Neuronal γ-secretase regulates lipid metabolism, linking cholesterol to synaptic dysfunction in Alzheimer's disease

Altered expression of Presenilin2 impacts endolysosomal homeostasis and synapse function in Alzheimer's disease-relevant brain circuits

Rare mutations in the gene encoding presenilin2 (PSEN2) are known to cause familial Alzheimer's disease (FAD). Here, we explored how altered PSEN2 expression impacts on the amyloidosis, endolysosomal abnormalities, and synaptic dysfunction observed in female APP knock-in mice. We demonstrate that PSEN2 knockout (KO) as well as the FAD-associated N141IKI mutant accelerate AD-related pathologies in female mice. Both models showed significant deficits in working memory that linked to elevated PSEN2 expression in the hippocampal CA3 region. The mossy fiber circuit of APPxPSEN2KO and APPxFADPSEN2 mice had smaller pre-synaptic compartments, distinct changes in synaptic vesicle populations and significantly impaired long term potentiation compared to APPKI mice. At the cellular level, altered PSEN2 expression resulted in endolysosomal defects and lowered surface expression of synaptic proteins. As PSEN2/γ-secretase is restricted to late endosomes/lysosomes, we propose PSEN2 impacts endolysosomal homeostasis, affecting synaptic signaling in AD-relevant vulnerable brain circuits; which could explain how mutant PSEN2 accelerates AD pathogenesis.

Association between calculated remnant cholesterol levels and incident risks of Alzheimer's disease among elderly patients with type 2 diabetes: a real-world study

Objective

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a leading cause of dementia, with a rising global burden. Remnant cholesterol (RC), a component of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins, has been implicated in cardiovascular diseases and metabolic disorders, but its role in AD remains unclear. This study investigated the association between RC levels and the risk of AD among elderly patients with type 2 diabetes (T2D) in a real-world clinical setting.

Methods

We conducted a retrospective cohort study using electronic medical records from Gongli Hospital of Shanghai Pudong New Area, covering the period from 2013 to 2023. The study included 15,364 elderly patients aged 65-80 years with T2D. RC levels were calculated using the equation. The primary outcome was the diagnosis of AD, validated by neurologists using ICD-10-CM code G30. Cox proportional hazards models were employed to estimate hazard ratios (HRs) for AD across quartiles of RC levels, adjusting for potential confounders.

Results

Over a mean follow-up of 3.69 ± 1.33 years, 312 new cases of AD were identified. A U-shaped relationship was observed between RC levels and AD risk, with the lowest risk associated with RC levels between 0.58-0.64 mmol/L. Both lower (<0.52 mmol/L) and higher (≥0.77 mmol/L) RC levels were linked to increased AD risk. Compared to the reference group (Q2: 0.52-0.64 mmol/L), the adjusted HRs (95% CI) for the lowest and highest quartiles were 1.891 (1.368-2.613) and 1.891 (1.363-2.622), respectively. Each 1 mmol/L increase in RC was associated with a 3.47-fold higher risk of AD (HR=4.474, 95% CI 2.330-8.592).

Conclusion

RC levels may serve as a predictive biomarker for AD risk, with both extremes posing a higher risk. Future studies should explore the mechanistic pathways and potential interventions targeting RC to prevent AD in high-risk populations.

A fast and responsive voltage indicator with enhanced sensitivity for unitary synaptic events

A remaining challenge for genetically encoded voltage indicators (GEVIs) is the reliable detection of excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs). Here, we developed ASAP5 as a GEVI with enhanced activation kinetics and responsivity near resting membrane potentials for improved detection of both spiking and subthreshold activity. ASAP5 reported action potentials (APs) in vivo with higher signal-to-noise ratios than previous GEVIs and successfully detected graded and subthreshold responses to sensory stimuli in single two-photon trials. In cultured rat or human neurons, somatic ASAP5 reported synaptic events propagating centripetally and could detect ∼1-mV EPSPs. By imaging spontaneous EPSPs throughout dendrites, we found that EPSP amplitudes decay exponentially during propagation and that amplitude at the initiation site generally increases with distance from the soma. These results extend the applications of voltage imaging to the quantal response domain, including in human neurons, opening up the possibility of high-throughput, high-content characterization of neuronal dysfunction in disease.

Compound (E)-2-(3,4-dihydroxystyryl)-3-hydroxy-4H-pyran-4-one downregulation of Galectin-3 ameliorates Aβ pathogenesis-induced neuroinflammation in 5 × FAD mice

AIMS

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by β-amyloid (Aβ) aggregation and neuroinflammation, leading to progressive synaptic loss and cognitive decline. Recent evidence suggests that Galectin-3 (Gal-3) plays a critical role in Aβ pathogenesis. However, strategies to simultaneously target Gal-3 and Aβ are currently insufficient. This study evaluates the therapeutic efficacy of (E)-2-(3,4-dihydroxystyryl)-3-hydroxy-4H-pyran-4-one (D30), in reducing Gal-3 and Aβ pathogenesis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We applied exogenous oligomeric Aβ and used 5 × FAD mice to assess the impact of Aβ on Gal-3 deposition, microglial activation, and cognitive function. Thy1-EGFP mice were employed to observe dendritic spines. Comprehensive evaluations of D30's effects included behavioral studies, transcriptomic analysis, Western blotting, and immunofluorescent staining. The interaction between D30 and Gal-3 was examined using fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) and microscale thermophoresis (MST).

KEY FINDINGS

D30 effectively reduced Aβ monomer production by inhibiting Amyloid Precursor Protein (APP) and presenilin 1 (PS1) expression, and decreased Aβ aggregation. Treatment with D30 improved cognitive functions, reversed dendritic spine loss, and increased PSD95 expression in 5 × FAD mice. Additionally, D30 significantly lowered Gal-3 levels in both plasma and hippocampal tissues. D30 binds to Gal-3 and disrupts the interaction between Gal-3 and TREM2, as confirmed by FRET and MST.

SIGNIFICANCE

Our findings underscore the interaction between Gal-3 and Aβ in AD and its role in systemic inflammation using the 5 × FAD mouse model. Being able to target and regulate Gal-3 together with Aβ is crucial for preventing neuroinflammation and protecting synapses, D30 emerged as a novel compound with promising potential for AD treatment.

Dysregulated expression of cholesterol biosynthetic genes in Alzheimer's disease alters epigenomic signatures of hippocampal neurons

Aging is the main risk factor of cognitive neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, with epigenome alterations as a contributing factor. Here, we compared transcriptomic/epigenomic changes in the hippocampus, modified by aging and by tauopathy, an AD-related feature. We show that the cholesterol biosynthesis pathway is severely impaired in hippocampal neurons of tauopathic but not of aged mice pointing to vulnerability of these neurons in the disease. At the epigenomic level, histone hyperacetylation was observed at neuronal enhancers associated with glutamatergic regulations only in the tauopathy. Lastly, a treatment of tau mice with the CSP-TTK21 epi-drug that restored expression of key cholesterol biosynthesis genes counteracted hyperacetylation at neuronal enhancers and restored object memory. As acetyl-CoA is the primary substrate of both pathways, these data suggest that the rate of the cholesterol biosynthesis in hippocampal neurons may trigger epigenetic-driven changes, that may compromise the functions of hippocampal neurons in pathological conditions.

Presenilin2 D439A Mutation Induces Dysfunction of Mitochondrial Fusion/Fission Dynamics and Abnormal Regulation of GTPase Activity

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an age-related progressive neurodegenerative disease, and approximately 10% of AD cases are early-onset familial AD (EOFAD), which is mainly linked to point mutations in genes encoding presenilins (PS1 and PS2). Mutations in PS2 are extremely rare and have not received enough attention. Recently, studies have found that Rho GTPase activity is closely related to the pathogenesis of AD. In this study, we used transcriptome sequencing in PS2 siRNA-transfected SH-SY5Y cells and found a group of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) related to the regulation of GTPase activity. Among those DEGs, the most significantly downregulated was Rho guanine nucleotide exchange factor 5 (ARHGEF5). GTPase activity in PS2 siRNA-transfected cells was significantly decreased. Then, we found that the expression of ARHGEF5 and the GTPase activity of Mitochondrial Rho GTPase 2 (Miro2) in PS2 D439A mutant SH-SY5Y cells were significantly decreased. We found for the first time that PS2 can bind to Miro2, and the PS2 D439A mutation reduced the binding between PS2 and Miro2, reduced the expression of Miro2, and resulted in an imbalance in mitochondrial fusion/fission dynamics. In conclusion, PS2 gene knockdown may participate in the pathogenesis of AD through the regulation of GTPase activity. The imbalance in mitochondrial dynamics mediated by the PS2 D439A mutation through regulation of the expression and GTPase activity of Miro2 may be a potential pathogenic mechanism of AD.

Disruption of sphingomyelin synthase 2 gene alleviates cognitive impairment in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease

The membrane raft accommodates the key enzymes synthesizing amyloid β (Aβ). One of the two characteristic components of the membrane raft, cholesterol, is well known to promote the key enzymes that produce amyloid-β (Aβ) and exacerbate Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathogenesis. Given that the raft is a physicochemical platform for the sound functioning of embedded bioactive proteins, the other major lipid component sphingomyelin may also be involved in AD. Here we knocked out the sphingomyelin synthase 2 gene (SMS2) in 3xTg AD model mice by hybridization, yielding SMS2KO mice (4S mice). The novel object recognition test in 9/10-month-old 4S mice showed that cognitive impairment in 3xTg mice was alleviated by SMS2KO, though performance in the Morris water maze (MWM) was not improved. The tail suspension test detected a depressive trait in 4S mice, which may have hindered the manifestation of performance in the wet, stressful environment of MWM. In the hippocampal CA1, hyperexcitability in 3xTg was also found alleviated by SMS2KO. In the hippocampal dentate gyrus of 4S mice, the number of neurons positive with intracellular Aβ or its precursor proteins, the hallmark of young 3xTg mice, is reduced to one-third, suggesting an SMS2KO-led suppression of syntheses of those peptides in the dentate gyrus. Although we previously reported that large-conductance calcium-activated potassium (BK) channels are suppressed in 3xTg mice and their recovery relates to cognitive amelioration, no changes occurred by hybridization. Sphingomyelin in the membrane raft may serve as a novel target for AD drugs.

Exploring the multifaceted therapeutic mechanism of Schisanlactone E (XTS) in APP/PS1 mouse model of Alzheimer's disease through multi-omics analysis

Background

Schisanlactone E, also known as XueTongSu (XTS), is an active compound extracted from the traditional Tujia medicine Kadsura heteroclita ("XueTong"). Recent studies highlight its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, yet the mechanisms of XTS's therapeutic effects on Alzheimer's disease (AD) are unclear. This study aims to elucidate the therapeutic efficacy and mechanisms of XTS in AD.

Methods

Ten C57BL/6 mice were assigned to the control group (NC), and twenty APP/PS1 transgenic mice were randomly divided into the model group (M) (10 mice) and the XTS treatment group (Tre) (10 mice). After an acclimatization period of 7 days, intraperitoneal injections were administered over a 60-day treatment period. The NC and M groups received saline, while the Tre group received XTS at 2 mg/kg. Learning and memory abilities were assessed using the Morris Water Maze (MWM) test. Histopathological changes were evaluated using hematoxylin and eosin (HE) and Nissl staining, and immunofluorescence was used to assess pathological products and glial cell activation. Cytokine levels (IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α) in the hippocampus were quantified by qPCR. 16S rDNA sequencing analyzed gut microbiota metabolic alterations, and metabolomic analysis was performed on cortical samples. The KEGG database was used to analyze the regulatory mechanisms of XTS in AD treatment.

Results

XTS significantly improved learning and spatial memory in APP/PS1 mice and ameliorated histopathological changes, reducing Aβ plaque aggregation and glial cell activation. XTS decreased the expression of inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α. It also enhanced gut microbiota diversity, notably increasing Akkermansia species, and modulated levels of metabolites such as isosakuranetin, 5-KETE, 4-methylcatechol, and sphinganine. Pathway analysis indicated that XTS regulated carbohydrate metabolism, neuroactive ligand-receptor interactions, and alanine, aspartate, and glutamate metabolism, mitigating gut microbiota dysbiosis and metabolic disturbances.

Conclusion

XTS ameliorates cognitive deficits, pathological changes, and inflammatory responses in APP/PS1 mice. It significantly modulates the gut microbiota, particularly increasing Akkermansia abundance, and influences levels of key metabolites in both the gut and brain. These findings suggest that XTS exerts anti-AD effects through the microbial-gut-brain axis (MGBA).

Accumulation of APP C-terminal fragments causes endolysosomal dysfunction through the dysregulation of late endosome to lysosome-ER contact sites

Neuronal endosomal and lysosomal abnormalities are among the early changes observed in Alzheimer's disease (AD) before plaques appear. However, it is unclear whether distinct endolysosomal defects are temporally organized and how altered γ-secretase function or amyloid precursor protein (APP) metabolism contribute to these changes. Inhibiting γ-secretase chronically, in mouse embryonic fibroblast and hippocampal neurons, led to a gradual endolysosomal collapse initiated by decreased lysosomal calcium and increased cholesterol, causing downstream defects in endosomal recycling and maturation. This endolysosomal demise is γ-secretase dependent, requires membrane-tethered APP cytoplasmic domains, and is rescued by APP depletion. APP C-terminal fragments (CTFs) localized to late endosome/lysosome-endoplasmic reticulum contacts; an excess of APP-CTFs herein reduced lysosomal Ca2+ refilling from the endoplasmic reticulum, promoting cholesterol accretion. Tonic regulation by APP-CTFs provides a mechanistic explanation for their cellular toxicity: failure to timely degrade APP-CTFs sustains downstream signaling, instigating lysosomal dyshomeostasis, as observed in prodromal AD. This is the opposite of substrates such as Notch, which require intramembrane proteolysis to initiate signaling.

PGC-1α in the hippocampus mediates depressive-like and stress-coping behaviours and regulates excitatory synapses in the dentate gyrus in mice

Decreased hippocampal synaptic plasticity is an important pathological change in stress-related mood disorders, including major depressive disorder. However, the underlying mechanism is unclear. PGC-1α, a transcriptional coactivator, is a key factor in synaptic plasticity. We investigated the relationships between changes in hippocampal PGC-1α expression and depressive-like and stress-coping behaviours, and whether they are related to hippocampal synapses. Adeno-associated virus was used to alter hippocampal PGC-1α expression in male C57BL/6 mice. The sucrose preference test and forced swimming test were used to assess their depressive-like and stress-coping behaviours, respectively. Immunohistochemistry and stereology were used to calculate the total number of excitatory synapses in each hippocampal subregion (the cornu ammonis (CA) 1, CA3, and dentate gyrus). Immunofluorescence was used to visualize the changes in dendritic structure. Western blotting was used to detect the expression of hippocampal PGC-1α and mitochondrial-associated proteins, such as UCP2, NRF1 and mtTFAs. Our results showed that mice with downregulated PGC-1α expression in the hippocampus exhibited depressive-like and passive stress-coping behaviours, while mice with upregulated PGC-1α in the hippocampus exhibited increased stress-coping behaviours. Moreover, the downregulation of hippocampal PGC-1α expression resulted in a decrease in the number of excitatory synapses in the DG and in the protein expression of UCP2 in the hippocampus. Alternatively, upregulation of hippocampal PGC-1α yielded the opposite results. This suggests that hippocampal PGC-1α is involved in regulating depressive-like and stress-coping behaviours and modulating the number of excitatory synapses in the DG. This provides new insight for the development of antidepressants.

Apolipoprotein E4 interferes with lipid metabolism to exacerbate depression-like behaviors in 5xFAD mice

BACKGROUND

Apolipoprotein E4 (ApoE4) allele is the strongest genetic risk factor for late-onset Alzheimer's disease, and it can aggravate depressive symptoms in non-AD patients. However, the impact of ApoE4 on AD-associated depression-like behaviors and its underlying pathogenic mechanisms remain unclear.

METHODS

This study developed a 5xFAD mouse model overexpressing human ApoE4 (E4FAD). Behavioral assessments and synaptic function tests were conducted to explore the effects of ApoE4 on cognition and depression in 5xFAD mice. Changes in peripheral and central lipid metabolism, as well as the levels of serotonin (5-HT) and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) neurotransmitters in the prefrontal cortex, were examined. In addition, the protein levels of 24-dehydrocholesterol reductase/glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta/mammalian target of rapamycin (DHCR24/GSK3β/mTOR) and postsynaptic density protein 95/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II/brain-derived neurotrophic factor (PSD95/CaMK-II/BDNF) were measured to investigate the molecular mechanism underlying the effects of ApoE4 on AD mice.

RESULTS

Compared with 5xFAD mice, E4FAD mice exhibited more severe depression-like behaviors and cognitive impairments. These mice also exhibited increased amyloid-beta deposition in the hippocampus, increased astrocyte numbers, and decreased expression of depression-related neurotransmitters 5-HT and GABA in the prefrontal cortex. Furthermore, lipid metabolism disorders were observed in E4FAD, manifesting as elevated low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and reduced high-density lipoprotein cholesterol in peripheral blood, decreased cholesterol level in the prefrontal cortex, and reduced expression of key enzymes and proteins related to cholesterol synthesis and homeostasis. Abnormal expression of proteins related to the DHCR24/GSK3β/mTOR and PSD95/CaMK-II/BDNF pathways was also observed.

CONCLUSION

This study found that ApoE4 overexpression exacerbates depression-like behaviors in 5xFAD mice and confirmed that ApoE4 reduces cognitive function in these mice. The mechanism may involve the induction of central and peripheral lipid metabolism disorders. Therefore, modulating ApoE expression or function to restore cellular lipid homeostasis may be a promising therapeutic target for AD comorbid with depression. This study also provided a better animal model for studying AD comorbid with depression.

Dishevelled localization and function are differentially regulated by structurally distinct sterols

The Dishevelled (DVL) family of proteins form supramolecular protein and lipid complexes at the cytoplasmic interface of the plasma membrane to regulate tissue patterning, proliferation, cell polarity, and oncogenic processes through DVL-dependent signaling, such as Wnt/β-catenin. While DVL binding to cholesterol is required for its membrane association, the specific structural requirements and cellular impacts of DVL-sterol association are unclear. We report that intracellular sterols which accumulate within normal and pathological conditions cause aberrant DVL activity. In silico and molecular analyses suggested orientation of the β- and α-sterol face within the DVL-PDZ domain regulates DVL-sterol binding. Intracellular accumulation of naturally occurring sterols impaired DVL2 plasma membrane association, inducing DVL2 nuclear localization via Foxk2. Changes to intracellular sterols also selectively impaired DVL2 protein-protein interactions This work identifies sterol specificity as a regulator of DVL signaling, suggests intracellular sterols cause distinct impacts on DVL activity, and supports a role for intracellular sterol homeostasis in cell signaling.

Towards a Unitary Hypothesis of Alzheimer's Disease Pathogenesis

The "amyloid cascade" hypothesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathogenesis invokes the accumulation in the brain of plaques (containing the amyloid-β protein precursor [AβPP] cleavage product amyloid-β [Aβ]) and tangles (containing hyperphosphorylated tau) as drivers of pathogenesis. However, the poor track record of clinical trials based on this hypothesis suggests that the accumulation of these peptides is not the only cause of AD. Here, an alternative hypothesis is proposed in which the AβPP cleavage product C99, not Aβ, is the main culprit, via its role as a regulator of cholesterol metabolism. C99, which is a cholesterol sensor, promotes the formation of mitochondria-associated endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membranes (MAM), a cholesterol-rich lipid raft-like subdomain of the ER that communicates, both physically and biochemically, with mitochondria. We propose that in early-onset AD (EOAD), MAM-localized C99 is elevated above normal levels, resulting in increased transport of cholesterol from the plasma membrane to membranes of intracellular organelles, such as ER/endosomes, thereby upregulating MAM function and driving pathology. By the same token, late-onset AD (LOAD) is triggered by any genetic variant that increases the accumulation of intracellular cholesterol that, in turn, boosts the levels of C99 and again upregulates MAM function. Thus, the functional cause of AD is upregulated MAM function that, in turn, causes the hallmark disease phenotypes, including the plaques and tangles. Accordingly, the MAM hypothesis invokes two key interrelated elements, C99 and cholesterol, that converge at the MAM to drive AD pathogenesis. From this perspective, AD is, at bottom, a lipid disorder.

Protein-lipid interactions drive presynaptic assembly upstream of cell adhesion molecules

Textbook models of synaptogenesis position cell adhesion molecules such as neurexin as initiators of synapse assembly. Here we discover a mechanism for presynaptic assembly that occurs prior to neurexin recruitment, while supporting a role for neurexin in synapse maintenance. We find that the cytosolic active zone scaffold SYD-1 interacts with membrane phospholipids to promote active zone protein clustering at the plasma membrane, and subsequently recruits neurexin to stabilize those clusters. Employing molecular dynamics simulations to model intrinsic interactions between SYD-1 and lipid bilayers followed by in vivo tests of these predictions, we find that PIP2-interacting residues in SYD-1's C2 and PDZ domains are redundantly necessary for proper active zone assembly. Finally, we propose that the uncharacterized yet evolutionarily conserved short γ isoform of neurexin represents a minimal neurexin sequence that can stabilize previously assembled presynaptic clusters, potentially a core function of this critical protein.

Neuronal γ-secretase regulates synaptic functions via cholesterol homeostasis

In this issue of Neuron, Essayan-Perez and Südhof1 demonstrate roles for γ-secretase in the regulation of synaptic functions in human neurons. Chronic attenuation of γ-secretase activity increases synapse formation but decreases neurotransmission (i.e., the probability of presynaptic release), likely due to impairment of cholesterol metabolism.

Brain Lipids and Lipid Droplet Dysregulation in Alzheimer's Disease and Neuropsychiatric Disorders

Background

Lipids are essential components of the structure and for the function of brain cells. The intricate balance of lipids, including phospholipids, glycolipids, cholesterol, cholesterol ester, and triglycerides, is crucial for maintaining normal brain function. The roles of lipids and lipid droplets and their relevance to neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric disorders (NPDs) remain largely unknown.

Summary

Here, we reviewed the basic role of lipid components as well as a specific lipid organelle, lipid droplets, in brain function, highlighting the potential impact of altered lipid metabolism in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and NDPs.

Key Messages

Brain lipid dysregulation plays a pivotal role in the pathogenesis and progression of neurodegenerative and NPDs including AD and schizophrenia. Understanding the cell type-specific mechanisms of lipid dysregulation in these diseases is crucial for identifying better diagnostic biomarkers and for developing therapeutic strategies aiming at restoring lipid homeostasis.