The role of the superior colliculus in predatory hunting

Concerning neuromodulation as treatment of neurological and neuropsychiatric disorder: Insights gained from selective targeting of the subthalamic nucleus, para-subthalamic nucleus and zona incerta in rodents

Neuromodulation such as deep brain stimulation (DBS) is advancing as a clinical intervention in several neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders, including Parkinson's disease, dystonia, tremor, and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) for which DBS is already applied to alleviate severely afflicted individuals of symptoms. Tourette syndrome and drug addiction are two additional disorders for which DBS is in trial or proposed as treatment. However, some major remaining obstacles prevent this intervention from reaching its full therapeutic potential. Side-effects have been reported, and not all DBS-treated individuals are relieved of their symptoms. One major target area for DBS electrodes is the subthalamic nucleus (STN) which plays important roles in motor, affective and associative functions, with impact on for example movement, motivation, impulsivity, compulsivity, as well as both reward and aversion. The multifunctionality of the STN is complex. Decoding the anatomical-functional organization of the STN could enhance strategic targeting in human patients. The STN is located in close proximity to zona incerta (ZI) and the para-subthalamic nucleus (pSTN). Together, the STN, pSTN and ZI form a highly heterogeneous and clinically important brain area. Rodent-based experimental studies, including opto- and chemogenetics as well as viral-genetic tract tracings, provide unique insight into complex neuronal circuitries and their impact on behavior with high spatial and temporal precision. This research field has advanced tremendously over the past few years. Here, we provide an inclusive review of current literature in the pre-clinical research fields centered around STN, pSTN and ZI in laboratory mice and rats; the three highly heterogeneous and enigmatic structures brought together in the context of relevance for treatment strategies. Specific emphasis is placed on methods of manipulation and behavioral impact.

Uncertainty and anxiety: Evolution and neurobiology

Anxiety is a complex phenomenon: Its eliciting stimuli and circumstances, component behaviors, and functional consequences are only slowly coming to be understood. Here, we examine defense systems from field studies; laboratory studies focusing on experimental analyses of behavior; and, the fear conditioning literature, with a focus on the role of uncertainty in promoting an anxiety pattern that involves high rates of stimulus generalization and resistance to extinction. Respectively, these different areas provide information on evolved elicitors of defense (field studies); outline a defense system focused on obtaining information about uncertain threat (ethoexperimental analyses); and, provide a simple, well-researched, easily measured paradigm for analysis of nonassociative stress-enhanced fear conditioning (the SEFL). Results suggest that all of these-each of which is responsive to uncertainty-play multiple and interactive roles in anxiety. Brain system findings for some relevant models are reviewed, with suggestions that further analyses of current models may be capable of providing a great deal of additional information about these complex interactions and their underlying biology.

Periaqueductal gray activates antipredatory neural responses in the amygdala of foraging rats

Pavlovian fear conditioning research suggests that the interaction between the dorsal periaqueductal gray (dPAG) and basolateral amygdala (BLA) acts as a prediction error mechanism in the formation of associative fear memories. However, their roles in responding to naturalistic predatory threats, characterized by less explicit cues and the absence of reiterative trial-and-error learning events, remain unexplored. In this study, we conducted single-unit recordings in rats during an 'approach food-avoid predator' task, focusing on the responsiveness of dPAG and BLA neurons to a rapidly approaching robot predator. Optogenetic stimulation of the dPAG triggered fleeing behaviors and increased BLA activity in naive rats. Notably, BLA neurons activated by dPAG stimulation displayed immediate responses to the robot, demonstrating heightened synchronous activity compared to BLA neurons that did not respond to dPAG stimulation. Additionally, the use of anterograde and retrograde tracer injections into the dPAG and BLA, respectively, coupled with c-Fos activation in response to predatory threats, indicates that the midline thalamus may play an intermediary role in innate antipredatory defensive functioning.

Control of feeding by a bottom-up midbrain-subthalamic pathway

Investigative exploration and foraging leading to food consumption have vital importance, but are not well-understood. Since GABAergic inputs to the lateral and ventrolateral periaqueductal gray (l/vlPAG) control such behaviors, we dissected the role of vgat-expressing GABAergic l/vlPAG cells in exploration, foraging and hunting. Here, we show that in mice vgat l/vlPAG cells encode approach to food and consumption of both live prey and non-prey foods. The activity of these cells is necessary and sufficient for inducing food-seeking leading to subsequent consumption. Activation of vgat l/vlPAG cells produces exploratory foraging and compulsive eating without altering defensive behaviors. Moreover, l/vlPAG vgat cells are bidirectionally interconnected to several feeding, exploration and investigation nodes, including the zona incerta. Remarkably, the vgat l/vlPAG projection to the zona incerta bidirectionally controls approach towards food leading to consumption. These data indicate the PAG is not only a final downstream target of top-down exploration and foraging-related inputs, but that it also influences these behaviors through a bottom-up pathway.

A developmental critical period for ocular dominance plasticity of binocular neurons in mouse superior colliculus

Detecting visual features in the environment is crucial for animals' survival. The superior colliculus (SC) is implicated in motion detection and processing, whereas how the SC integrates visual inputs from the two eyes remains unclear. Using in vivo electrophysiology, we show that mouse SC contains many binocular neurons that display robust ocular dominance (OD) plasticity in a critical period during early development, which is similar to, but not dependent on, the primary visual cortex. NR2A- and NR2B-containing N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors play an essential role in the regulation of SC plasticity. Blocking NMDA receptors can largely prevent the impairment of predatory hunting caused by monocular deprivation, indicating that maintaining the binocularity of SC neurons is required for efficient hunting behavior. Together, our studies reveal the existence and function of OD plasticity in SC, which broadens our understanding of the development of subcortical visual circuitry relating to motion detection and predatory hunting.

Pathways from the Superior Colliculus to the Basal Ganglia

The present work aims to review the structural organization of the mammalian superior colliculus (SC), the putative pathways connecting the SC and the basal ganglia, and their role in organizing complex behavioral output. First, we review how the complex intrinsic connections between the SC's laminae projections allow for the construction of spatially aligned, visual-multisensory maps of the surrounding environment. Moreover, we present a summary of the sensory-motor inputs of the SC, including a description of the integration of multi-sensory inputs relevant to behavioral control. We further examine the major descending outputs toward the brainstem and spinal cord. As the central piece of this review, we provide a thorough analysis covering the putative interactions between the SC and the basal ganglia. To this end, we explore the diverse thalamic routes by which information from the SC may reach the striatum, including the pathways through the lateral posterior, parafascicular, and rostral intralaminar thalamic nuclei. We also examine the interactions between the SC and subthalamic nucleus, representing an additional pathway for the tectal modulation of the basal ganglia. Moreover, we discuss how information from the SC might also be relayed to the basal ganglia through midbrain tectonigral and tectotegmental projections directed at the substantia nigra compacta and ventrotegmental area, respectively, influencing the dopaminergic outflow to the dorsal and ventral striatum. We highlight the vast interplay between the SC and the basal ganglia and raise several missing points that warrant being addressed in future studies.

Neurocircuitry of Predatory Hunting

Predatory hunting is an important type of innate behavior evolutionarily conserved across the animal kingdom. It is typically composed of a set of sequential actions, including prey search, pursuit, attack, and consumption. This behavior is subject to control by the nervous system. Early studies used toads as a model to probe the neuroethology of hunting, which led to the proposal of a sensory-triggered release mechanism for hunting actions. More recent studies have used genetically-trackable zebrafish and rodents and have made breakthrough discoveries in the neuroethology and neurocircuits underlying this behavior. Here, we review the sophisticated neurocircuitry involved in hunting and summarize the detailed mechanism for the circuitry to encode various aspects of hunting neuroethology, including sensory processing, sensorimotor transformation, motivation, and sequential encoding of hunting actions. We also discuss the overlapping brain circuits for hunting and feeding and point out the limitations of current studies. We propose that hunting is an ideal behavioral paradigm in which to study the neuroethology of motivated behaviors, which may shed new light on epidemic disorders, including binge-eating, obesity, and obsessive-compulsive disorders.

Anatomical and functional study of the cuneiform nucleus: A critical site to organize innate defensive behaviors

The cuneiform nucleus (CUN) is a midbrain structure located lateral to the caudal part of the periaqueductal gray. In the present investigation, we first performed a systematic analysis of the afferent and efferent projections of the CUN using FluoroGold and Phaseolus vulgaris leucoagglutinin as retrograde and anterograde neuronal tracers, respectively. Next, we examined the behavioral responses to optogenetic activation of the CUN and evaluated the impact of pharmacological inactivation of the CUN in both innate and contextual fear responses to a predatory threat (i.e., a live cat). The present hodologic evidence indicates that the CUN might be viewed as a caudal component of the periaqueductal gray. The CUN has strong bidirectional links with the dorsolateral periaqueductal gray (PAGdl). Our hodological findings revealed that the CUN and PAGdl share a similar source of inputs involved in integrating information related to life-threatening events and that the CUN provides particularly strong projections to brain sites influencing antipredatory defensive behaviors. Our functional studies revealed that the CUN mediates innate freezing and flight antipredatory responses but does not seem to influence the acquisition and expression of learned fear responses.

Juvenile Shank3 KO Mice Adopt Distinct Hunting Strategies during Prey Capture Learning

Mice are opportunistic omnivores that readily learn to hunt and eat insects such as crickets. The details of how mice learn these behaviors and how these behaviors may differ in strains with altered neuroplasticity are unclear. We quantified the behavior of juvenile wild-type (WT) and Shank3 knock-out (KO) mice as they learned to hunt crickets during the critical period for ocular dominance plasticity. This stage involves heightened cortical plasticity including homeostatic synaptic scaling, which requires Shank3, a glutamatergic synaptic protein that, when mutated, produces Phelan-McDermid syndrome and is often comorbid with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Both strains showed interest in examining live and dead crickets and learned to hunt. Shank3 knock-out mice took longer to become proficient, and, after 5 d, did not achieve the efficiency of wild-type mice in either time-to-capture or distance-to-capture. Shank3 knock-out mice also exhibited different characteristics when pursuing crickets that could not be explained by a simple motor deficit. Although both genotypes moved at the same average speed when approaching a cricket, Shank3 KO mice paused more often, did not begin final accelerations toward crickets as early, and did not close the distance gap to the cricket as quickly as wild-type mice. These differences in Shank3 KO mice are reminiscent of some behavioral characteristics of individuals with ASD as they perform complex tasks, such as slower action initiation and completion. This paradigm will be useful for exploring the neural circuit mechanisms that underlie these learning and performance differences in monogenic ASD rodent models.

The Mesencephalic Locomotor Region: Beyond Locomotor Control

The mesencephalic locomotor region (MLR) was discovered several decades ago in the cat. It was functionally defined based on the ability of low threshold electrical stimuli within a region comprising the cuneiform and pedunculopontine nucleus to evoke locomotion. Since then, similar regions have been found in diverse vertebrate species, including the lamprey, skate, rodent, pig, monkey, and human. The MLR, while often viewed under the lens of locomotion, is involved in diverse processes involving the autonomic nervous system, respiratory system, and the state-dependent activation of motor systems. This review will discuss the pedunculopontine nucleus and cuneiform nucleus that comprises the MLR and examine their respective connectomes from both an anatomical and functional angle. From a functional perspective, the MLR primes the cardiovascular and respiratory systems before the locomotor activity occurs. Inputs from a variety of higher structures, and direct outputs to the monoaminergic nuclei, allow the MLR to be able to respond appropriately to state-dependent locomotion. These state-dependent effects are roughly divided into escape and exploratory behavior, and the MLR also can reinforce the selection of these locomotor behaviors through projections to adjacent structures such as the periaqueductal gray or to limbic and cortical regions. Findings from the rat, mouse, pig, and cat will be discussed to highlight similarities and differences among diverse species.

The PV2 cluster of parvalbumin neurons in the murine periaqueductal gray: connections and gene expression

The PV2 (Celio 1990), a cluster of parvalbumin-positive neurons located in the ventromedial region of the distal periaqueductal gray (PAG) has not been previously described as its own entity, leading us to study its extent, connections, and gene expression. It is an oval, bilateral, elongated cluster composed of approximately 475 parvalbumin-expressing neurons in a single mouse hemisphere. In its anterior portion it impinges upon the paratrochlear nucleus (Par4) and in its distal portion it is harbored in the posterodorsal raphe nucleus (PDR). It is known to receive inputs from the orbitofrontal cortex and from the parvafox nucleus in the ventrolateral hypothalamus. Using anterograde tracing methods in parvalbumin-Cre mice, the main projections of the PV2 cluster innervate the supraoculomotor periaqueductal gray (Su3) of the PAG, the parvafox nucleus of the lateral hypothalamus, the gemini nuclei of the posterior hypothalamus, the septal regions, and the diagonal band in the forebrain, as well as various nuclei within the reticular formation in the midbrain and brainstem. Within the brainstem, projections were discrete, but involved areas implicated in autonomic control. The PV2 cluster expressed various peptides and receptors, including the receptor for Adcyap1, a peptide secreted by one of its main afferences, namely, the parvafox nucleus. The expression of GAD1 and GAD2 in the region of the PV2, the presence of Vgat-1 in a subpopulation of PV2-neurons as well as the coexistence of GAD67 immunoreactivity with parvalbumin in terminal endings indicates the inhibitory nature of a subpopulation of PV2-neurons. The PV2 cluster may be part of a feedback controlling the activity of the hypothalamic parvafox and the Su3 nuclei in the periaqueductal gray.

The Superior Colliculus: Cell Types, Connectivity, and Behavior

The superior colliculus (SC), one of the most well-characterized midbrain sensorimotor structures where visual, auditory, and somatosensory information are integrated to initiate motor commands, is highly conserved across vertebrate evolution. Moreover, cell-type-specific SC neurons integrate afferent signals within local networks to generate defined output related to innate and cognitive behaviors. This review focuses on the recent progress in understanding of phenotypic diversity amongst SC neurons and their intrinsic circuits and long-projection targets. We further describe relevant neural circuits and specific cell types in relation to behavioral outputs and cognitive functions. The systematic delineation of SC organization, cell types, and neural connections is further put into context across species as these depend upon laminar architecture. Moreover, we focus on SC neural circuitry involving saccadic eye movement, and cognitive and innate behaviors. Overall, the review provides insight into SC functioning and represents a basis for further understanding of the pathology associated with SC dysfunction.

The physiological control of eating: signals, neurons, and networks

During the past 30 yr, investigating the physiology of eating behaviors has generated a truly vast literature. This is fueled in part by a dramatic increase in obesity and its comorbidities that has coincided with an ever increasing sophistication of genetically based manipulations. These techniques have produced results with a remarkable degree of cell specificity, particularly at the cell signaling level, and have played a lead role in advancing the field. However, putting these findings into a brain-wide context that connects physiological signals and neurons to behavior and somatic physiology requires a thorough consideration of neuronal connections: a field that has also seen an extraordinary technological revolution. Our goal is to present a comprehensive and balanced assessment of how physiological signals associated with energy homeostasis interact at many brain levels to control eating behaviors. A major theme is that these signals engage sets of interacting neural networks throughout the brain that are defined by specific neural connections. We begin by discussing some fundamental concepts, including ones that still engender vigorous debate, that provide the necessary frameworks for understanding how the brain controls meal initiation and termination. These include key word definitions, ATP availability as the pivotal regulated variable in energy homeostasis, neuropeptide signaling, homeostatic and hedonic eating, and meal structure. Within this context, we discuss network models of how key regions in the endbrain (or telencephalon), hypothalamus, hindbrain, medulla, vagus nerve, and spinal cord work together with the gastrointestinal tract to enable the complex motor events that permit animals to eat in diverse situations.

Neural circuit control of innate behaviors

All animals possess a plethora of innate behaviors that do not require extensive learning and are fundamental for their survival and propagation. With the advent of newly-developed techniques such as viral tracing and optogenetic and chemogenetic tools, recent studies are gradually unraveling neural circuits underlying different innate behaviors. Here, we summarize current development in our understanding of the neural circuits controlling predation, feeding, male-typical mating, and urination, highlighting the role of genetically defined neurons and their connections in sensory triggering, sensory to motor/motivation transformation, motor/motivation encoding during these different behaviors. Along the way, we discuss possible mechanisms underlying binge-eating disorder and the pro-social effects of the neuropeptide oxytocin, elucidating the clinical relevance of studying neural circuits underlying essential innate functions. Finally, we discuss some exciting brain structures recurrently appearing in the regulation of different behaviors, which suggests both divergence and convergence in the neural encoding of specific innate behaviors. Going forward, we emphasize the importance of multi-angle and cross-species dissections in delineating neural circuits that control innate behaviors.

Superior Colliculus to VTA pathway controls orienting response and influences social interaction in mice

Social behaviours characterize cooperative, mutualistic, aggressive or parental interactions that occur among conspecifics. Although the Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA) has been identified as a key substrate for social behaviours, the input and output pathways dedicated to specific aspects of conspecific interaction remain understudied. Here, in male mice, we investigated the activity and function of two distinct VTA inputs from superior colliculus (SC-VTA) and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC-VTA). We observed that SC-VTA neurons display social interaction anticipatory calcium activity, which correlates with orienting responses towards an unfamiliar conspecific. In contrast, mPFC-VTA neuron population activity increases after initiation of the social contact. While protracted phasic stimulation of SC-VTA pathway promotes head/body movements and decreases social interaction, inhibition of this pathway increases social interaction. Here, we found that SC afferents mainly target a subpopulation of dorsolateral striatum (DLS)-projecting VTA dopamine (DA) neurons (VTA^DA-DLS). While, VTA^DA-DLS pathway stimulation decreases social interaction, VTA^DA-Nucleus Accumbens stimulation promotes it. Altogether, these data support a model by which at least two largely anatomically distinct VTA sub-circuits oppositely control distinct aspects of social behaviour.

Solié, Contestabile et al. show that the superior colliculus to ventral tegmental area (VTA) pathway encodes orienting behavior toward conspecifics, and modulates VTA dopamine neurons projecting onto dorsolateral striatum perturbing social interaction.

Periaqueductal gray neurons encode the sequential motor program in hunting behavior of mice

Sequential encoding of motor programs is essential for behavior generation. However, whether it is critical for instinctive behavior is still largely unknown. Mouse hunting behavior typically contains a sequential motor program, including the prey search, chase, attack, and consumption. Here, we reveal that the neuronal activity in the lateral periaqueductal gray (LPAG) follows a sequential pattern and is time-locked to different hunting actions. Optrode recordings and photoinhibition demonstrate that LPAG^Vgat neurons are required for the prey detection, chase and attack, while LPAG^Vglut2 neurons are selectively required for the attack. Ablation of inputs that could trigger hunting, including the central amygdala, the lateral hypothalamus, and the zona incerta, interrupts the activity sequence pattern and substantially impairs hunting actions. Therefore, our findings reveal that periaqueductal gray neuronal ensembles encode the sequential hunting motor program, which might provide a framework for decoding complex instinctive behaviors.

Hunting behavior typically contains a sequential motor program, including search, chase, attack, and consumption. Here, the authors show that periaqueductal gray neuronal ensembles encode the sequential hunting motor program, which might provide a framework for decoding complex instinctive behaviors.

Superior colliculus projections to target populations in the supraoculomotor area of the macaque monkey

A projection by the superior colliculus to the supraoculomotor area (SOA) located dorsal to the oculomotor complex was first described in 1978. This projection’s targets have yet to be identified, although the initial study suggested that vertical gaze motoneuron dendrites might receive this input. Defining the tectal targets is complicated by the fact the SOA contains a number of different cell populations. In the present study, we used anterograde tracers to characterize collicular axonal arbors and retrograde tracers to label prospective SOA target populations in macaque monkeys. Close associations were not found with either superior or medial rectus motoneurons whose axons supply singly innervated muscle fibers. S-group motoneurons, which supply superior rectus multiply innervated muscle fibers, appeared to receive a very minor input, but C-group motoneurons, which supply medial rectus multiply innervated muscle fibers, received no input. A number of labeled boutons were observed in close association with SOA neurons projecting to the spinal cord, or the reticular formation in the pons and medulla. These descending output neurons are presumed to be peptidergic cells within the centrally projecting Edinger–Westphal population. It is possible the collicular input provides a signaling function for neurons in this population that serve roles in either stress responses, or in eating and drinking behavior. Finally, a number of close associations were observed between tectal terminals and levator palpebrae superioris motoneurons, suggesting the possibility that the superior colliculus provides a modest direct input for raising the eyelids during upward saccades.

Alcohol use severity and the neural correlates of the effects of sleep disturbance on sustained visual attention

Alcohol misuse is associated with sleep disturbance and cognitive dysfunction. However, the neural processes inter-relating the severity of alcohol use, sleep disturbance and cognitive performance remain under-investigated. We addressed this issue with a dataset of 964 subjects (504 women) curated from the Human Connectome Project. Participants were assessed with the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) and fMRI while identifying relational dimension pictures and matching dimension pictures (as a control) in alternating blocks. Imaging data were analyzed with published routines and the results were evaluated at a corrected threshold. Subjects showed lower accuracy rate and longer reaction time (RT) in relational than control blocks. The difference in RT between the two blocks (RT_Rel-Con) was driven primarily by the RT and correlated positively with performance accuracy of relational trials, suggesting that a more cautious response (i.e., longer RT_Rel-Con) improved accuracy. The severity of alcohol use, identified from principal component analysis of drinking metrics, was positively correlated with sleep disturbance. Further, whole-brain regression identified activity of the superior colliculus (SC) during relational vs. control blocks in positive and negative correlation with RT_Rel-Con and PSQI score, respectively. Mediation and path analyses demonstrated a significant model: more severe alcohol use → greater sleep disturbance → diminished SC activity → impaired performance. These findings support the influences of alcohol misuse on sleep and suggest neural correlates that mediate the relationship between sleep disturbance and altered sustained attention in young adults.

Throwing open the doors of perception: The role of dopamine in visual processing

Animals form associations between visual cues and behaviours. Although dopamine is known to be critical in many areas of the brain to bind sensory information with appropriate responses, dopamine's role in the visual system is less well understood. Visual signals, which indicate the likely occurrence of a rewarding or aversive stimulus or indicate the context within which such stimuli may arrive, modulate activity in the superior colliculus and alter behaviour. However, such signals primarily originate in cortical and basal ganglia circuits, and evidence of direct signalling from midbrain dopamine neurons to superior colliculus is lacking. Instead, hypothalamic A13 dopamine neurons innervate the superior colliculus, and dopamine receptors are differentially expressed in the superior colliculus, with D1 receptors in superficial layers and D2 receptors in deep layers. However, it remains unknown if A13 dopamine neurons control behaviours through their effect on afferents within the superior colliculus. We propose that A13 dopamine neurons may play a critical role in processing information in the superior colliculus, modifying behavioural responses to visual cues, and propose some testable hypotheses regarding dopamine's effect on visual perception.

The tectonigral pathway regulates appetitive locomotion in predatory hunting in mice

Appetitive locomotion is essential for animals to approach rewards, such as food and prey. The neuronal circuitry controlling appetitive locomotion is unclear. In a goal-directed behavior-predatory hunting, we show an excitatory brain circuit from the superior colliculus (SC) to the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) to enhance appetitive locomotion in mice. This tectonigral pathway transmits locomotion-speed signals to dopamine neurons and triggers dopamine release in the dorsal striatum. Synaptic inactivation of this pathway impairs appetitive locomotion but not defensive locomotion. Conversely, activation of this pathway increases the speed and frequency of approach during predatory hunting, an effect that depends on the activities of SNc dopamine neurons. Together, these data reveal that the SC regulates locomotion-speed signals to SNc dopamine neurons to enhance appetitive locomotion in mice.

Revealing a Cortical Circuit Responsive to Predatory Threats and Mediating Contextual Fear Memory

The ventral part of the anteromedial thalamic nucleus (AMv) receives substantial inputs from hypothalamic sites that are highly responsive to a live predator or its odor trace and represents an important thalamic hub for conveying predatory threat information to the cerebral cortex. In the present study, we begin by examining the cortico-amygdalar-hippocampal projections of the main AMv cortical targets, namely, the caudal prelimbic, rostral anterior cingulate, and medial visual areas, as well as the rostral part of the ventral retrosplenial area, one of the main targets of the anterior cingulate area. We observed that these areas form a clear cortical network. Next, we revealed that in animals exposed to a live cat, all of the elements of this circuit presented a differential increase in Fos, supporting the idea of a predator threat-responsive cortical network. Finally, we showed that bilateral cytotoxic lesions in each element of this cortical network did not change innate fear responses but drastically reduced contextual conditioning to the predator-associated environment. Overall, the present findings suggest that predator threat has an extensive representation in the cerebral cortex and revealed a cortical network that is responsive to predatory threats and exerts a critical role in processing fear memory.

Interactive virtual objects attract attention and induce exploratory behaviours in rats

Animals use visual information to recognize the value of objects and respond with different behaviours, such as evasion or approach. While rodents show defensive behaviour toward an artificial looming stimulus that mimics an approaching avian predator, the visual feature that attracts them to targets with positive value, such as prey, remains unclear. Here, we reveal that rats show curiosity-related behaviours towards a virtual object on screen when it moves interactively with their movements, whereas they show less response to a static object, a regularly moving object, or interactive dislocation of the background. To mimic evading prey, we programmed the object to shrink when touched. Rats preferentially responded to interactive shrinking over interactive enlargement. These results suggest that rats exhibit a selective response to interactive objects. This would seem to be an efficient strategy for finding optimal prey using the evolutionarily conserved prey-predator relationship.

A Study of the Midbrain Network for Covert Attentional Orienting in Cervical Dystonia Patients using Dynamic Causal Modelling

Understanding the neuronal network dynamics underlying the third most common movement disorder, cervical dystonia, can be achieved using dynamic causal modelling. Current literature establishes structures of the midbrain network for covert attentional orienting as dysfunctional in patients with cervical dystonia. One of these structures is the superior colliculus, for which it is hypothesised that deficient GABAergic activity therein causes cervical dystonia. To understand the role that this node plays in cervical dystonia, various connectivity models of the midbrain network were compared under the influence of a loom-recede visual stimulus fMRI paradigm. These models included the thalamus and striatum, crucial nodes in the direct/indirect pathways for motor movement and inhibition. The parametric empirical Bayes approach was used to quantify the difference in connection strengths across the winning models between patients and controls. Our findings demonstrated greater modulation by a looming stimulus event on the strength of connection from the striatum to the superior colliculus in patients. These results offer new means to understanding the pathophysiology of cervical dystonia.

Activation of Brainstem Neurons During Mesencephalic Locomotor Region-Evoked Locomotion in the Cat

The distribution of locomotor-activated neurons in the brainstem of the cat was studied by c-Fos immunohistochemistry in combination with antibody-based cellular phenotyping following electrical stimulation of the mesencephalic locomotor region (MLR) – the anatomical constituents of which remain debated today, primarily between the cuneiform (CnF) and the pedunculopontine tegmental nuclei (PPT). Effective MLR sites were co-extensive with the CnF nucleus. Animals subject to the locomotor task showed abundant Fos labeling in the CnF, parabrachial nuclei of the subcuneiform region, periaqueductal gray, locus ceruleus (LC)/subceruleus (SubC), Kölliker–Fuse, magnocellular and lateral tegmental fields, raphe, and the parapyramidal region. Labeled neurons were more abundant on the side of stimulation. In some animals, Fos-labeled cells were also observed in the ventral tegmental area, medial and intermediate vestibular nuclei, dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus, n. tractus solitarii, and retrofacial nucleus in the ventrolateral medulla. Many neurons in the reticular formation were innervated by serotonergic fibers. Numerous locomotor-activated neurons in the parabrachial nuclei and LC/SubC/Kölliker–Fuse were noradrenergic. Few cholinergic neurons within the PPT stained for Fos. In the medulla, serotonergic neurons within the parapyramidal region and the nucleus raphe magnus were positive for Fos. Control animals, not subject to locomotion, showed few Fos-labeled neurons in these areas. The current study provides positive evidence for a role for the CnF in the initiation of locomotion while providing little evidence for the participation of the PPT. The results also show that MLR-evoked locomotion involves the parallel activation of reticular and monoaminergic neurons in the pons/medulla, and provides the anatomical and functional basis for spinal monoamine release during evoked locomotion. Lastly, the results indicate that vestibular, cardiovascular, and respiratory centers are centrally activated during MLR-evoked locomotion. Altogether, the results show a complex pattern of neuromodulatory influences of brainstem neurons by electrical activation of the MLR.

Sensorimotor maps can be dynamically calibrated using an adaptive-filter model of the cerebellum

Substantial experimental evidence suggests the cerebellum is involved in calibrating sensorimotor maps. Consistent with this involvement is the well-known, but little understood, massive cerebellar projection to maps in the superior colliculus. Map calibration would be a significant new role for the cerebellum given the ubiquity of map representations in the brain, but how it could perform such a task is unclear. Here we investigated a dynamic method for map calibration, based on electrophysiological recordings from the superior colliculus, that used a standard adaptive-filter cerebellar model. The method proved effective for complex distortions of both unimodal and bimodal maps, and also for predictive map-based tracking of moving targets. These results provide the first computational evidence for a novel role for the cerebellum in dynamic sensorimotor map calibration, of potential importance for coordinate alignment during ongoing motor control, and for map calibration in future biomimetic systems. This computational evidence also provides testable experimental predictions concerning the role of the connections between cerebellum and superior colliculus in previously observed dynamic coordinate transformations.

The human brain contains a structure known as the cerebellum, which contains a vast number of neurons–around 80% of the total ~90 billion. We believe the cerebellum is involved in learning motor skills, and so is vitally important for accurately controlling the movements of our body, amongst other things. However, like most regions of the brain, we still do not fully understand the role of the cerebellum and evidence for new roles is appearing all the time. One such new role is in the calibration of sensorimotor maps in the brain that link our sensory perception to motor function, such as when a visual stimulus causes a redirect of our gaze. We investigated this problem by connecting a mathematical model of the cerebellar cortical microcircuit to simulated sensory maps in the superior colliculus that are used to control orienting movements. We found the error signal generated by inaccurate orienting movements could be used to accurately calibrate sensorimotor maps, and to allow predictive tracking of moving targets. This finding points to a potentially widespread role for the cerebellum in calibrating the sensorimotor maps that are ubiquitous in the brain and could prove useful in controlling the movements of multi-joint robots.

Dorsal raphe nucleus 5-Hydroxytryptamine 2A receptors are critical for the organisation of panic attack-like defensive behaviour and unconditioned fear-induced antinociception elicited by the chemical stimulation of superior colliculus neurons

Microinjections of N-methyl-d-aspartic acid (NMDA) in the midbrain tectum structures produce panic attack-like defensive behaviours, followed by an antinociceptive response. It has been suggested that fear-related defensive responses organised by brainstem neurons can be modulated by 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT). However, there is a shortage of studies showing the role of dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN) 5-HT_2A receptors in the modulation of panic-like behaviour and fear-induced antinociception organised by the superior colliculus (SC). The purpose of this study was to investigate the participation of DRN 5-HT_2A receptors in the modulation of panic attack-like behaviour and antinociception evoked by intra-SC injections of NMDA. In experiment I, the animals received microinjections of physiological saline or NMDA (6, 9 and 12 nmol) in the deep layers of the SC (dlSC). In experiment II, the most effective dose of NMDA (12 nmol) or vehicle was preceded by microinjections of vehicle or the 5-HT_2A receptor selective antagonist R-96544 at different concentrations (0.5, 5 and 10 nM) in the DRN. Both proaversive and antinociceptive effects elicited by intra-dlSC injections of NMDA were attenuated by DRN pretreatment with R-96544. In addition, a morphological analysis showed that 5-HT_2A receptors are present in GABAergic interneurons in the DRN. Taken together, these findings suggest that DRN 5-HT_2A receptors are critical for the modulation of both panic attack-like defensive behaviour organised by SC neurons and unconditioned fear-induced antinociception. A possible interaction between serotonergic inputs, GABAergic interneurons and serotonergic outputs from the DRN was also considered.

Cognitive Control of Escape Behaviour

When faced with potential predators, animals instinctively decide whether there is a threat they should escape from, and also when, how, and where to take evasive action. While escape is often viewed in classical ethology as an action that is released upon presentation of specific stimuli, successful and adaptive escape behaviour relies on integrating information from sensory systems, stored knowledge, and internal states. From a neuroscience perspective, escape is an incredibly rich model that provides opportunities for investigating processes such as perceptual and value-based decision-making, or action selection, in an ethological setting. We review recent research from laboratory and field studies that explore, at the behavioural and mechanistic levels, how elements from multiple information streams are integrated to generate flexible escape behaviour.

Autism Pathogenesis: The Superior Colliculus

After been exposed to the visual input, in the first year of life, the brain experiences subtle but massive changes apparently crucial for communicative/emotional and social human development. Its lack could be the explanation of the very high prevalence of autism in children with total congenital blindness. The present theory postulates that the superior colliculus is the key structure for such changes for several reasons: it dominates visual behavior during the first months of life; it is ready at birth for complex visual tasks; it has a significant influence on several hemispheric regions; it is the main brain hub that permanently integrates visual and non-visual, external and internal information (bottom-up and top-down respectively); and it owns the enigmatic ability to take non-conscious decisions about where to focus attention. It is also a sentinel that triggers the subcortical mechanisms which drive social motivation to follow faces from birth and to react automatically to emotional stimuli. Through indirect connections it also activates simultaneously several cortical structures necessary to develop social cognition and to accomplish the multiattentional task required for conscious social interaction in real life settings. Genetic or non-genetic prenatal or early postnatal factors could disrupt the SC functions resulting in autism. The timing of postnatal biological disruption matches the timing of clinical autism manifestations. Astonishing coincidences between etiologies, clinical manifestations, cognitive and pathogenic autism theories on one side and SC functions on the other are disclosed in this review. Although the visual system dependent of the SC is usually considered as accessory of the LGN canonical pathway, its imprinting gives the brain a qualitatively specific functions not supplied by any other brain structure.

Integration of visual and whisker signals in rat superior colliculus

Multisensory integration is a process by which signals from different sensory modalities are combined to facilitate detection and localization of external events. One substrate for multisensory integration is the midbrain superior colliculus (SC) which plays an important role in orienting behavior. In rodent SC, visual and somatosensory (whisker) representations are in approximate registration, but whether and how these signals interact is unclear. We measured spiking activity in SC of anesthetized hooded rats, during presentation of visual- and whisker stimuli that were tested simultaneously or in isolation. Visual responses were found in all layers, but were primarily located in superficial layers. Whisker responsive sites were primarily found in intermediate layers. In single- and multi-unit recording sites, spiking activity was usually only sensitive to one modality, when stimuli were presented in isolation. By contrast, we observed robust and primarily suppressive interactions when stimuli were presented simultaneously to both modalities. We conclude that while visual and whisker representations in SC of rat are partially overlapping, there is limited excitatory convergence onto individual sites. Multimodal integration may instead rely on suppressive interactions between modalities.

Emotion and the Interactive Brain: Insights From Comparative Neuroanatomy and Complex Systems

Although emotion is closely associated with motivation, and interacts with perception, cognition, and action, many conceptualizations still treat emotion as separate from these domains. Here, a comparative/evolutionary anatomy framework is presented to motivate the idea that long-range, distributed circuits involving the midbrain, thalamus, and forebrain are central to emotional processing. It is proposed that emotion can be understood in terms of large-scale network interactions spanning the neuroaxis that form "functionally integrated systems." At the broadest level, the argument is made that we need to move beyond a Newtonian view of causation to one involving complex systems where bidirectional influences and nonlinearities abound. Therefore, understanding interactions between subsystems and signal integration becomes central to unraveling the organization of the emotional brain.

Visual Function, Organization, and Development of the Mouse Superior Colliculus

The superior colliculus (SC) is the most prominent visual center in mice. Studies over the past decade have greatly advanced our understanding of the function, organization, and development of the mouse SC, which has rapidly become a popular model in vision research. These studies have described the diverse and cell-type-specific visual response properties in the mouse SC, revealed their laminar and topographic organizations, and linked the mouse SC and downstream pathways with visually guided behaviors. Here, we summarize these findings, compare them with the rich literature of SC studies in other species, and highlight important gaps and exciting future directions. Given its clear importance in mouse vision and the available modern neuroscience tools, the mouse SC holds great promise for understanding the cellular, circuit, and developmental mechanisms that underlie visual processing, sensorimotor transformation, and, ultimately, behavior.

Stimulation of the Nigrotectal Pathway at the Level of the Superior Colliculus Reduces Threat Recognition and Causes a Shift From Avoidance to Approach Behavior

Defensive behavioral responses are essential for survival in threating situations. The superior colliculus (SC) has been implicated in the generation of defensive behaviors elicited by visual, tactile and auditory stimuli. Furthermore, substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNr) neurons are known to exert a modulatory effect on midbrain tectum neural substrates. However, the functional role of this nigrotectal pathway in threating situations is still poorly understood. Using optogenetics in freely behaving mice, we activated SNr projections at the level of the SC, and assessed consequences on behavioral performance in an open field test (OFT) and the beetle mania task (BMT). The latter confronts a mouse with an erratic moving robo-beetle and allows to measure active and passive defensive responses upon frequent encounter of the threatening object. Channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2)-mediated activation of the inhibitory nigrotectal pathway did not affect anxiety-like and exploratory behavior in the OFT, but increased the number of contacts between robo-beetle and test mouse in the BMT. Depending on the size of the arena, active avoidance responses were reduced, whereas tolerance and close following of the robo-beetle were significantly increased. We conclude from the data that the nigrotectal pathway plays holds the potential to modulate innate fear by attenuating threat recognition and causing a shift from defensive to approach behavior.

Cortical projections to the superior colliculus in grey squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis)

The superior colliculus is an important midbrain structure involved with integrating information from varying sensory modalities and sending motor signals to produce orienting movements towards environmental stimuli. Because of this role, the superior colliculus receives a multitude of sensory inputs from a wide variety of subcortical and cortical structures. Proportionately, the superior colliculus of grey squirrels is among the largest in size of all studied mammals, suggesting the importance of this structure in the behavioural characteristics of grey squirrels. Yet, our understanding of the connections of the superior colliculus in grey squirrels is lacking, especially with respect to possible cortical influences. In this study, we placed anatomical tracer injections within the medial aspect of the superior colliculus of five grey squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis) and analysed the areal distribution of corticotectal projecting cells in flattened cortex. V1 projections to the superior colliculus were studied in two additional animals. Our results indicate that the superior colliculus receives cortical projections from visual, higher order somatosensory, and higher order auditory regions, as well as limbic, retrosplenial and anterior cingulate cortex. Few, if any, corticotectal projections originate from primary motor, primary somatosensory or parietal cortical regions. This distribution of inputs is similar to the distribution of inputs described in other rodents such as rats and mice, yet the lack of inputs from primary somatosensory and motor cortex is features of corticotectal inputs more similar to those observed in tree shrews and primates, possibly reflecting a behavioural shift from somatosensory (vibrissae) to visual navigation.

Functional Organization and Dynamic Activity in the Superior Colliculus of the Echolocating Bat, Eptesicus fuscus

Sensory-guided behaviors require the transformation of sensory information into task-specific motor commands. Prior research on sensorimotor integration has emphasized visuomotor processes in the context of simplified orienting movements in controlled laboratory tasks rather than an animal's more complete, natural behavioral repertoire. Here, we conducted a series of neural recording experiments in the midbrain superior colliculus (SC) of echolocating bats engaged in a sonar target-tracking task that invoked dynamic active sensing behaviors. We hypothesized that SC activity in freely behaving animals would reveal dynamic shifts in neural firing patterns within and across sensory, sensorimotor, and premotor layers. We recorded neural activity in the SC of freely echolocating bats (three females and one male) and replicated the general trends reported in other species with sensory responses in the dorsal divisions and premotor activity in ventral divisions of the SC. However, within this coarse functional organization, we discovered that sensory and motor neurons are comingled within layers throughout the volume of the bat SC. In addition, as the bat increased pulse rate adaptively to increase resolution of the target location with closing distance, the activity of sensory and vocal premotor neurons changed such that auditory response times decreased, and vocal premotor lead times shortened. This finding demonstrates that SC activity can be modified dynamically in concert with adaptive behaviors and suggests that an integrated functional organization within SC laminae supports rapid and local integration of sensory and motor signals for natural, adaptive behaviors.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Natural sensory-guided behaviors involve the rapid integration of information from the environment to direct flexible motor actions. The vast majority of research on sensorimotor integration has used artificial stimuli and simplified behaviors, leaving open questions about nervous system function in the context of natural tasks. Our work investigated mechanisms of dynamic sensorimotor feedback control by analyzing patterns of neural activity in the midbrain superior colliculus (SC) of an echolocating bat tracking and intercepting moving prey. Recordings revealed that sensory and motor neurons comingle within laminae of the SC to support rapid sensorimotor integration. Further, we discovered that neural activity in the bat SC changes with dynamic adaptations in the animal's echolocation behavior.

Disrupted superior collicular activity may reveal cervical dystonia disease pathomechanisms

Cervical dystonia is a common neurological movement disorder characterised by muscle contractions causing abnormal movements and postures affecting the head and neck. The neural networks underpinning this condition are incompletely understood. While animal models suggest a role for the superior colliculus in its pathophysiology, this link has yet to be established in humans. The present experiment was designed to test the hypothesis that disrupted superior collicular processing is evident in affected patients and in relatives harbouring a disease-specific endophenotype (abnormal temporal discrimination). The study participants were 16 cervical dystonia patients, 16 unaffected first-degree relatives with abnormal temporal discrimination, 16 unaffected first-degree relatives with normal temporal discrimination and 16 healthy controls. The response of participant’s superior colliculi to looming stimuli was assessed by functional magnetic resonance imaging. Cervical dystonia patients and relatives with abnormal temporal discrimination demonstrated (i) significantly reduced superior collicular activation for whole brain and region of interest analysis; (ii) a statistically significant negative correlation between temporal discrimination threshold and superior collicular peak values. Our results support the hypothesis that disrupted superior collicular processing is involved in the pathogenesis of cervical dystonia. These findings, which align with animal models of cervical dystonia, shed new light on pathomechanisms in humans.

Reticular Formation Connections Underlying Horizontal Gaze: The Central Mesencephalic Reticular Formation (cMRF) as a Conduit for the Collicular Saccade Signal

The central mesencephalic reticular formation (cMRF) occupies much of the core of the midbrain tegmentum. Physiological studies indicate that it is involved in controlling gaze changes, particularly horizontal saccades. Anatomically, it receives input from the ipsilateral superior colliculus (SC) and it has downstream projections to the brainstem, including the horizontal gaze center located in the paramedian pontine reticular formation (PPRF). Consequently, it has been hypothesized that the cMRF plays a role in the spatiotemporal transformation needed to convert spatially coded collicular saccade signals into the temporally coded signals utilized by the premotor neurons of the horizontal gaze center. In this study, we used neuroanatomical tracers to examine the patterns of connectivity of the cMRF in macaque monkeys in order to determine whether the circuit organization supports this hypothesis. Since stimulation of the cMRF produces contraversive horizontal saccades and stimulation of the horizontal gaze center produces ipsiversive saccades, this would require an excitatory cMRF projection to the contralateral PPRF. Injections of anterograde tracers into the cMRF did produce labeled terminals within the PPRF. However, the terminations were denser ipsilaterally. Since the PPRF located contralateral to the movement direction is generally considered to be silent during a horizontal saccade, we then tested the hypothesis that this ipsilateral reticuloreticular pathway might be inhibitory. The ultrastructure of ipsilateral terminals was heterogeneous, with some displaying more extensive postsynaptic densities than others. Postembedding immunohistochemistry for gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) indicated that only a portion (35%) of these cMRF terminals are GABAergic. Dual tracer experiments were undertaken to determine whether the SC provides input to cMRF reticuloreticular neurons projecting to the ipsilateral pons. Retrogradely labeled reticuloreticular neurons were predominantly distributed in the ipsilateral cMRF. Anterogradely labeled tectal terminals were observed in close association with a portion of these retrogradely labeled reticuloreticular neurons. Taken together, these results suggest that the SC does have connections with reticuloreticular neurons in the cMRF. However, the predominantly excitatory nature of the ipsilateral reticuloreticular projection argues against the hypothesis that this cMRF pathway is solely responsible for producing a spatiotemporal transformation of the collicular saccade signal.

Segregated fronto-cortical and midbrain connections in the mouse and their relation to approach and avoidance orienting behaviors

The orchestration of orienting behaviors requires the interaction of many cortical and subcortical areas, for example the superior colliculus (SC), as well as prefrontal areas responsible for top–down control. Orienting involves different behaviors, such as approach and avoidance. In the rat, these behaviors are at least partially mapped onto different SC subdomains, the lateral (SCl) and medial (SCm), respectively. To delineate the circuitry involved in the two types of orienting behavior in mice, we injected retrograde tracer into the intermediate and deep layers of the SCm and SCl, and thereby determined the main input structures to these subdomains. Overall the SCm receives larger numbers of afferents compared to the SCl. The prefrontal cingulate area (Cg), visual, oculomotor, and auditory areas provide strong input to the SCm, while prefrontal motor area 2 (M2), and somatosensory areas provide strong input to the SCl. The prefrontal areas Cg and M2 in turn connect to different cortical and subcortical areas, as determined by anterograde tract tracing. Even though connectivity pattern often overlap, our labeling approaches identified segregated neural circuits involving SCm, Cg, secondary visual cortices, auditory areas, and the dysgranular retrospenial cortex likely to be involved in avoidance behaviors. Conversely, SCl, M2, somatosensory cortex, and the granular retrospenial cortex comprise a network likely involved in approach/appetitive behaviors.

The mesencephalic GCt-ICo complex and tonic immobility in pigeons (Columba livia): a c-Fos study

Tonic immobility (TI) is a response to a predator attack, or other inescapable danger, characterized by immobility, analgesia and unresponsiveness to external stimuli. In mammals, the periaqueductal gray (PAG) and deep tectal regions control the expression of TI as well as other defensive behaviors. In birds, little is known about the mesencephalic circuitry involved in the control of TI. Here, adult pigeons (both sex, n = 4/group), randomly assigned to non-handled, handled or TI groups, were killed 90 min after manipulations and the brains processed for detection of c-Fos immunoreactive cells (c-Fos-ir, marker for neural activity) in the mesencephalic central gray (GCt) and the adjacent nucleus intercollicularis (ICo). The NADPH-diaphorase staining delineated the boundaries of the sub nuclei in the ICo-GCt complex. Compared to non-handled, TI (but not handling) induced c-Fos-ir in NADPH-diaphorase-rich and -poor regions. After TI, the number of c-Fos-ir increased in the caudal and intermediate areas of the ICo (but not in the GCt), throughout the rostrocaudal axis of the dorsal stratum griseum periventriculare (SGPd) of the optic tectum and in the n. mesencephalicus lateralis pars dorsalis (MLd), which is part of the ascending auditory pathway. These data suggest that inescapable threatening stimuli such as TI may recruit neurons in discrete areas of ICo-GCt complex, deep tectal layer and in ascending auditory circuits that may control the expression of defensive behaviors in pigeons. Additionally, data indicate that the contiguous deep tectal SCPd (but not GCt) in birds may be functionally comparable to the mammalian dorsal PAG.

Optogenetics Based Rat-Robot Control: Optical Stimulation Encodes "Stop" and "Escape" Commands

Electric brain stimulation is frequently used in bio-robot control. However, one possible limitation of electric stimulation is the resultant wide range of influences that may lead to unexpected side-effects. Although there has been prior research done towards optogenetics based brain activation, there has not been much development regarding the comparisons between electric and optical methods of brain activation. In this study, we first encode "Stop" and "Escape" commands by optical stimulation in the dorsal periaqueductal grey (dPAG). The rats behavioral comparisons are then noted down under these two methods. The dPAG neural activity recorded during optical stimulation suggests rate and temporal coding mechanisms in behavioral control. The behavioral comparisons show that rats exhibit anxiety under the "Stop" command conveyed through both optical and electric methods. However, rats are able to recover more quickly from freezing only under optical "Stop" command. Under "Escape" commands, also conveyed through optical means, the rat would move with lessened urgency but the results are more stable. Moreover, c-Fos study shows the optical stimulation activates restricted range in midbrain: the optical stimulation affected only dPAG and its downstreams but electric stimulation activates both the upstream and downstream circuits, in which the glutamatergic neurons are largely occupied and play important role in "Stop" and "Escape" behavior controls. We conclude that optical stimulation is more suited for encoding "Stop" and "Escape" commands for rat-robot control.

The mother as hunter: significant reduction in foraging costs through enhancements of predation in maternal rats

In previous laboratory investigations, we have identified enhanced cognition and reduced stress in parous rats, which are likely adaptations in mothers needing to efficiently exploit resources to maintain, protect and provision their immature offspring. Here, in a series of seven behavioral tests on rats, we examined a natural interface between cognition and resource gathering: predation. Experiment 1 compared predatory behavior (toward crickets) in age-matched nulliparous mothers (NULLs) and postpartum lactating mothers (LACTs), revealing a highly significant enhancement of predation in LACT females (mean = -65s in LACTs, vs. -270s in NULLs). Experiment 2 examined the possibility that LACTs, given their increased metabolic rate, were hungrier, and thus more motivated to hunt; doubling the length of time of food deprivation in NULLs did not decrease their predatory latencies. Experiments 3-5, which examined sensory regulation of the effect, indicated that olfaction (anosmia), audition (blockade with white noise), and somatosensation (trimming the vibrissae) appear to play little role in the behavioral enhancement observed in the LACTs; Experiment 6 examined the possibility that visual augmentations may facilitate the improvements in predation; testing LACTs in a 0-lux environment eliminated the behavioral advantage (increasing their latencies from -65s to -212s), which suggests that temporary augmentation to the visual system may be important, and with hormone-neural alterations therein a likely candidate for further study. In contrast, testing NULLS in the 0-lux environment had the opposite effect, reducing their latency to catch the cricket (from -270s to -200s). Finally, Experiment 7 examined the development of predatory behavior in Early-pregnant (PREG), Mid-PREG, and Late-PREG females. Here, we observed a significant enhancement of predation in Mid-PREG and Late-PREG females--at a time when maternity-associated bodily changes would be expected to diminish predation ability--relative to NULLs. Therefore, as with the increasing reports of enhancements to the maternal brain, it is apparent that meaningful behavioral adaptations occur that likewise promote the survival of the mother and her infants at a crucial stage of their lives.

Whisker motor cortex reorganization after superior colliculus output suppression in adult rats

The effect of unilateral superior colliculus (SC) output suppression on the ipsilateral whisker motor cortex (WMC) was studied at different time points after tetrodotoxin and quinolinic acid injections, in adult rats. The WMC output was assessed by mapping the movement evoked by intracortical microstimulation (ICMS) and by recording the ICMS-evoked electromyographic (EMG) responses from contralateral whisker muscles. At 1 h after SC injections, the WMC showed: (i) a strong decrease in contralateral whisker sites, (ii) a strong increase in ipsilateral whisker sites and in ineffective sites, and (iii) a strong increase in threshold current values. At 6 h after injections, the WMC size had shrunk to 60% of the control value and forelimb representation had expanded into the lateral part of the normal WMC. Thereafter, the size of the WMC recovered, returning to nearly normal 12 h later (94% of control) and persisted unchanged over time (1-3 weeks). The ICMS-evoked EMG response area decreased at 1 h after SC lesion and had recovered its baseline value 12 h later. Conversely, the latency of ICMS-evoked EMG responses had increased by 1 h and continued to increase for as long as 3 weeks following the lesion. These findings provide physiological evidence that SC output suppression persistently withdrew the direct excitatory drive from whisker motoneurons and induced changes in the WMC. We suggest that the changes in the WMC are a form of reversible short-term reorganization that is induced by SC lesion. The persistent latency increase in the ICMS-evoked EMG response suggested that the recovery of basic WMC excitability did not take place with the recovery of normal explorative behaviour.

A unified survival theory of the functioning of the hypocretinergic system

This article advances the theory that the hypocretinergic (orexinergic) system initiates, coordinates, and maintains survival behaviors and survival-related processes (i.e., the Unified Survival Theory of the Functioning of the Hypocretinergic System or "Unified Hypocretinergic Survival Theory"). A priori presumptive support for the Unified Hypocretinergic Survival Theory emanates from the fact that neurons that contain hypocretin are located in the key executive central nervous system (CNS) site, the lateral hypothalamus, that for decades has been well-documented to govern core survival behaviors such as fight, flight, and food consumption. In addition, the hypocretinergic system exhibits the requisite morphological and electrophysiological capabilities to control survival behaviors and related processes. Complementary behavioral data demonstrate that all facets of "survival" are coordinated by the hypocretinergic system and that hypocretinergic directives are not promulgated except during survival behaviors. Importantly, it has been shown that survival behaviors are selectively impacted when the hypocretinergic system is impaired or rendered nonfunctional, whereas other behaviors are relatively unaffected. The Unified Hypocretinergic Survival Theory resolves the disparate, perplexing, and often paradoxical-appearing results of previous studies; it also provides a foundation for future hypothesis-driven basic science and clinical explorations of the hypocretinergic system.

The dorsal tectal longitudinal column (TLCd): a second longitudinal column in the paramedian region of the midbrain tectum

The tectal longitudinal column (TLC) is a longitudinally oriented, long and narrow nucleus that spans the paramedian region of the midbrain tectum of a large variety of mammals (Saldaña et al. in J Neurosci 27:13108–13116, 2007). Recent analysis of the organization of this region revealed another novel nucleus located immediately dorsal, and parallel, to the TLC. Because the name “tectal longitudinal column” also seems appropriate for this novel nucleus, we suggest the TLC described in 2007 be renamed the “ventral tectal longitudinal column (TLCv)”, and the newly discovered nucleus termed the “dorsal tectal longitudinal column (TLCd)”. This work represents the first characterization of the rat TLCd. A constellation of anatomical techniques was used to demonstrate that the TLCd differs from its surrounding structures (TLCv and superior colliculus) cytoarchitecturally, myeloarchitecturally, neurochemically and hodologically. The distinct expression of vesicular amino acid transporters suggests that TLCd neurons are GABAergic. The TLCd receives major projections from various areas of the cerebral cortex (secondary visual mediomedial area, and granular and dysgranular retrosplenial cortices) and from the medial pretectal nucleus. It densely innervates the ipsilateral lateral posterior and laterodorsal nuclei of the thalamus. Thus, the TLCd is connected with vision-related neural centers. The TLCd may be unique as it constitutes the only known nucleus made of GABAergic neurons dedicated to providing massive inhibition to higher order thalamic nuclei of a specific sensory modality.

Synchronized activation of sympathetic vasomotor, cardiac, and respiratory outputs by neurons in the midbrain colliculi

The superior and inferior colliculi are believed to generate immediate and highly coordinated defensive behavioral responses to threatening visual and auditory stimuli. Activation of neurons in the superior and inferior colliculi have been shown to evoke increases in cardiovascular and respiratory activity, which may be components of more generalized stereotyped behavioral responses. In this study, we examined the possibility that there are “command neurons” within the colliculi that can simultaneously drive sympathetic and respiratory outputs. In anesthetized rats, microinjections of bicuculline (a GABAA receptor antagonist) into sites within a circumscribed region in the deep layers of the superior colliculus and in the central and external nuclei of the inferior colliculus evoked a response characterized by intense and highly synchronized bursts of renal sympathetic nerve activity (RSNA) and phrenic nerve activity (PNA). Each burst of RSNA had a duration of ∼300–400 ms and occurred slightly later (peak to peak latency of 41 ± 8 ms) than the corresponding burst of PNA. The bursts of RSNA and PNA were also accompanied by transient increases in arterial pressure and, in most cases, heart rate. Synchronized bursts of RSNA and PNA were also evoked after neuromuscular blockade, artificial ventilation, and vagotomy and so were not dependent on afferent feedback from the lungs. We propose that the synchronized sympathetic-respiratory responses are driven by a common population of neurons, which may normally be activated by an acute threatening stimulus.