University, Binghamton, NY, United States
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10
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Abstract
Women undergo developmental and cyclic changes in hormonal exposures that affect brain function and mental health. Some women are more vulnerable to the effects of these hormonal exposures, for reasons that remain to be determined. Evidence to date indicates that anxiety and mood disorders are the most sensitive to hormonal fluctuations in women but there is also growing evidence for a protective effect of female reproductive hormones on schizophrenia. The hormonal exposures of the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, the postpartum period, lactation, and menopause are quite different and may be associated with at least partially distinct symptom profiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margaret Altemus
- VA Connecticut Health Care System, Women's Clinic, Building 2, Room 7-165, 950 Campbell Avenue, New Haven, CT 06516, USA.
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11
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Connectal coding: discovering the structures linking cognitive phenotypes to individual histories. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2019; 55:199-212. [PMID: 31102987 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2019.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2018] [Revised: 04/14/2019] [Accepted: 04/16/2019] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Cognitive phenotypes characterize our memories, beliefs, skills, and preferences, and arise from our ancestral, developmental, and experiential histories. These histories are written into our brain structure through the building and modification of various brain circuits. Connectal coding, by way of analogy with neural coding, is the art, study, and practice of identifying the network structures that link cognitive phenomena to individual histories. We propose a formal statistical framework for connectal coding and demonstrate its utility in several applications spanning experimental modalities and phylogeny.
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12
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Arnold AP. The mouse as a model of fundamental concepts related to Turner syndrome. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF MEDICAL GENETICS PART C-SEMINARS IN MEDICAL GENETICS 2019; 181:76-85. [PMID: 30779420 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.c.31681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2018] [Accepted: 01/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Although XO mice do not show many of the overt phenotypic features of Turner syndrome (TS; 45,X or XO), mice and humans share different classes of genes on the X chromosome that are more or less likely to cause TS phenotypes. Based on the evolutionary history of the sex chromosomes, and the pattern of dosage balancing among sex chromosomal and autosomal genes in functional gene networks, it is possible to prioritize types of X genes for study as potential causes of features of TS. For example, X-Y gene pairs are among the most interesting because of the convergent effects of X and Y genes that both are likely to prevent the effects of TS in XX and XY individuals. Many of the high-priority genes are shared by mouse and human X chromosomes, but are easier to study in genetically tractable mouse models. Several mouse models, used primarily for the study of sex differences in physiology and disease, also produce XO mice that can be investigated to understand the effects of X monosomy. Using these models will lead to the identification of specific X genes that make a difference when present in one or two copies. These studies will help to achieve a better appreciation of the contribution of these specific X genes to the syndromic features of TS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arthur P Arnold
- Department of Integrative Biology and Physiology, Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology of the Brain Research Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, California
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13
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Green T, Flash S, Reiss AL. Sex differences in psychiatric disorders: what we can learn from sex chromosome aneuploidies. Neuropsychopharmacology 2019; 44:9-21. [PMID: 30127341 PMCID: PMC6235860 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-018-0153-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2018] [Revised: 06/01/2018] [Accepted: 06/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The study of sexual dimorphism in psychiatric and neurodevelopmental disorders is challenging due to the complex interplay of diverse biological, psychological, and social factors. Males are more susceptible to neurodevelopmental disorders including intellectual disability, autism spectrum disorder, and attention-deficit activity disorder. Conversely, after puberty, females are more prone to major depressive disorder and anxiety disorders compared to males. One major biological factor contributing to sex differences is the sex chromosomes. First, the X and Y chromosomes have unique and specific genetic effects as well as downstream gonadal effects. Second, males have one X chromosome and one Y chromosome, while females have two X chromosomes. Thus, sex chromosome constitution also differs between the sexes. Due to this complexity, determining genetic and downstream biological influences on sexual dimorphism in humans is challenging. Sex chromosome aneuploidies, such as Turner syndrome (X0) and Klinefelter syndrome (XXY), are common genetic conditions in humans. The study of individuals with sex chromosome aneuploidies provides a promising framework for studying sexual dimorphism in neurodevelopmental and psychiatric disorders. Here we will review and contrast four syndromes caused by variation in the number of sex chromosomes: Turner syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome, XYY syndrome, and XXX syndrome. Overall we describe an increased rate of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder, along with the increased rates of major depressive disorder and anxiety disorders in one or more of these conditions. In addition to contributing unique insights about sexual dimorphism in neuropsychiatric disorders, awareness of the increased risk of neurodevelopmental and psychiatric disorders in sex chromosome aneuploidies can inform appropriate management of these common genetic disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamar Green
- Center for Interdisciplinary Brain Sciences Research, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA.
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA.
| | - Shira Flash
- Center for Interdisciplinary Brain Sciences Research, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Allan L Reiss
- Center for Interdisciplinary Brain Sciences Research, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
- Department of Radiology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
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14
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Impact of X/Y genes and sex hormones on mouse neuroanatomy. Neuroimage 2018; 173:551-563. [PMID: 29501873 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.02.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2017] [Revised: 02/05/2018] [Accepted: 02/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Biological sex influences brain anatomy across many species. Sex differences in brain anatomy have classically been attributed to differences in sex chromosome complement (XX versus XY) and/or in levels of gonadal sex steroids released from ovaries and testes. Using the four core genotype (4CG) mouse model in which gonadal sex and sex chromosome complement are decoupled, we previously found that sex hormones and chromosomes influence the volume of distinct brain regions. However, recent studies suggest there may be more complex interactions between hormones and chromosomes, and that circulating steroids can compensate for and/or mask underlying chromosomal effects. Moreover, the impact of pre vs post-pubertal sex hormone exposure on this sex hormone/sex chromosome interplay is not well understood. Thus, we used whole brain high-resolution ex-vivo MRI of intact and pre-pubertally gonadectomized 4CG mice to investigate two questions: 1) Do circulating steroids mask sex differences in brain anatomy driven by sex chromosome complement? And 2) What is the contribution of pre- versus post-pubertal hormones to sex-hormone-dependent differences in brain anatomy? We found evidence of both cooperative and compensatory interactions between sex chromosomes and sex hormones in several brain regions, but the interaction effects were of low magnitude. Additionally, most brain regions affected by sex hormones were sensitive to both pre- and post-pubertal hormones. This data provides further insight into the biological origins of sex differences in brain anatomy.
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15
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Meyer CE, Kurth F, Lepore S, Gao JL, Johnsonbaugh H, Oberoi MR, Sawiak SJ, MacKenzie-Graham A. In vivo magnetic resonance images reveal neuroanatomical sex differences through the application of voxel-based morphometry in C57BL/6 mice. Neuroimage 2017; 163:197-205. [PMID: 28923275 PMCID: PMC5716897 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.09.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2017] [Revised: 09/07/2017] [Accepted: 09/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Behaviorally relevant sex differences are often associated with structural differences in the brain and many diseases are sexually dimorphic in prevalence and progression. Characterizing sex differences is imperative to gaining a complete understanding of behavior and disease which will, in turn, allow for a balanced approach to scientific research and the development of therapies. In this study, we generated novel tissue probability maps (TPMs) based on 30 male and 30 female in vivo C57BL/6 mouse brain magnetic resonance images and used voxel-based morphometry (VBM) to analyze sex differences. Females displayed larger anterior hippocampus, basolateral amygdala, and lateral cerebellar cortex volumes, while males exhibited larger cerebral cortex, medial amygdala, and medial cerebellar cortex volumes. Atlas-based morphometry (ABM) revealed a statistically significant sex difference in cortical volume and no difference in whole cerebellar volume. This validated our VBM findings that showed a larger cerebral cortex in male mice and a pattern of dimorphism in the cerebellum where the lateral portion was larger in females and the medial portion was larger in males. These results are consonant with previous ex vivo studies examining sex differences, but also suggest further regions of interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cassandra E Meyer
- Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California, Los Angeles, 635 Charles Young Drive South, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Florian Kurth
- Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California, Los Angeles, 635 Charles Young Drive South, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Stefano Lepore
- Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California, Los Angeles, 635 Charles Young Drive South, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Josephine L Gao
- Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California, Los Angeles, 635 Charles Young Drive South, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Hadley Johnsonbaugh
- Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California, Los Angeles, 635 Charles Young Drive South, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Mandavi R Oberoi
- Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California, Los Angeles, 635 Charles Young Drive South, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Stephen J Sawiak
- Wolfson Brain Imaging Centre, University of Cambridge, Box 65 Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge, CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Allan MacKenzie-Graham
- Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California, Los Angeles, 635 Charles Young Drive South, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
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16
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Kaku SM, Dhiman V. Sex Chromosomes: Does it Affect the Way You Think? Indian J Psychol Med 2017; 39:549-551. [PMID: 28852264 PMCID: PMC5560018 DOI: 10.4103/ijpsym.ijpsym_107_17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Sowmyashree Mayur Kaku
- Neurobiology Research Centre, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
| | - Vikas Dhiman
- Division of Non-Communicable Diseases, Indian Council of Medical Research, New Delhi, India
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17
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Zhao C, Gong G. Mapping the effect of the X chromosome on the human brain: Neuroimaging evidence from Turner syndrome. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2017; 80:263-275. [PMID: 28591595 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.05.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2016] [Revised: 04/07/2017] [Accepted: 05/26/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
In addition to determining sex, the X chromosome has long been considered to play a crucial role in brain development and intelligence. Turner syndrome (TS) is caused by the congenital absence of all or part of one of the X chromosomes in females. Thus, Turner syndrome provides a unique "knock-out model" for investigating how the X chromosome influences the human brain in vivo. Numerous cutting-edge neuroimaging techniques and analyses have been applied to investigate various brain phenotypes in women with TS, which have yielded valuable evidence toward elucidating the causal relationship between the X chromosome and human brain structure and function. In this review, we comprehensively summarize the recent progress made in TS-related neuroimaging studies and emphasize how these findings have enhanced our understanding of X chromosome function with respect to the human brain. Future investigations are encouraged to address the issues of previous TS neuroimaging studies and to further identify the biological mechanisms that underlie the function of specific X-linked genes in the human brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenxi Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning & IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Gaolang Gong
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning & IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China; Beijing Key Laboratory of Brain Imaging and Connectomics, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China.
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18
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Abstract
Women undergo developmental and cyclic changes in hormonal exposures that affect brain function and mental health. Some women are more vulnerable to the effects of these hormonal exposures, for reasons that remain to be determined. Evidence to date indicates that anxiety and mood disorders are the most sensitive to hormonal fluctuations in women but there is also growing evidence for a protective effect of female reproductive hormones on schizophrenia. The hormonal exposures of the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, the postpartum period, lactation, and menopause are quite different and may be associated with at least partially distinct symptom profiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margaret Altemus
- VA Connecticut Health Care System, Women's Clinic, Building 2, Room 7-165, 950 Campbell Avenue, New Haven, CT 06516, USA.
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19
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Miura K, Murata C, Harikae K, Suzuki H, Kanai-Azuma M, Kurohmaru M, Tsunekawa N, Kanai Y. Defects in the first wave of folliculogenesis in mouse XO ovaries. J Reprod Dev 2017; 63:333-338. [PMID: 28392504 PMCID: PMC5481637 DOI: 10.1262/jrd.2017-033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
In mouse ovaries, the first wave of folliculogenesis perinatally starts near the medullary region, which directs the initial round of follicular growth soon after birth. At the same time, cortical primordial follicles start forming in the ovarian surface region, and then some are cyclically recruited for the second and subsequent rounds of follicular growth. Recent studies suggest different dynamics between the first and subsequent waves of follicular growth in postnatal ovaries. However, the phenotypic differences between these phases remain unclear. Here, we show direct evidence that XO female mice, a murine model for Turner Syndrome, lack the first wave of folliculogenesis. Our histopathological analyses of XX and XO littermates revealed a lack of anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH)-positive primary follicles in the XO ovaries by 4 days post partum (dpp). This loss of first follicles was also confirmed by histological bioassay for SRY-dependent SOX9 inducibility, a specific marker for the first follicular granulosa cells. In contrast, cortical primordial follicles formed properly in XO ovaries, and some of them formed primary and secondary follicles in the subcortical region by 7 dpp. They rapidly developed into late antral follicles, showing similarities to XX littermate ovaries by 21 dpp. These results suggest distinct X-monosomy effects between the first and subsequent waves of follicular growth, highlighting the high susceptibility to elimination of XO oocytes in the first wave of mammalian folliculogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kento Miura
- Department of Veterinary Anatomy, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Chiharu Murata
- Department of Veterinary Anatomy, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Kyoko Harikae
- Department of Veterinary Anatomy, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Hitomi Suzuki
- Department of Experimental Animal Model for Human Disease, Center for Experimental Animals, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo 113-8510, Japan
| | - Masami Kanai-Azuma
- Department of Experimental Animal Model for Human Disease, Center for Experimental Animals, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo 113-8510, Japan
| | - Masamichi Kurohmaru
- Department of Veterinary Anatomy, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Naoki Tsunekawa
- Department of Veterinary Anatomy, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Yoshiakira Kanai
- Department of Veterinary Anatomy, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
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20
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Xie S, Yang J, Zhang Z, Zhao C, Bi Y, Zhao Q, Pan H, Gong G. The Effects of the X Chromosome on Intrinsic Functional Connectivity in the Human Brain: Evidence from Turner Syndrome Patients. Cereb Cortex 2017; 27:474-484. [PMID: 26494797 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhv240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Turner syndrome (TS), a disorder caused by the congenital absence of one of the 2 X chromosomes in female humans, provides a valuable human "knockout model" for studying the functions of the X chromosome. At present, it remains unknown whether and how the loss of the X chromosome influences intrinsic functional connectivity (FC), a fundamental phenotype of the human brain. To address this, we performed resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging and specific cognitive assessments on 22 TS patients and 17 age-matched control girls. A novel data-driven approach was applied to identify the disrupted patterns of intrinsic FC in TS. The TS girls exhibited significantly reduced whole-brain FC strength within the bilateral postcentral gyrus/intraparietal sulcus, angular gyrus, and cuneus and the right cerebellum. Furthermore, a specific functional subnetwork was identified in which the intrinsic FC between nodes was mostly reduced in TS patients. Particularly, this subnetwork is composed of 3 functional modules, and the disruption of intrinsic FC within one of these modules was associated with the deficits of TS patients in math-related cognition. Taken together, these findings provide novel insight into how the X chromosome affects the human brain and cognition, and emphasize an important role of X-linked genes in intrinsic neural coupling.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jiaotian Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning & IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Zhixin Zhang
- Department of Pediatrics, China-Japan Friendship Hospital, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Chenxi Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning & IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Yanchao Bi
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning & IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Qiuling Zhao
- Department of Pediatrics, China-Japan Friendship Hospital, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Hui Pan
- Key Laboratory of Endocrinology, Ministry of Health, Department of Endocrinology, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing 100730, China
| | - Gaolang Gong
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning & IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
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21
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Lai MC, Lerch JP, Floris DL, Ruigrok AN, Pohl A, Lombardo MV, Baron-Cohen S. Imaging sex/gender and autism in the brain: Etiological implications. J Neurosci Res 2016; 95:380-397. [DOI: 10.1002/jnr.23948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2016] [Revised: 09/04/2016] [Accepted: 09/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Meng-Chuan Lai
- Child and Youth Mental Health Collaborative at the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health and the Hospital for Sick Children, Department of Psychiatry; University of Toronto; Toronto Ontario Canada
- Autism Research Centre, Department of Psychiatry; University of Cambridge; Cambridge United Kingdom
- Department of Psychiatry; National Taiwan University Hospital and College of Medicine; Taipei Taiwan
| | - Jason P. Lerch
- Mouse Imaging Centre, Hospital for Sick Children; Toronto Ontario Canada
- Department of Medical Biophysics; University of Toronto; Toronto Ontario Canada
| | - Dorothea L. Floris
- Autism Research Centre, Department of Psychiatry; University of Cambridge; Cambridge United Kingdom
- New York University Child Study Center; New York New York USA
| | - Amber N.V. Ruigrok
- Autism Research Centre, Department of Psychiatry; University of Cambridge; Cambridge United Kingdom
| | - Alexa Pohl
- Autism Research Centre, Department of Psychiatry; University of Cambridge; Cambridge United Kingdom
| | - Michael V. Lombardo
- Autism Research Centre, Department of Psychiatry; University of Cambridge; Cambridge United Kingdom
- Department of Psychology and Center of Applied Neuroscience; University of Cyprus; Nicosia Cyprus
| | - Simon Baron-Cohen
- Autism Research Centre, Department of Psychiatry; University of Cambridge; Cambridge United Kingdom
- CLASS Clinic, Cambridgeshire and Peterborough NHS Foundation Trust; Cambridge United Kingdom
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22
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Green T, Fierro KC, Raman MM, Foland-Ross L, Hong DS, Reiss AL. Sex differences in amygdala shape: Insights from Turner syndrome. Hum Brain Mapp 2016; 37:1593-601. [PMID: 26819071 DOI: 10.1002/hbm.23122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2015] [Revised: 12/10/2015] [Accepted: 01/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Sex differences in the manifestation of psychiatric disorders, including anxiety disorders, are among the most prominent findings in psychiatry. The study of Turner syndrome (TS), caused by X-monosomy, has the potential to reveal mechanisms that underline male/female differences in neuropsychiatric disorders. The amygdala has been implicated in numerous neuropsychiatric disorders. Previous studies suggest an effect of TS on amygdala volume as well as on amygdala-related behaviors such as anxiety. Our objective is to investigate the amygdala shape in TS. Specifically, we tested whether amygdala enlargements in TS are localized to specific nuclei implicated in anxiety, such as the basomedial nucleus. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN We use a surface-based analytical modeling approach to contrast 41 pre-estrogen treatment girls with TS (mean age 8.6 ± 2.4) with 34 age-and sex-matched typically developing (TD) controls (mean age 8.0 ± 2.8). Anxiety symptoms were assessed using the Revised Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale - 2 (RCMAS-2) in both groups. PRINCIPAL OBSERVATIONS TS was associated with anomalous enlargement of the amygdala. Surface-based modeling revealed shape differences (increased radial-distances) in bilateral basal and basomedial nuclei within the basolateral complex. RCMAS-2 Total Anxiety t-score was significantly higher in participants with TS compared with TD controls (P = 0.012). CONCLUSIONS Group differences in global amygdala volumes were driven by local morphological increases in areas that are critically involved in face emotion processing and anxiety. In the context of increased amygdala volumes in TS, our results also showed increased worry and social anxiety in young girls with TS compared with TD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamar Green
- Center for Interdisciplinary Brain Sciences Research, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California.,Psychiatry, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Israel.,Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California
| | - Kyle C Fierro
- Center for Interdisciplinary Brain Sciences Research, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California
| | - Mira M Raman
- Center for Interdisciplinary Brain Sciences Research, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California
| | - Lara Foland-Ross
- Center for Interdisciplinary Brain Sciences Research, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California
| | - David S Hong
- Center for Interdisciplinary Brain Sciences Research, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California.,Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California
| | - Allan L Reiss
- Center for Interdisciplinary Brain Sciences Research, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California.,Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California.,Department of Radiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California
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23
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Goddard MN, Swaab H, Rombouts SARB, van Rijn S. Neural systems for social cognition: gray matter volume abnormalities in boys at high genetic risk of autism symptoms, and a comparison with idiopathic autism spectrum disorder. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2016; 266:523-31. [PMID: 26233431 PMCID: PMC4990618 DOI: 10.1007/s00406-015-0623-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2014] [Accepted: 07/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Klinefelter syndrome (47, XXY) is associated with several physical, cognitive, and behavioral consequences. In terms of social development, there is an increased risk of autism symptomatology. However, it remains unclear how social deficits are related to abnormal brain development and to what degree underlying mechanisms of social dysfunction in 47, XXY are similar to, or different from, those in idiopathic autism (ASD). This study was aimed at investigating the neural architecture of brain structures related to social information processing in boys with 47, XXY, also in comparison with boys with idiopathic ASD. MRI scans of 16 boys with 47, XXY, 16 with ASD, and 16 nonclinical, male controls were analyzed using voxel-based morphometry (VBM). A region of interest mask containing the superior temporal cortex, amygdala, orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), insular cortex, and medial frontal cortex was used. The Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS) was used to assess degree of autism spectrum symptoms. The 47, XXY group could not be distinguished from the ASD group on mean SRS scores, and their scores were significantly higher than in controls. VBM showed that boys with 47, XXY have significant gray matter volume reductions in the left and right insula, and the left OFC, compared with controls and boys with ASD. Additionally, boys with 47, XXY had significantly less gray matter in the right superior temporal gyrus than controls. These results imply social challenges associated with 47, XXY may be rooted in neural anatomy, and autism symptoms in boys with 47, XXY and boys with ASD might have, at least partially, different underlying etiologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcia N. Goddard
- Department of Clinical Child and Adolescent Studies, Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences, Leiden University, Wassenaarseweg 52, 2333 AK Leiden, The Netherlands ,Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Hanna Swaab
- Department of Clinical Child and Adolescent Studies, Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences, Leiden University, Wassenaarseweg 52, 2333 AK Leiden, The Netherlands ,Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Serge A. R. B. Rombouts
- Institute of Psychology, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands ,Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition, Leiden, The Netherlands ,Department of Radiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Sophie van Rijn
- Department of Clinical Child and Adolescent Studies, Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences, Leiden University, Wassenaarseweg 52, 2333 AK Leiden, The Netherlands ,Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition, Leiden, The Netherlands
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24
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Abstract
In order to understand the consequences of the mutation on behavioral and biological phenotypes relevant to autism, mutations in many of the risk genes for autism spectrum disorder have been experimentally generated in mice. Here, we summarize behavioral outcomes and neuroanatomical abnormalities, with a focus on high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging of postmortem mouse brains. Results are described from multiple mouse models of autism spectrum disorder and comorbid syndromes, including the 15q11-13, 16p11.2, 22q11.2, Cntnap2, Engrailed2, Fragile X, Integrinβ3, MET, Neurexin1a, Neuroligin3, Reelin, Rett, Shank3, Slc6a4, tuberous sclerosis, and Williams syndrome models, and inbred strains with strong autism-relevant behavioral phenotypes, including BTBR and BALB. Concomitant behavioral and neuroanatomical abnormalities can strengthen the interpretation of results from a mouse model, and may elevate the usefulness of the model system for therapeutic discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob Ellegood
- />Mouse Imaging Centre (MICe), Hospital for Sick Children, 25 Orde Street, Toronto, ON M5T 3H7 Canada
| | - Jacqueline N. Crawley
- />MIND Institute and Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California Davis School of Medicine, 4625 2nd Avenue, Sacramento, CA 95817 USA
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25
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Levitsky LL, Luria AHO, Hayes FJ, Lin AE. Turner syndrome: update on biology and management across the life span. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes 2015; 22:65-72. [PMID: 25517026 DOI: 10.1097/med.0000000000000128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW We review recent understanding of the pathophysiology, molecular biology, and management of Turner syndrome. RECENT FINDINGS Sophisticated genetic techniques are able to detect mosaicism in one-third of individuals previously thought to have monosomy X. Prenatal detection using maternal blood should permit noninvasive detection of most fetuses with an X chromosome abnormality. Disproportionate growth with short limbs has been documented in this condition, and a target gene of short stature homeobox, connective tissue growth factor (Ctgf), has been described. Liver disease is more common in Turner syndrome than previously recognized. Most girls have gonadal failure. Spontaneous puberty and menarche is more commonly seen in girls with XX mosaicism. Low-dose estrogen replacement therapy may be given early to induce a more normal onset and tempo of puberty. Oocyte donation for assisted reproduction carries a substantial risk, particularly if the woman has known cardiac or aortic disease. Neurodevelopmental differences in Turner syndrome are beginning to be correlated with differences in brain anatomy. SUMMARY An increased understanding of the molecular basis for aspects of this disorder is now developing. In addition, a renewed focus on health maintenance through the life span should provide better general and targeted healthcare for these girls and women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lynne L Levitsky
- aPediatric Endocrine Unit, Department of Pediatrics, Massachusetts General Hospital bGenetics Residency Program, Harvard Medical School cBoston Children's Hospital dReproductive Endocrine Unit, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital eGenetics Unit, Mass General Hospital for Children, Massachusetts, Boston, USA
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26
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Corre C, Friedel M, Vousden DA, Metcalf A, Spring S, Qiu LR, Lerch JP, Palmert MR. Separate effects of sex hormones and sex chromosomes on brain structure and function revealed by high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging and spatial navigation assessment of the Four Core Genotype mouse model. Brain Struct Funct 2014; 221:997-1016. [PMID: 25445841 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-014-0952-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2014] [Accepted: 11/22/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Males and females exhibit several differences in brain structure and function. To examine the basis for these sex differences, we investigated the influences of sex hormones and sex chromosomes on brain structure and function in mice. We used the Four Core Genotype (4CG) mice, which can generate both male and female mice with XX or XY sex chromosome complement, allowing the decoupling of sex chromosomes from hormonal milieu. To examine whole brain structure, high-resolution ex vivo MRI was performed, and to assess differences in cognitive function, mice were trained on a radial arm maze. Voxel-wise and volumetric analyses of MRI data uncovered a striking independence of hormonal versus chromosomal influences in 30 sexually dimorphic brain regions. For example, the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis and the parieto-temporal lobe of the cerebral cortex displayed steroid-dependence while the cerebellar cortex, corpus callosum, and olfactory bulbs were influenced by sex chromosomes. Spatial learning and memory demonstrated strict hormone-dependency with no apparent influence of sex chromosomes. Understanding the influences of chromosomes and hormones on brain structure and function is important for understanding sex differences in brain structure and function, an endeavor that has eventual implications for understanding sex biases observed in the prevalence of psychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Corre
- Division of Endocrinology, The Hospital for Sick Children, 555 University Avenue, Toronto, ON, M5G 1X8, Canada.
| | - Miriam Friedel
- Mouse Imaging Centre and Program in Neuroscience and Mental Health, The Hospital for Sick Children, 25 Orde Street, Toronto, ON, M5T 3H7, Canada
| | - Dulcie A Vousden
- Mouse Imaging Centre and Program in Neuroscience and Mental Health, The Hospital for Sick Children, 25 Orde Street, Toronto, ON, M5T 3H7, Canada.,Department of Medical Biophysics, The University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Ariane Metcalf
- Mouse Imaging Centre and Program in Neuroscience and Mental Health, The Hospital for Sick Children, 25 Orde Street, Toronto, ON, M5T 3H7, Canada
| | - Shoshana Spring
- Mouse Imaging Centre and Program in Neuroscience and Mental Health, The Hospital for Sick Children, 25 Orde Street, Toronto, ON, M5T 3H7, Canada
| | - Lily R Qiu
- Division of Endocrinology, The Hospital for Sick Children, 555 University Avenue, Toronto, ON, M5G 1X8, Canada.,Institute of Medical Science, The University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Jason P Lerch
- Mouse Imaging Centre and Program in Neuroscience and Mental Health, The Hospital for Sick Children, 25 Orde Street, Toronto, ON, M5T 3H7, Canada.,Department of Medical Biophysics, The University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Mark R Palmert
- Division of Endocrinology, The Hospital for Sick Children, 555 University Avenue, Toronto, ON, M5G 1X8, Canada. .,Institute of Medical Science, The University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada. .,Departments of Paediatrics and Physiology, The University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.
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27
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Cox KH, Bonthuis PJ, Rissman EF. Mouse model systems to study sex chromosome genes and behavior: relevance to humans. Front Neuroendocrinol 2014; 35:405-19. [PMID: 24388960 PMCID: PMC4079771 DOI: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2013.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2013] [Revised: 12/16/2013] [Accepted: 12/20/2013] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Sex chromosome genes directly influence sex differences in behavior. The discovery of the Sry gene on the Y chromosome (Gubbay et al., 1990; Koopman et al., 1990) substantiated the sex chromosome mechanistic link to sex differences. Moreover, the pronounced connection between X chromosome gene mutations and mental illness produces a strong sex bias in these diseases. Yet, the dominant explanation for sex differences continues to be the gonadal hormones. Here we review progress made on behavioral differences in mouse models that uncouple sex chromosome complement from gonadal sex. We conclude that many social and cognitive behaviors are modified by sex chromosome complement, and discuss the implications for human research. Future directions need to include identification of the genes involved and interactions with these genes and gonadal hormones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimberly H Cox
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics and Program in Neuroscience, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA 22908, United States
| | - Paul J Bonthuis
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics and Program in Neuroscience, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA 22908, United States
| | - Emilie F Rissman
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics and Program in Neuroscience, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA 22908, United States.
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Raznahan A, Lue Y, Probst F, Greenstein D, Giedd J, Wang C, Lerch J, Swerdloff R. Triangulating the sexually dimorphic brain through high-resolution neuroimaging of murine sex chromosome aneuploidies. Brain Struct Funct 2014; 220:3581-93. [PMID: 25146308 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-014-0875-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2014] [Accepted: 08/09/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Murine sex chromosome aneuploidies (SCAs) provide powerful models for charting sex chromosome influences on mammalian brain development. Here, building on prior work in X-monosomic (XO) mice, we use spatially non-biased high-resolution imaging to compare and contrast neuroanatomical alterations in XXY and XO mice relative to their wild-type XX and XY littermates. First, we show that carriage of a supernumerary X chromosome in XXY males (1) does not prevent normative volumetric masculinization of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) and medial amygdala, but (2) causes distributed anatomical alterations relative to XY males, which show a statistically unexpected tendency to be co-localized with and reciprocal to XO-XX differences in anatomy. These overlaps identify the lateral septum, BNST, ventral group thalamic nuclei and periaqueductal gray matter as regions with replicable sensitivity to X chromosome dose across two SCAs. We then harness anatomical variation across all four karyotype groups in our study--XO, XX, XY and XXY--to create an agnostic data-driven segmentation of the mouse brain into five distributed clusters which (1) recover fundamental properties of brain organization with high spatial precision, (2) define two previously uncharacterized systems of relative volume excess in females vs. males ("forebrain cholinergic" and "cerebelo-pontine-thalamo-cortical"), and (3) adopt stereotyped spatial motifs which delineate ordered gradients of sex chromosome and gonadal influences on volumetric brain development. Taken together, these data provide a new framework for the study of sexually dimorphic influences on brain development in health and disrupted brain development in SCA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Armin Raznahan
- Child Psychiatry Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Rm 4C108, Building 20, 10 Center Drive, Bethesda, MD, 20815, USA.
| | - YanHe Lue
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, Los Angele Biomedical Research Institute at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA, USA
| | - Frank Probst
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Deanna Greenstein
- Child Psychiatry Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Rm 4C108, Building 20, 10 Center Drive, Bethesda, MD, 20815, USA
| | - Jay Giedd
- Child Psychiatry Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Rm 4C108, Building 20, 10 Center Drive, Bethesda, MD, 20815, USA
| | - Christina Wang
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, Los Angele Biomedical Research Institute at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA, USA
| | - Jason Lerch
- Mouse Imaging Centre and Program in Neuroscience and Mental, The Hospital for Sick Children Hospital, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Ronald Swerdloff
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, Los Angele Biomedical Research Institute at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA, USA
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29
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Raznahan A, Lee NR, Greenstein D, Wallace GL, Blumenthal JD, Clasen LS, Giedd JN. Globally Divergent but Locally Convergent X- and Y-Chromosome Influences on Cortical Development. Cereb Cortex 2014; 26:70-9. [PMID: 25146371 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhu174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Owing to their unique evolutionary history, modern mammalian X- and Y-chromosomes have highly divergent gene contents counterbalanced by regulatory features, which preferentially restrict expression of X- and Y-specific genes. These 2 characteristics make opposing predictions regarding the expected dissimilarity of X- vs. Y-chromosome influences on biological structure and function. Here, we quantify this dissimilarity using in vivo neuroimaging within a rare cohort of humans with diverse sex chromosome aneuploidies (SCAs). We show that X- and Y-chromosomes have opposing effects on overall brain size but exert highly convergent influences on local brain anatomy, which manifest across biologically distinct dimensions of the cerebral cortex. Large-scale online meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging data indicates that convergent sex chromosome dosage effects preferentially impact centers for social perception, communication, and decision-making. Thus, despite an almost complete lack of sequence homology, and opposing effects on overall brain size, X- and Y-chromosomes exert congruent effects on the proportional size of cortical systems involved in adaptive social functioning. These convergent X-Y effects (i) track the dosage of those few genes that are still shared by X- and Y-chromosomes, and (ii) may provide a biological substrate for the link between SCA and increased rates of psychopathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Armin Raznahan
- Section on Brain Imaging, Child Psychiatry Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892 USA
| | - Nancy Raitano Lee
- Section on Brain Imaging, Child Psychiatry Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892 USA
| | - Deanna Greenstein
- Section on Brain Imaging, Child Psychiatry Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892 USA
| | - Gregory L Wallace
- Section on Brain Imaging, Child Psychiatry Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892 USA Department of Speech and Hearing Sciences, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052 USA
| | - Jonathan D Blumenthal
- Section on Brain Imaging, Child Psychiatry Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892 USA
| | - Liv S Clasen
- Section on Brain Imaging, Child Psychiatry Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892 USA
| | - Jay N Giedd
- Section on Brain Imaging, Child Psychiatry Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892 USA
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30
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Sex differences in anxiety and depression clinical perspectives. Front Neuroendocrinol 2014; 35:320-30. [PMID: 24887405 PMCID: PMC4890708 DOI: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2014.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 805] [Impact Index Per Article: 80.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2014] [Revised: 05/15/2014] [Accepted: 05/21/2014] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Sex differences are prominent in mood and anxiety disorders and may provide a window into mechanisms of onset and maintenance of affective disturbances in both men and women. With the plethora of sex differences in brain structure, function, and stress responsivity, as well as differences in exposure to reproductive hormones, social expectations and experiences, the challenge is to understand which sex differences are relevant to affective illness. This review will focus on clinical aspects of sex differences in affective disorders including the emergence of sex differences across developmental stages and the impact of reproductive events. Biological, cultural, and experiential factors that may underlie sex differences in the phenomenology of mood and anxiety disorders are discussed.
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31
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Xie S, Zhang Z, Zhao Q, Zhang J, Zhong S, Bi Y, He Y, Pan H, Gong G. The Effects of X Chromosome Loss on Neuroanatomical and Cognitive Phenotypes During Adolescence: a Multi-modal Structural MRI and Diffusion Tensor Imaging Study. Cereb Cortex 2014; 25:2842-53. [PMID: 24770708 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhu079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The absence of all or part of one X chromosome in female humans causes Turner's syndrome (TS), providing a unique "knockout model" to investigate the role of the X chromosome in neuroanatomy and cognition. Previous studies have demonstrated TS-associated brain differences; however, it remains largely unknown 1) how the brain structures are affected by the type of X chromosome loss and 2) how X chromosome loss influences the brain-cognition relationship. Here, we addressed these by investigating gray matter morphology and white matter connectivity using a multimodal MRI dataset from 34 adolescent TS patients (13 mosaic and 21 nonmosaic) and 21 controls. Intriguingly, the 2 TS groups exhibited significant differences in surface area in the right angular gyrus and in white matter integrity of the left tapetum of corpus callosum; these data support a link between these brain phenotypes and the type of X chromosome loss in TS. We further showed that the X chromosome modulates specific brain-cognition relationships: thickness and surface area in multiple cortical regions are positively correlated with working-memory performance in controls but negatively in TS. These findings provide novel insights into the X chromosome effect on neuroanatomical and cognitive phenotypes and highlight the role of genetic factors in brain-cognition relationships.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheng Xie
- Department of Radiology, China-Japan Friendship Hospital, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Zhixin Zhang
- Department of Pediatrics, China-Japan Friendship Hospital, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Qiuling Zhao
- Department of Pediatrics, China-Japan Friendship Hospital, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Jiaying Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning & IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research Center for Collaboration and Innovation in Brain and Learning Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Suyu Zhong
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning & IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research Center for Collaboration and Innovation in Brain and Learning Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Yanchao Bi
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning & IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research Center for Collaboration and Innovation in Brain and Learning Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Yong He
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning & IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research Center for Collaboration and Innovation in Brain and Learning Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Hui Pan
- Key Laboratory of Endocrinology, Ministry of Health, Department of Endocrinology, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing 100730, China
| | - Gaolang Gong
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning & IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research Center for Collaboration and Innovation in Brain and Learning Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
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