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Chen PJ, Coricelli C, Kaya S, Rumiati RI, Foroni F. The role of associative learning in healthy and sustainable food evaluations: An event-related potential study. Neurosci Res 2022; 183:61-75. [PMID: 35820553 DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2022.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2022] [Revised: 05/30/2022] [Accepted: 07/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Individuals in industrialized societies frequently include processed foods in their diet. However, overconsumption of heavily processed foods leads to imbalanced calorie intakes as well as negative health consequences and environmental impacts. In the present study, normal-weight healthy individuals were recruited in order to test whether associative learning (Evaluative Conditioning, EC) could strengthen the association between food-types (minimally processed and heavily processed foods) and concepts (e.g., healthiness), and whether these changes would be reflected at the implicit associations, at the explicit ratings and in behavioral choices. A Semantic Congruency task (SC) during electroencephalography recordings was used to examine the neural signature of newly acquired associations between foods and concepts. The accuracy after EC towards minimally processed food (MP-food) in the SC task significantly increased, indicating strengthened associations between MP-food and the concept of healthiness through EC. At the neural level, a more negative amplitude of the N400 waveform, which reflects semantic incongruency, was shown in response to MP-foods paired with the concept of unhealthiness in proximity of the dorsal lateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). This implied the possible role of the left DLPFC in changing food representations by integrating stimuli's features with existing food-relevant information. Finally, the N400 effect was modulated by individuals' attentional impulsivity as well as restrained eating behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Carol Coricelli
- Area of Neuroscience, SISSA, Trieste, Italy; Department of Psychology, Western Interdisciplinary Research Building, Western University, London, Canada
| | - Sinem Kaya
- Area of Neuroscience, SISSA, Trieste, Italy
| | | | - Francesco Foroni
- Area of Neuroscience, SISSA, Trieste, Italy; School of Behavioural and Health Sciences, Australian Catholic University, NSW, Australia
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Agovi H, Pierguidi L, Dinnella C, Viggiano MP, Monteleone E, Spinelli S. Attentional bias for vegetables is negatively associated with acceptability and is related to sensory properties. Food Qual Prefer 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodqual.2021.104429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
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Tautvydaitė D, Adam-Darqué A, Manuel AL, Ptak R, Schnider A. Rapid Sequential Implication of the Human Medial Temporal Lobe in Memory Encoding and Recognition. Front Behav Neurosci 2021; 15:684647. [PMID: 34744649 PMCID: PMC8570128 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2021.684647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2021] [Accepted: 09/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The medial temporal lobe (MTL) is crucial for memory encoding and recognition. The time course of these processes is unknown. The present study juxtaposed encoding and recognition in a single paradigm. Twenty healthy subjects performed a continuous recognition task as brain activity was monitored with a high-density electroencephalography. The task presented New pictures thought to evoke encoding. The stimuli were then repeated up to 4 consecutive times to produce over-familiarity. These repeated stimuli served as "baseline" for comparison with the other stimuli. Stimuli later reappeared after 9-15 intervening items, presumably associated with new encoding and recognition. Encoding-related differences in evoked response potential amplitudes and in spatiotemporal analysis were observed at 145-300 ms, whereby source estimation indicated MTL and orbitofrontal activity from 145 to 205 ms. Recognition-related activity evoked by late repetitions occurred at 405-470 ms, implicating the MTL and neocortical structures. These findings indicate that encoding of information is initiated before it is recognized. The result helps to explain modifications of memories over time, including false memories, confabulation, and consolidation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Domilė Tautvydaitė
- Laboratory of Cognitive Neurorehabilitation, Division of Neurorehabilitation, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, University Hospital and University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Alexandra Adam-Darqué
- Laboratory of Cognitive Neurorehabilitation, Division of Neurorehabilitation, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, University Hospital and University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Aurélie L Manuel
- Laboratory of Cognitive Neurorehabilitation, Division of Neurorehabilitation, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, University Hospital and University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Radek Ptak
- Laboratory of Cognitive Neurorehabilitation, Division of Neurorehabilitation, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, University Hospital and University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Armin Schnider
- Laboratory of Cognitive Neurorehabilitation, Division of Neurorehabilitation, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, University Hospital and University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
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Thézé R, Manuel AL, Pedrazzini E, Chantraine F, Patru MC, Nahum L, Guggisberg AG, Schnider A. Neural correlates of reality filtering in schizophrenia spectrum disorder. Schizophr Res 2019; 204:214-221. [PMID: 30057100 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2018.07.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2017] [Revised: 05/11/2018] [Accepted: 07/22/2018] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND A false sense of reality is a characteristic of schizophrenia spectrum disorders (SSD). Reality confusion may also emanate from posterior orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) lesions, as evident in confabulations that patients act upon and disorientation. This confusion can be measured by repeated runs of a continuous recognition task (CRT): patients increase their false positive rate from the second run on, failing to realize that an item is not a repetition within the current run. Correct handling of these stimuli, a faculty called orbitofrontal reality filtering (ORFi), induces a distinct frontal potential at 200-300 ms, the "ORFi potential". Patients with schizophrenia have been reported to fail in this task, too. Here, we explored the electrophysiology of ORFi in SSD. METHODS Evoked potentials, source, and connectivity analyses derived from high-density electroencephalograms of 17 patients with SSD and 15 age-matched healthy controls performing two runs of a CRT. RESULTS Although the patients obtained normal performance, they did not normally express the frontal potential typical of ORFi between 200 and 300 ms. Coherence analysis demonstrated virtually absent functional connectivity in the theta band within the memory network in this period. Source analysis showed increased activity in left medial temporal and prefrontal regions in patients. CONCLUSIONS SSD patients appear to invoke compensatory resources to handle the challenges of reality filtering. An abnormal ORFi potential may be an early biomarker of SSD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raphaël Thézé
- Laboratory of Cognitive Neurorehabilitation, Division of Neurorehabilitation, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University Hospital and University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Aurélie L Manuel
- Laboratory of Cognitive Neurorehabilitation, Division of Neurorehabilitation, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University Hospital and University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Elena Pedrazzini
- Laboratory of Cognitive Neurorehabilitation, Division of Neurorehabilitation, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University Hospital and University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Fabrice Chantraine
- Department of Mental Health and Psychiatry, University Hospital of Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Maria Cristina Patru
- Department of Mental Health and Psychiatry, University Hospital of Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Louis Nahum
- Laboratory of Cognitive Neurorehabilitation, Division of Neurorehabilitation, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University Hospital and University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Adrian G Guggisberg
- Laboratory of Cognitive Neurorehabilitation, Division of Neurorehabilitation, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University Hospital and University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Armin Schnider
- Laboratory of Cognitive Neurorehabilitation, Division of Neurorehabilitation, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University Hospital and University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland.
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Crézé C, Candal L, Cros J, Knebel JF, Seyssel K, Stefanoni N, Schneiter P, Murray MM, Tappy L, Toepel U. The Impact of Caloric and Non-Caloric Sweeteners on Food Intake and Brain Responses to Food: A Randomized Crossover Controlled Trial in Healthy Humans. Nutrients 2018; 10:E615. [PMID: 29762471 PMCID: PMC5986495 DOI: 10.3390/nu10050615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2018] [Revised: 05/09/2018] [Accepted: 05/10/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Whether non-nutritive sweetener (NNS) consumption impacts food intake behavior in humans is still unclear. Discrepant sensory and metabolic signals are proposed to mislead brain regulatory centers, in turn promoting maladaptive food choices favoring weight gain. We aimed to assess whether ingestion of sucrose- and NNS-sweetened drinks would differently alter brain responses to food viewing and food intake. Eighteen normal-weight men were studied in a fasted condition and after consumption of a standardized meal accompanied by either a NNS-sweetened (NNS), or a sucrose-sweetened (SUC) drink, or water (WAT). Their brain responses to visual food cues were assessed by means of electroencephalography (EEG) before and 45 min after meal ingestion. Four hours after meal ingestion, spontaneous food intake was monitored during an ad libitum buffet. With WAT, meal intake led to increased neural activity in the dorsal prefrontal cortex and the insula, areas linked to cognitive control and interoception. With SUC, neural activity in the insula increased as well, but decreased in temporal regions linked to food categorization, and remained unchanged in dorsal prefrontal areas. The latter modulations were associated with a significantly lower total energy intake at buffet (mean kcal ± SEM; 791 ± 62) as compared to WAT (942 ± 71) and NNS (917 ± 70). In contrast to WAT and SUC, NNS consumption did not impact activity in the insula, but led to increased neural activity in ventrolateral prefrontal regions linked to the inhibition of reward. Total energy intake at the buffet was not significantly different between WAT and NNS. Our findings highlight the differential impact of caloric and non-caloric sweeteners on subsequent brain responses to visual food cues and energy intake. These variations may reflect an initial stage of adaptation to taste-calorie uncoupling, and could be indicative of longer-term consequences of repeated NNS consumption on food intake behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camille Crézé
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, 1005 Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Laura Candal
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, 1005 Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Jérémy Cros
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, 1005 Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Jean-François Knebel
- The Laboratory for Investigative Neurophysiology (The LINE), Departments of Radiology and Clinical Neurosciences, University of Lausanne and Lausanne University Hospital, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland.
- Electroencephalography Brain Mapping Core, Center for Biomedical Imaging (CIBM) of Lausanne and Geneva, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Kevin Seyssel
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, 1005 Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Nathalie Stefanoni
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, 1005 Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Philippe Schneiter
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, 1005 Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Micah M Murray
- The Laboratory for Investigative Neurophysiology (The LINE), Departments of Radiology and Clinical Neurosciences, University of Lausanne and Lausanne University Hospital, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland.
- Electroencephalography Brain Mapping Core, Center for Biomedical Imaging (CIBM) of Lausanne and Geneva, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.
- Department of Hearing and Speech Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232, USA.
- Department of Ophthalmology, Jules Gonin Eye Hospital, 1004 Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Luc Tappy
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, 1005 Lausanne, Switzerland.
- Metabolic Center, Hôpital Intercantonal de la Broye, 1470 Estavayer-le-Lac, Switzerland.
| | - Ulrike Toepel
- The Laboratory for Investigative Neurophysiology (The LINE), Departments of Radiology and Clinical Neurosciences, University of Lausanne and Lausanne University Hospital, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland.
- Electroencephalography Brain Mapping Core, Center for Biomedical Imaging (CIBM) of Lausanne and Geneva, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.
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Crézé C, Notter-Bielser ML, Knebel JF, Campos V, Tappy L, Murray M, Toepel U. The impact of replacing sugar- by artificially-sweetened beverages on brain and behavioral responses to food viewing – An exploratory study. Appetite 2018; 123:160-168. [DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2017.12.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2017] [Revised: 12/02/2017] [Accepted: 12/15/2017] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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Thézé R, Manuel AL, Nahum L, Guggisberg AG, Schnider A. Simultaneous Reality Filtering and Encoding of Thoughts: The Substrate for Distinguishing between Memories of Real Events and Imaginations? Front Behav Neurosci 2017; 11:216. [PMID: 29163088 PMCID: PMC5671946 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2017.00216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2017] [Accepted: 10/18/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Any thought, whether it refers to the present moment or reflects an imagination, is again encoded as a new memory trace. Orbitofrontal reality filtering (ORFi) denotes an on-line mechanism which verifies whether upcoming thoughts relate to ongoing reality or not. Its failure induces reality confusion with confabulations and disorientation. If the result of this process were simultaneously encoded, it would easily explain later distinction between memories relating to a past reality and memories relating to imagination, a faculty called reality monitoring. How the brain makes this distinction is unknown but much research suggests that it depends on processes active when information is encoded. Here we explored the precise timing between ORFi and encoding as well as interactions between the involved brain structures. We used high-density evoked potentials and two runs of a continuous recognition task (CRT) combining the challenges of ORFi and encoding. ORFi was measured by the ability to realize that stimuli appearing in the second run had not appeared in this run yet. Encoding was measured with immediately repeated stimuli, which has been previously shown to induce a signal emanating from the medial temporal lobe (MTL), which has a protective effect on the memory trace. We found that encoding, as measured with this task, sets in at about 210 ms after stimulus presentation, 35 ms before ORFi. Both processes end at about 330 ms. Both were characterized by increased coherence in the theta band in the MTL during encoding and in the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) during ORFi. The study suggests a complex interaction between OFC and MTL allowing for thoughts to be re-encoded while they undergo ORFi. The combined influence of these two processes at 200-300 ms may leave a memory trace that allows for later effortless reality monitoring in most everyday situations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raphaël Thézé
- Laboratory of Cognitive Neurorehabilitation, Division of Neurorehabilitation, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University Hospital and University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Aurélie L Manuel
- Laboratory of Cognitive Neurorehabilitation, Division of Neurorehabilitation, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University Hospital and University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Louis Nahum
- Laboratory of Cognitive Neurorehabilitation, Division of Neurorehabilitation, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University Hospital and University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Adrian G Guggisberg
- Laboratory of Cognitive Neurorehabilitation, Division of Neurorehabilitation, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University Hospital and University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Armin Schnider
- Laboratory of Cognitive Neurorehabilitation, Division of Neurorehabilitation, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University Hospital and University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
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Liverani MC, Manuel AL, Guggisberg AG, Nahum L, Schnider A. No Influence of Positive Emotion on Orbitofrontal Reality Filtering: Relevance for Confabulation. Front Behav Neurosci 2016; 10:98. [PMID: 27303276 PMCID: PMC4886537 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2016.00098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2016] [Accepted: 05/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Orbitofrontal reality filtering (ORFi) is a mechanism that allows us to keep thought and behavior in phase with reality. Its failure induces reality confusion with confabulation and disorientation. Confabulations have been claimed to have a positive emotional bias, suggesting that they emanate from a tendency to embellish the situation of a handicap. Here we tested the influence of positive emotion on ORFi in healthy subjects using a paradigm validated in reality confusing patients and with a known electrophysiological signature, a frontal positivity at 200-300 ms after memory evocation. Subjects made two continuous recognition tasks ("two runs"), composed of the same set of neutral and positive pictures, but arranged in different order. In both runs, participants had to indicate picture repetitions within, and only within, the ongoing run. The first run measures learning and recognition. The second run, where all items are familiar, requires ORFi to avoid false positive responses. High-density evoked potentials were recorded from 19 healthy subjects during completion of the task. Performance was more accurate and faster on neutral than positive pictures in both runs and for all conditions. Evoked potential correlates of emotion and reality filtering occurred at 260-350 ms but dissociated in terms of amplitude and topography. In both runs, positive stimuli evoked a more negative frontal potential than neutral ones. In the second run, the frontal positivity characteristic of reality filtering was separately, and to the same degree, expressed for positive and neutral stimuli. We conclude that ORFi, the ability to place oneself correctly in time and space, is not influenced by emotional positivity of the processed material.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Chiara Liverani
- Laboratory of Cognitive Neurorehabilitation, Division of Neurorehabilitation, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, University Hospital and University of Geneva Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Aurélie L Manuel
- Laboratory of Cognitive Neurorehabilitation, Division of Neurorehabilitation, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, University Hospital and University of Geneva Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Adrian G Guggisberg
- Laboratory of Cognitive Neurorehabilitation, Division of Neurorehabilitation, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, University Hospital and University of Geneva Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Louis Nahum
- Laboratory of Cognitive Neurorehabilitation, Division of Neurorehabilitation, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, University Hospital and University of Geneva Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Armin Schnider
- Laboratory of Cognitive Neurorehabilitation, Division of Neurorehabilitation, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, University Hospital and University of Geneva Geneva, Switzerland
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Manuel AL, Schnider A. Differential processing of immediately repeated verbal and non-verbal stimuli: an evoked-potential study. Eur J Neurosci 2015; 43:89-97. [DOI: 10.1111/ejn.13114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2015] [Revised: 10/19/2015] [Accepted: 10/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Aurélie L. Manuel
- Laboratory of Cognitive Neurorehabilitation; Division of Neurorehabilitation; Department of Clinical Neurosciences; University of Geneva and University Hospital of Geneva; Av. de Beau-Séjour 26 1206 Genèva Switzerland
| | - Armin Schnider
- Laboratory of Cognitive Neurorehabilitation; Division of Neurorehabilitation; Department of Clinical Neurosciences; University of Geneva and University Hospital of Geneva; Av. de Beau-Séjour 26 1206 Genèva Switzerland
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Bielser ML, Crézé C, Murray MM, Toepel U. Does my brain want what my eyes like? - How food liking and choice influence spatio-temporal brain dynamics of food viewing. Brain Cogn 2015; 110:64-73. [PMID: 26578256 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandc.2015.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2015] [Revised: 10/19/2015] [Accepted: 10/20/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
How food valuation and decision-making influence the perception of food is of major interest to better understand food intake behavior and, by extension, body weight management. Our study investigated behavioral responses and spatio-temporal brain dynamics by means of visual evoked potentials (VEPs) in twenty-two normal-weight participants when viewing pairs of food photographs. Participants rated how much they liked each food item (valuation) and subsequently chose between the two alternative food images. Unsurprisingly, strongly liked foods were also chosen most often. Foods were rated faster as strongly liked than as mildly liked or disliked irrespective of whether they were subsequently chosen over an alternative. Moreover, strongly liked foods were subsequently also chosen faster than the less liked alternatives. Response times during valuation and choice were positively correlated, but only when foods were liked; the faster participants rated foods as strongly liked, the faster they were in choosing the food item over an alternative. VEP modulations by the level of liking attributed as well as the subsequent choice were found as early as 135-180ms after food image onset. Analyses of neural source activity patterns over this time interval revealed an interaction between liking and the subsequent choice within the insula, dorsal frontal and superior parietal regions. The neural responses to food viewing were found to be modulated by the attributed level of liking only when foods were chosen, not when they were dismissed for an alternative. Therein, the responses to disliked foods were generally greater than those to foods that were liked more. Moreover, the responses to disliked but chosen foods were greater than responses to disliked foods which were subsequently dismissed for an alternative offer. Our findings show that the spatio-temporal brain dynamics to food viewing are immediately influenced both by how much foods are liked and by choices taken on them. These valuation and choice processes are subserved by brain regions involved in salience and reward attribution as well as in decision-making processes, which are likely to influence prospective dietary choices in everyday life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie-Laure Bielser
- The Laboratory for Investigative Neurophysiology (The LINE), Department of Radiology and Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Vaudois University Hospital Center and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Camille Crézé
- Department of Physiology, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Micah M Murray
- The Laboratory for Investigative Neurophysiology (The LINE), Department of Radiology and Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Vaudois University Hospital Center and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland; Electroencephalography Brain Mapping Core, Center for Biomedical Imaging (CIBM) of Lausanne and Geneva, Switzerland; Department of Hearing and Speech Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
| | - Ulrike Toepel
- The Laboratory for Investigative Neurophysiology (The LINE), Department of Radiology and Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Vaudois University Hospital Center and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.
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