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Zamorina TA, Ivashkina OI, Toropova KA, Anokhin KV. Inhibition of Protein Synthesis Attenuates Formation of Traumatic Memory and Normalizes Fear-Induced c-Fos Expression in a Mouse Model of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:6544. [PMID: 38928250 PMCID: PMC11204086 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25126544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2024] [Revised: 05/24/2024] [Accepted: 06/11/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a debilitating psychosomatic condition characterized by impairment of brain fear circuits and persistence of exceptionally strong associative memories resistant to extinction. In this study, we investigated the neural and behavioral consequences of inhibiting protein synthesis, a process known to suppress the formation of conventional aversive memories, in an established PTSD animal model based on contextual fear conditioning in mice. Control animals were subjected to the conventional fear conditioning task. Utilizing c-Fos neural activity mapping, we found that the retrieval of PTSD and normal aversive memories produced activation of an overlapping set of brain structures. However, several specific areas, such as the infralimbic cortex and the paraventricular thalamic nucleus, showed an increase in the PTSD group compared to the normal aversive memory group. Administration of protein synthesis inhibitor before PTSD induction disrupted the formation of traumatic memories, resulting in behavior that matched the behavior of mice with usual aversive memory. Concomitant with this behavioral shift was a normalization of brain c-Fos activation pattern matching the one observed in usual fear memory. Our findings demonstrate that inhibiting protein synthesis during traumatic experiences significantly impairs the development of PTSD in a mouse model. These data provide insights into the neural underpinnings of protein synthesis-dependent traumatic memory formation and open prospects for the development of new therapeutic strategies for PTSD prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatyana A. Zamorina
- Institute for Advanced Brain Studies, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (T.A.Z.); (O.I.I.); (K.A.T.)
- Faculty of Biology, Department of Higher Nervous Activity, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119234 Moscow, Russia
| | - Olga I. Ivashkina
- Institute for Advanced Brain Studies, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (T.A.Z.); (O.I.I.); (K.A.T.)
- Laboratory of Neuronal Intelligence, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991 Moscow, Russia
| | - Ksenia A. Toropova
- Institute for Advanced Brain Studies, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (T.A.Z.); (O.I.I.); (K.A.T.)
- Laboratory of Neuronal Intelligence, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991 Moscow, Russia
| | - Konstantin V. Anokhin
- Institute for Advanced Brain Studies, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (T.A.Z.); (O.I.I.); (K.A.T.)
- Laboratory of Neuronal Intelligence, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991 Moscow, Russia
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Kim EJ, Lee M, Yum MS. Specific inhibitor of Wnt/beta-catenin pathway can alter behavioral responses in young rats with malformed cortices. Behav Brain Res 2024; 460:114801. [PMID: 38070690 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2023.114801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2023] [Revised: 11/24/2023] [Accepted: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023]
Abstract
The Wnt/beta-catenin pathway plays a crucial role in regulating cellular processes and has been implicated in neural activity-dependent learning as well as anxiety. However, the role of this pathway in young children with abnormal cortical development is unknown. Cortical malformations at early development, behavioral abnormalities, and a susceptibility to seizures have been reported in rats prenatally exposed to methylazoxymethanol. In this study, we aimed to investigate whether we could improve the behavioral deficits in young rats with malformed cerebral cortices by modulation of the Wnt/beta-catenin pathway. We found a small molecule Wnt/beta-catenin inhibitor (CWP) that increased exploratory behavior in the open field test (P9, CWP 100 ug treatment, peripheral exploration, P = 0.011) and social behavior test (P12, CWP 250 ug treatment, distance traveled in center, P = 0.033) and decreased anxiety in fear conditioning. However, it did not reduce the susceptibility to seizures. After high dose (250 ug) CWP treatment at P12, phosphocreatine and glutathione (GSH) were decreased in the cortex at P15 (P = 0.021). These findings suggest that the role of Wnt/beta-catenin signaling in exploratory behavior and anxiety during early development warrants further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eun-Jin Kim
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Seoul 05505, South Korea; Asan Institute for Life Sciences, Asan Medical Center, Seoul 05505, South Korea
| | - Minyoung Lee
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Seoul 05505, South Korea; Asan Institute for Life Sciences, Asan Medical Center, Seoul 05505, South Korea
| | - Mi-Sun Yum
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Seoul 05505, South Korea; Department of Pediatrics, Asan Medical Center Children's Hospital, 88 Olympic-ro, Songpa-ku, Seoul 05505, South Korea.
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Hu X, Liu L, Wang Z, Sun Y, Li Z, Zhou G, Yue K, Wang L, Lian B, Lu G, Li C, Sun L. The potential role of GSK-3β signaling pathway for amelioration actions of ketamine on the PTSD rodent model. Brain Res Bull 2023; 200:110697. [PMID: 37392896 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2023.110697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2023] [Revised: 06/26/2023] [Accepted: 06/28/2023] [Indexed: 07/03/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a complex, chronic psychiatric disorder typically triggered by life-threatening events and, as yet, lacks a specialized pharmacological treatment. The potential therapeutic role of ketamine, an N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonist, in mitigating PTSD has been the subject of investigation. OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to elucidate alterations in the glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β) signaling pathway in response to ketamine intervention, using the single prolonged stress (SPS) model of PTSD at a molecular level. METHODS PTSD-like symptoms were simulated using the SPS model. Ketamine (10mg/kg) and GSK-3β antagonist SB216763 (5mg/kg) were then administered intraperitoneally. Stress-related behavior was evaluated through the open field test (OFT) and the elevated plus maze test (EMPT). Additionally, brain activity was analyzed using quantitative electroencephalography (qEEG). Changes in protein and mRNA expressions of glucocorticoid receptor (GR), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), GSK-3β, phosphorylated ser-9 GSK-3β (p-GSK-3β), FK506 binding protein 5 (FKBP5), and corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) were assessed in the hypothalamus via western blot and qPCR. RESULTS SPS-exposed rats exhibited reduced distance and time spent in the center of the open arms, a pattern divergent from control rats. qEEG readings revealed SPS-induced increases in alpha power, low gamma and high gamma power. Furthermore, SPS triggered an upregulation in the protein and gene expression of GSK-3β, GR, BDNF, p-GSK-3β, and FKBP5, and downregulated CRH expression in the hypothalamus. Ketamine administration following the SPS procedure counteracted these changes by increasing the time spent in the center of the OFT, the distance traversed in the open arms of the EMPT, and mitigating SPS-induced alterations in cerebral cortex oscillations. Moreover, ketamine reduced the protein levels of GSK-3β, GR, p-GSK-3β, and altered the ratio of p-GSK-3β to GSK-3β. Gene expression of GSK-3β, GR, BDNF, and FKBP5 decreased in the SPS-Ket group compared to the SPS-Sal group. CONCLUSIONS Ketamine appeared to remediate the abnormal GSK-3β signaling pathway induced by SPS. These findings collectively suggest that ketamine could be a promising therapeutic agent for PTSD symptoms, working through the modulation of the GSK-3β signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinyu Hu
- School of Psychology, Weifang Medical University, 7166# Baotong West Street, Weifang 261053, China.
| | - Lifen Liu
- School of Psychology, Weifang Medical University, 7166# Baotong West Street, Weifang 261053, China.
| | - Zixun Wang
- School of Clinical Medicine, Weifang Medical University, 7166# Baotong West Street, Weifang, Shandong, 261053, PR China.
| | - Yongjing Sun
- School of Clinical Medicine, Weifang Medical University, 7166# Baotong West Street, Weifang, Shandong, 261053, PR China.
| | - Zhi Li
- School of Clinical Medicine, Weifang Medical University, 7166# Baotong West Street, Weifang, Shandong, 261053, PR China.
| | - Guorun Zhou
- School of Psychology, Weifang Medical University, 7166# Baotong West Street, Weifang 261053, China.
| | - Kuitao Yue
- Medical Imaging Center, Affiliated Hospital of Weifang Medical University, Weifang, 261035, PR China.
| | - Lin Wang
- Clinical Competency Training Center, Medical experiment and training center, Weifang Medical University, 7166# Baotong West Street, Weifang Shandong, 261053, P. R. China.
| | - Bo Lian
- Department of Bioscience and Technology, Weifang Medical University, 7166# Baotong West Street, Weifang, Shandong 261053, China.
| | - Guohua Lu
- School of Psychology, Weifang Medical University, 7166# Baotong West Street, Weifang 261053, China.
| | - Changjiang Li
- School of Psychology, Weifang Medical University, 7166# Baotong West Street, Weifang 261053, China.
| | - Lin Sun
- School of Psychology, Weifang Medical University, 7166# Baotong West Street, Weifang 261053, China.
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Li X, Teng T, Yan W, Fan L, Liu X, Clarke G, Zhu D, Jiang Y, Xiang Y, Yu Y, Zhang Y, Yin B, Lu L, Zhou X, Xie P. AKT and MAPK signaling pathways in hippocampus reveals the pathogenesis of depression in four stress-induced models. Transl Psychiatry 2023; 13:200. [PMID: 37308476 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-023-02486-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2022] [Revised: 05/06/2023] [Accepted: 05/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a highly heterogeneous psychiatric disorder. The pathogenesis of MDD remained unclear, and it may be associated with exposure to different stressors. Most previous studies have focused on molecular changes in a single stress-induced depression model, which limited the identification of the pathogenesis of MDD. The depressive-like behaviors were induced by four well-validated stress models in rats, including chronic unpredictable mild stress, learned helplessness stress, chronic restraint stress and social defeat stress. We applied proteomic and metabolomic to investigate molecular changes in the hippocampus of those four models and revealed 529 proteins and 98 metabolites. Ingenuity Pathways Analysis (IPA) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analysis identified differentially regulated canonical pathways, and then we presented a schematic model that simulates AKT and MAPK signaling pathways network and their interactions and revealed the cascade reactions. Further, the western blot confirmed that p-AKT, p-ERK12, GluA1, p-MEK1, p-MEK2, p-P38, Syn1, and TrkB, which were changed in at least one depression model. Importantly, p-AKT, p-ERK12, p-MEK1 and p-P38 were identified as common alterations in four depression models. The molecular level changes caused by different stressors may be dramatically different, and even opposite, between four depression models. However, the different molecular alterations converge on a common AKT and MAPK molecular pathway. Further studies of these pathways could contribute to a better understanding of the pathogenesis of depression, with the ultimate goal of helping to develop or select more effective treatment strategies for MDD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuemei Li
- Department of Psychiatry, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
- NHC Key Laboratory of Diagnosis and Treatment on Brain Functional Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Teng Teng
- Department of Psychiatry, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
- NHC Key Laboratory of Diagnosis and Treatment on Brain Functional Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Wei Yan
- Peking University Sixth Hospital, Peking University Institute of Mental Health, NHC Key Laboratory of Mental Health (Peking University), National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders (Peking University Sixth Hospital), Beijing, China
| | - Li Fan
- NHC Key Laboratory of Diagnosis and Treatment on Brain Functional Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Xueer Liu
- NHC Key Laboratory of Diagnosis and Treatment on Brain Functional Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Gerard Clarke
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurobehavioural Science, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
- APC Microbiome Ireland, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Dan Zhu
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Yuanliang Jiang
- Department of Psychiatry, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
- NHC Key Laboratory of Diagnosis and Treatment on Brain Functional Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Yajie Xiang
- NHC Key Laboratory of Diagnosis and Treatment on Brain Functional Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Ying Yu
- NHC Key Laboratory of Diagnosis and Treatment on Brain Functional Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Yuqing Zhang
- NHC Key Laboratory of Diagnosis and Treatment on Brain Functional Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Bangmin Yin
- Department of Psychiatry, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
- NHC Key Laboratory of Diagnosis and Treatment on Brain Functional Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Lin Lu
- Peking University Sixth Hospital, Peking University Institute of Mental Health, NHC Key Laboratory of Mental Health (Peking University), National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders (Peking University Sixth Hospital), Beijing, China.
| | - Xinyu Zhou
- Department of Psychiatry, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China.
- NHC Key Laboratory of Diagnosis and Treatment on Brain Functional Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China.
| | - Peng Xie
- NHC Key Laboratory of Diagnosis and Treatment on Brain Functional Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China.
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China.
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Zou Y, Guo Q, Chang Y, Zhong Y, Cheng L, Wei W. Effects of Maternal High-Fructose Diet on Long Non-Coding RNAs and Anxiety-like Behaviors in Offspring. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24054460. [PMID: 36901891 PMCID: PMC10003385 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24054460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2022] [Revised: 02/06/2023] [Accepted: 02/20/2023] [Indexed: 02/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Increased fructose intake is an international issue. A maternal high-fructose diet during gestation and lactation could affect nervous system development in offspring. Long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) plays an important role in brain biology. However, the mechanism whereby maternal high-fructose diets influence offspring brain development by affecting lncRNAs is still unclear. Here, we administered 13% and 40% fructose water to establish a maternal high-fructose diet model during gestation and lactation. To determine lncRNAs and their target genes, full-length RNA sequencing was performed using the Oxford Nanopore Technologies platform, and 882 lncRNAs were identified. Moreover, the 13% fructose group and the 40% fructose group had differentially expressed lncRNA genes compared with the control group. Enrichment analyses and co-expression analyses were performed to investigate the changes in biological function. Furthermore, enrichment analyses, behavioral science experiments, and molecular biology experiments all indicated that the fructose group offspring showed anxiety-like behaviors. In summary, this study provides insight into the molecular mechanisms underlying maternal high-fructose diet-induced lncRNA expression and co-expression of lncRNA and mRNA.
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Melatonin alleviates PTSD-like behaviors and restores serum GABA and cortisol levels in mice. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2023; 240:259-269. [PMID: 36642730 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-023-06312-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Accepted: 01/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Melatonin is an endogenous hormone which modulates sleep-wake cycles. Previous studies have found a close correlation between melatonin and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), a trauma- and stress-related psychiatric disorder with symptoms of sleep disturbance. However, it is still unclear if melatonin can have a therapeutic effect on PTSD. OBJECTIVE This study aimed to investigate the effects of melatonin on foot shocks induced PTSD-like behaviors and abnormal neuroendocrine levels in mice. RESULTS As compared to no-shock controls, PTSD-like mice spent significantly more time freezing and displayed less rearing in a contextual fear test, spent significantly less time in and had fewer entries into open arms in an elevated maze test, and spent significantly less time in and had fewer entries into a light box in a light-dark transition task. In addition, serum GABA and cortisol levels were both found to be significantly decreased, whereas epinephrine levels were significantly increased in the PTSD-like mice. Our results showed that intraperitoneal injections of melatonin (2 mM, but not 0.2 nor 20 mM, 0.1 ml/day for two consecutive weeks) alleviated PTSD-like behaviors and restored serum GABA and cortisol levels. Further, it was found that melatonin receptor 1/2 antagonist luzindole significantly blocked the beneficial effects of melatonin for PTSD-like behaviors and serum GABA and cortisol levels, whereas melatonin receptor 2 antagonist 4-P-PDOT slightly blocked these effects. CONCLUSIONS These results indicate that melatonin has a potential therapeutic effect on PTSD-like symptoms in mice, and melatonin receptor 1 mediated the effect.
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Cannabidiol Modulates Alterations in PFC microRNAs in a Rat Model of Depression. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24032052. [PMID: 36768376 PMCID: PMC9953518 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24032052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2022] [Revised: 01/11/2023] [Accepted: 01/14/2023] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Cannabidiol (CBD) is a potential antidepressant agent. We examined the association between the antidepressant effects of CBD and alterations in brain microRNAs in the unpredictable chronic mild stress (UCMS) model for depression. UCMS male rats were injected with vehicle or CBD (10 mg/kg) and tested for immobility time in the forced swim test. Alterations in miRNAs (miR16, miR124, miR135a) and genes that encode for the 5HT1a receptor, the serotonergic transporter SERT, β-catenin, and CB1 were examined. UCMS increased immobility time in a forced swim test (i.e., depressive-like behavior) and altered the expression of miRNAs and mRNA in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), raphe nucleus, and nucleus accumbens. Importantly, CBD restored UCMS-induced upregulation in miR-16 and miR-135 in the vmPFC as well as the increase in immobility time. CBD also restored the UCMS-induced decrease in htr1a, the gene that encodes for the serotonergic 5HT1a receptor; using a pharmacological approach, we found that the 5HT1a receptor antagonist WAY100135 blocked the antidepressant-like effect of CBD on immobility time. Our findings suggest that the antidepressant effects of CBD in a rat model for depression are associated with alterations in miR-16 and miR-135 in the vmPFC and are mediated by the 5HT1a receptor.
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Teal LB, Ingram SM, Bubser M, McClure E, Jones CK. The Evolving Role of Animal Models in the Discovery and Development of Novel Treatments for Psychiatric Disorders. ADVANCES IN NEUROBIOLOGY 2023; 30:37-99. [PMID: 36928846 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-21054-9_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/18/2023]
Abstract
Historically, animal models have been routinely used in the characterization of novel chemical entities (NCEs) for various psychiatric disorders. Animal models have been essential in the in vivo validation of novel drug targets, establishment of lead compound pharmacokinetic to pharmacodynamic relationships, optimization of lead compounds through preclinical candidate selection, and development of translational measures of target occupancy and functional target engagement. Yet, with decades of multiple NCE failures in Phase II and III efficacy trials for different psychiatric disorders, the utility and value of animal models in the drug discovery process have come under intense scrutiny along with the widespread withdrawal of the pharmaceutical industry from psychiatric drug discovery. More recently, the development and utilization of animal models for the discovery of psychiatric NCEs has undergone a dynamic evolution with the application of the Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) framework for better design of preclinical to clinical translational studies combined with innovative genetic, neural circuitry-based, and automated testing technologies. In this chapter, the authors will discuss this evolving role of animal models for improving the different stages of the discovery and development in the identification of next generation treatments for psychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura B Teal
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
- Warren Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Shalonda M Ingram
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
- Warren Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Michael Bubser
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
- Warren Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Elliott McClure
- College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Lipscomb University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Carrie K Jones
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA.
- Warren Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA.
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Larosa A, Wong TP. The hippocampus in stress susceptibility and resilience: Reviewing molecular and functional markers. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2022; 119:110601. [PMID: 35842073 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2022.110601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2022] [Revised: 06/22/2022] [Accepted: 07/10/2022] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Understanding the individual variability that comes with the likelihood of developing stress-related psychopathologies is of paramount importance when addressing mechanisms of their neurobiology. This article focuses on the hippocampus as a region that is highly influenced by chronic stress exposure and that has strong ties to the development of related disorders, such as depression and post-traumatic stress disorder. We first outline three commonly used animal models that have been used to separate animals into susceptible and resilient cohorts. Next, we review molecular and functional hippocampal markers of susceptibility and resilience. We propose that the hippocampus plays a crucial role in the differences in the processing and storage of stress-related information in animals with different stress susceptibilities. These hippocampal markers not only help us attain a more comprehensive understanding of the various facets of stress-related pathophysiology, but also could be targeted for the development of new treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda Larosa
- Neuroscience Division, Douglas Research Centre, Montreal, QC, Canada; Integrated Program in Neuroscience, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Tak Pan Wong
- Neuroscience Division, Douglas Research Centre, Montreal, QC, Canada; Dept. of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada.
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Enhancing Endocannabinoid Signaling via β-Catenin in the Nucleus Accumbens Attenuates PTSD- and Depression-like Behavior of Male Rats. Biomedicines 2022; 10:biomedicines10081789. [PMID: 35892688 PMCID: PMC9394396 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines10081789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2022] [Revised: 07/14/2022] [Accepted: 07/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Inhibition of fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), which increases anandamide levels, has been suggested as a potential treatment for stress-related conditions. We examined whether the stress-preventing effects of the FAAH inhibitor URB597 on behavior are mediated via β-catenin in the nucleus accumbens (NAc). Male rats were exposed to the shock and reminders model of PTSD and then treated with URB597 (0.4 mg/kg; i.p.). They were tested for anxiety- (freezing, startle response), depression-like behaviors (despair, social preference, anhedonia), and memory function (T-maze, social recognition). We also tested the involvement of the CB1 receptor (CB1r), β-catenin, and metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 5 (mGluR5) proteins. URB597 prevented the shock- and reminders-induced increase in anxiety- and depressive-like behaviors, as well as the impaired memory via the CB1r-dependent mechanism. In the NAc, viral-mediated β-catenin overexpression restored the behavior of rats exposed to stress and normalized the alterations in protein levels in the NAc and the prefrontal cortex. Importantly, when NAc β-catenin levels were downregulated by viral-mediated gene transfer, the therapeutic-like effects of URB597 were blocked. We suggest a potentially novel mechanism for the therapeutic-like effects of FAAH inhibition that is dependent on β-catenin activation in the NAc in a PTSD rat model.
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11
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Harrison KS, Jones C. Regulation of herpes simplex virus type 1 latency-reactivation cycle and ocular disease by cellular signaling pathways. Exp Eye Res 2022; 218:109017. [PMID: 35240194 PMCID: PMC9191828 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2022.109017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2022] [Revised: 02/18/2022] [Accepted: 02/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Following acute infection, herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) establishes life-long latency in sensory and other neurons. Recurrent ocular HSV-1 outbreaks are generally due to reactivation from latency. The HSV-1 latency-reactivation cycle is a complex virus-host relationship. The viral encoded latency-associated transcript (LAT) is abundantly expressed in latency and encodes several micro-RNAs and other small non-coding RNAs, which may regulate expression of key viral and cellular genes. Certain cellular signaling pathways, including Wnt/β-catenin and mTOR pathway, mediate certain aspect of the latency-reactivation cycle. Stress, via activation of the glucocorticoid receptor and other stress induced cellular transcription factors, are predicted to trigger reactivation from latency by stimulating viral gene expression and impairing immune responses and inflammation. These observations suggest stress and certain cellular signaling pathways play key roles in regulating the latency-reactivation cycle and recurrent ocular disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly S Harrison
- Oklahoma State University, College of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Rm 250 McElroy Hall, Stillwater, OK, 74078, USA.
| | - Clinton Jones
- Oklahoma State University, College of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Rm 250 McElroy Hall, Stillwater, OK, 74078, USA.
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Santana-Santana M, Bayascas JR, Giménez-Llort L. Fine-Tuning the PI3K/Akt Signaling Pathway Intensity by Sex and Genotype-Load: Sex-Dependent Homozygotic Threshold for Somatic Growth but Feminization of Anxious Phenotype in Middle-Aged PDK1 K465E Knock-In and Heterozygous Mice. Biomedicines 2021; 9:747. [PMID: 34203450 PMCID: PMC8301321 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines9070747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2021] [Revised: 06/22/2021] [Accepted: 06/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
According to the Research Domain Criteria (RDoC), phenotypic differences among disorders may be explained by variations in the nature and degree of neural circuitry disruptions and/or dysfunctions modulated by several biological and environmental factors. We recently demonstrated the in vivo behavioral translation of tweaking the PI3K/Akt signaling, an essential pathway for regulating cellular processes and physiology, and its modulation through aging. Here we describe, for the first time, the in vivo behavioral impact of the sex and genetic-load tweaking this pathway. The anxiety-like phenotypes of 61 mature (11-14-month-old) male and female PDK1 K465E knock-in, heterozygous, and WT mice were studied. Forced (open-field) anxiogenic environmental conditions were sensitive to detect sex and genetic-load differences at middle age. Despite similar neophobia and horizontal activity among the six groups, females exhibited faster ethograms than males, with increased thigmotaxis, increased wall and bizarre rearing. Genotype-load unveiled increased anxiety in males, resembling female performances. The performance of mutants in naturalistic conditions (marble test) was normal. Homozygotic-load was needed for reduced somatic growth only in males. Factor interactions indicated the complex interplay in the elicitation of different negative valence system's items and the fine-tuning of PI3K/Akt signaling pathway intensity by genotype-load and sex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikel Santana-Santana
- Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08016 Barcelona, Spain;
- Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, School of Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08016 Barcelona, Spain
| | - José-Ramón Bayascas
- Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08016 Barcelona, Spain;
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08016 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Lydia Giménez-Llort
- Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08016 Barcelona, Spain;
- Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, School of Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08016 Barcelona, Spain
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Knox D, Della Valle R, Mohammadmirzaei N, Shultz B, Biddle M, Farkash A, Chamness M, Moulton E. PI3K-Akt Signaling in the Basolateral Amygdala Facilitates Traumatic Stress Enhancements in Fear Memory. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2020; 24:229-238. [PMID: 33151288 PMCID: PMC7968623 DOI: 10.1093/ijnp/pyaa083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2020] [Revised: 10/02/2020] [Accepted: 10/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND A core symptom of posttraumatic stress disorder is persistent fear memory, which can be defined as fear memory that is resistant to updating, inhibition, or extinction. posttraumatic stress disorder emerges after traumatic stress exposure, but neurobiological mechanisms via which traumatic stress leads to persistent fear memory are not well defined. Akt signaling within the amygdala (Amy) is enhanced with traumatic stress, and phosphatidylinositol kinase 3 (PI3K) activation of Akt within the basolateral Amy (BLA) has been implicated as critical to fear memory formation. These findings raise the possibility that traumatic stress enhances PI3K→Akt signaling in the BLA, which leads to persistent fear memory. METHODS To test this hypothesis, rats were exposed to traumatic stress using the single prolonged stress model, and changes in Akt phosphorylation were assayed in the Amy at 0 and 30 minutes after fear conditioning (FC). In a separate experiment, we inhibited PI3K→Akt signaling in the BLA prior to FC and observed the effect this had on acquisition, expression, and extinction of FC in stressed and control rats. RESULTS Enhanced Akt phosphorylation in the Amy at both time points was observed in stressed rats, but not in control rats. PI3K→Akt inhibition in the BLA had no effect on freezing in control rats but decreased freezing during extinction training and testing in stressed rats. CONCLUSION These findings suggest that PI3K→Akt signaling in the BLA could be a mechanism via which traumatic stress leads to fear memory that is resistant to extinction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dayan Knox
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, USA,Correspondence: Dayan Knox, PhD, 217 Wolf Hall, Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716 ()
| | - Rebecca Della Valle
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, USA
| | - Negin Mohammadmirzaei
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, USA
| | - Brianna Shultz
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, USA
| | - Matt Biddle
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, USA
| | - Abigail Farkash
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, USA
| | - Marisa Chamness
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, USA
| | - Emily Moulton
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, USA
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Parra-Mercado GK, Fuentes-Gonzalez AM, Hernandez-Aranda J, Diaz-Coranguez M, Dautzenberg FM, Catt KJ, Hauger RL, Olivares-Reyes JA. CRF 1 Receptor Signaling via the ERK1/2-MAP and Akt Kinase Cascades: Roles of Src, EGF Receptor, and PI3-Kinase Mechanisms. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2019; 10:869. [PMID: 31920979 PMCID: PMC6921279 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2019.00869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2019] [Accepted: 11/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
In the present study, we determined the cellular regulators of ERK1/2 and Akt signaling pathways in response to human CRF1 receptor (CRF1R) activation in transfected COS-7 cells. We found that Pertussis Toxin (PTX) treatment or sequestering Gβγ reduced CRF1R-mediated activation of ERK1/2, suggesting the involvement of a Gi-linked cascade. Neither Gs/PKA nor Gq/PKC were associated with ERK1/2 activation. Besides, CRF induced EGF receptor (EGFR) phosphorylation at Tyr1068, and selective inhibition of EGFR kinase activity by AG1478 strongly inhibited the CRF1R-mediated phosphorylation of ERK1/2, indicating the participation of EGFR transactivation. Furthermore, CRF-induced ERK1/2 phosphorylation was not altered by pretreatment with batimastat, GM6001, or an HB-EGF antibody indicating that metalloproteinase processing of HB-EGF ligands is not required for the CRF-mediated EGFR transactivation. We also observed that CRF induced Src and PYK2 phosphorylation in a Gβγ-dependent manner. Additionally, using the specific Src kinase inhibitor PP2 and the dominant-negative-SrcYF-KM, it was revealed that CRF-stimulated ERK1/2 phosphorylation depends on Src activation. PP2 also blocked the effect of CRF on Src and EGFR (Tyr845) phosphorylation, further demonstrating the centrality of Src. We identified the formation of a protein complex consisting of CRF1R, Src, and EGFR facilitates EGFR transactivation and CRF1R-mediated signaling. CRF stimulated Akt phosphorylation, which was dependent on Gi/βγ subunits, and Src activation, however, was only slightly dependent on EGFR transactivation. Moreover, PI3K inhibitors were able to inhibit not only the CRF-induced phosphorylation of Akt, as expected, but also ERK1/2 activation by CRF suggesting a PI3K dependency in the CRF1R ERK signaling. Finally, CRF-stimulated ERK1/2 activation was similar in the wild-type CRF1R and the phosphorylation-deficient CRF1R-Δ386 mutant, which has impaired agonist-dependent β-arrestin-2 recruitment; however, this situation may have resulted from the low β-arrestin expression in the COS-7 cells. When β-arrestin-2 was overexpressed in COS-7 cells, CRF-stimulated ERK1/2 phosphorylation was markedly upregulated. These findings indicate that on the base of a constitutive CRF1R/EGFR interaction, the Gi/βγ subunits upstream activation of Src, PYK2, PI3K, and transactivation of the EGFR are required for CRF1R signaling via the ERK1/2-MAP kinase pathway. In contrast, Akt activation via CRF1R is mediated by the Src/PI3K pathway with little contribution of EGFR transactivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- G. Karina Parra-Mercado
- Laboratory of Signal Transduction, Department of Biochemistry, Center for Research and Advanced Studies of the National Polytechnic Institute, CINVESTAV-IPN, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Alma M. Fuentes-Gonzalez
- Laboratory of Signal Transduction, Department of Biochemistry, Center for Research and Advanced Studies of the National Polytechnic Institute, CINVESTAV-IPN, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Judith Hernandez-Aranda
- Laboratory of Signal Transduction, Department of Biochemistry, Center for Research and Advanced Studies of the National Polytechnic Institute, CINVESTAV-IPN, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Monica Diaz-Coranguez
- Laboratory of Signal Transduction, Department of Biochemistry, Center for Research and Advanced Studies of the National Polytechnic Institute, CINVESTAV-IPN, Mexico City, Mexico
| | | | - Kevin J. Catt
- Section on Hormonal Regulation, Program on Developmental Endocrinology and Genetics, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Richard L. Hauger
- Center of Excellence for Stress and Mental Health, VA Healthcare System, San Diego, CA, United States
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States
| | - J. Alberto Olivares-Reyes
- Laboratory of Signal Transduction, Department of Biochemistry, Center for Research and Advanced Studies of the National Polytechnic Institute, CINVESTAV-IPN, Mexico City, Mexico
- *Correspondence: J. Alberto Olivares-Reyes
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15
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Germer J, Kahl E, Fendt M. Memory generalization after one-trial contextual fear conditioning: Effects of sex and neuropeptide S receptor deficiency. Behav Brain Res 2018; 361:159-166. [PMID: 30597251 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2018.12.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2018] [Revised: 12/18/2018] [Accepted: 12/27/2018] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
One-trial contextual fear conditioning in laboratory mice results in a fear memory which is relatively specific to the original conditioning context shortly after conditioning but becomes more unspecific after an incubation time of one month. This process is called generalization of fear memory and is used to investigate processes which might be involved in the pathogenesis of post-traumatic stress disorder. In the present study, we investigated the effects of sex and neuropeptide S receptor (NPSR) deficiency in one-trial contextual fear conditioning. In addition to contextual fear, we also measured startle reactivity, anxiety and corticosterone plasma levels of the mice. Our data show main effects of sex and NPSR-deficiency on freezing behavior, startle magnitude, and anxiety levels. However, generalization of contextual fear memory after incubation time was not affected by sex. Notably, NPSR-deficient mice had a more specific fear memory shortly after conditioning than their wildtype littermates but after incubation time, all genotypes had a generalized fear memory. The present data further show that plasma corticosterone levels are increased after incubation time. This increase was significantly more pronounced in NPSR-deficient mice. Taken together, our study confirms the suitability of one-trial contextual fear conditioning to study the effects of incubation time on fear memory generalization but also indicates the need for control groups without incubation. We further demonstrate that the increase of plasma corticosterone levels after incubation time is exaggerated in NPSR-deficient mice. The latter finding suggests an important role of the NPS system in the regulation of corticosterone release.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josephine Germer
- Institute for Pharmacology and Toxicology, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Leipziger Straße 44, D-39120 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Evelyn Kahl
- Institute for Pharmacology and Toxicology, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Leipziger Straße 44, D-39120 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Markus Fendt
- Institute for Pharmacology and Toxicology, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Leipziger Straße 44, D-39120 Magdeburg, Germany; Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Leipziger Straße 44, D-39120 Magdeburg, Germany.
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16
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Wang X, Li M, Zhu H, Yu Y, Xu Y, Zhang W, Bian C. Transcriptional Regulation Involved in Fear Memory Reconsolidation. J Mol Neurosci 2018; 65:127-140. [PMID: 29796837 DOI: 10.1007/s12031-018-1084-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2018] [Accepted: 05/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Memory reconsolidation has been demonstrated to offer a potential target period during which the fear memories underlying fear disorders can be disrupted. Reconsolidation is a labile stage that consolidated memories re-enter after memories are reactivated. Reactivated memories, induced by cues related to traumatic events, are susceptible to strengthening and weakening. Gene transcription regulation and protein synthesis have been suggested to be required for fear memory reconsolidation. Investigating the transcriptional regulation mechanisms underlying reconsolidation may provide a therapeutic method for the treatment of fear disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However, the therapeutic effect of treating a fear disorder through interfering with reconsolidation is still contradictory. In this review, we summarize several transcription factors that have been linked to fear memory reconsolidation and propose that transcription factors, as well as related signaling pathways can serve as targets for fear memory interventions. Then, we discuss the application of pharmacological and behavioral interventions during reconsolidation that may or not efficiently treat fear disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xu Wang
- Department of Military Psychology, College of Psychology, Army Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
- Forth Battalion of Cadet Brigade, Army Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Min Li
- Department of Military Psychology, College of Psychology, Army Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Haitao Zhu
- Medical Company, Troops 95848 of People's Liberation Army, Xiaogan, 432100, China
| | - Yongju Yu
- Department of Military Psychology, College of Psychology, Army Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Yuanyuan Xu
- Department of Military Psychology, College of Psychology, Army Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Wenmo Zhang
- Department of Fundamental, Army Logistical University of PLA, Chongqing, 401331, China
| | - Chen Bian
- Department of Military Psychology, College of Psychology, Army Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China.
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17
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Deslauriers J, Toth M, Der-Avakian A, Risbrough VB. Current Status of Animal Models of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Behavioral and Biological Phenotypes, and Future Challenges in Improving Translation. Biol Psychiatry 2018; 83:895-907. [PMID: 29338843 PMCID: PMC6085893 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2017.11.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 162] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2017] [Revised: 10/05/2017] [Accepted: 11/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Increasing predictability of animal models of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has required active collaboration between clinical and preclinical scientists. Modeling PTSD is challenging, as it is a heterogeneous disorder with ≥20 symptoms. Clinical research increasingly utilizes objective biological measures (e.g., imaging, peripheral biomarkers) or nonverbal behaviors and/or physiological responses to complement verbally reported symptoms. This shift toward more-objectively measurable phenotypes enables refinement of current animal models of PTSD, and it supports the incorporation of homologous measures across species. We reviewed >600 articles to examine the ability of current rodent models to probe biological phenotypes of PTSD (e.g., sleep disturbances, hippocampal and fear-circuit dysfunction, inflammation, glucocorticoid receptor hypersensitivity) in addition to behavioral phenotypes. Most models reliably produced enduring generalized anxiety-like or depression-like behaviors, as well as hyperactive fear circuits, glucocorticoid receptor hypersensitivity, and response to long-term selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. Although a few paradigms probed fear conditioning/extinction or utilized peripheral immune, sleep, and noninvasive imaging measures, we argue that these should be incorporated more to enhance translation. Data on female subjects, on subjects at different ages across the life span, or on temporal trajectories of phenotypes after stress that can inform model validity and treatment study design are needed. Overall, preclinical (and clinical) PTSD researchers are increasingly incorporating homologous biological measures to assess markers of risk, response, and treatment outcome. This shift is exciting, as we and many others hope it not only will support translation of drug efficacy from animal models to clinical trials but also will potentially improve predictability of stage II for stage III clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Deslauriers
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California; Center of Excellence for Stress and Mental Health, Veterans Affairs Hospital, La Jolla, California
| | - Mate Toth
- Department of Behavioural Neurobiology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Andre Der-Avakian
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Victoria B Risbrough
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California; Center of Excellence for Stress and Mental Health, Veterans Affairs Hospital, La Jolla, California.
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18
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Kupferstein H. Evidence of increased PTSD symptoms in autistics exposed to applied behavior analysis. ADVANCES IN AUTISM 2018. [DOI: 10.1108/aia-08-2017-0016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to examine the prevalence of posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) in adults and children who were exposed to applied behavior analysis (ABA) autism early childhood intervention. Using an online questionnaire to survey autistic adults and caregivers of autistic children, the author collected data from 460 respondents on demographics, intervention types, and current pathological behaviors with symptom severity scales. This study noted PTSS in nearly half of ABA-exposed participants, while non-exposed controls had a 72 percent chance of being asymptomatic. ABA satisfaction ratings for caregivers averaged neutral or mild satisfaction. In contrast, adult satisfaction with ABA was lower on average and also tended to take on either extremely low or extremely high ratings. Exposure to ABA predicted a higher rate and more severe PTSS in participants, but the duration of exposure did not affect satisfaction with the intervention in caregivers.
Design/methodology/approach
Participants were recruited for an online survey through social media networks, adult gatherings, social skills groups, and autism support groups nationwide. Adult inclusion criteria consisted of autism – diagnosed or self-diagnosed – and an age of 18 or older. A total of 460 respondents, consisting of autistic adults and caregivers of autistic children, completed an online survey. The caregiver entries (n=217) concerned 79 percent male children, 21 percent female children (male to female 3.80:1), and one MtF transgender child, ages 1-38, with an average age at diagnosis of 4.69 years. The adult entries (n=243) concerned 30 percent males, 55 percent females (male to female 0.55:1), and 14 percent other gender, ages 18-73, with an average age at diagnosis of 25.38 years.
Findings
Nearly half (46 percent) of the ABA-exposed respondents met the diagnostic threshold for PTSD, and extreme levels of severity were recorded in 47 percent of the affected subgroup. Respondents of all ages who were exposed to ABA were 86 percent more likely to meet the PTSD criteria than respondents who were not exposed to ABA. Adults and children both had increased chances (41 and 130 percent, respectively) of meeting the PTSD criteria if they were exposed to ABA. Both adults and children without ABA exposure had a 72 percent chance of reporting no PTSS (see Figure 1). At the time of the study, 41 percent of the caregivers reported using ABA-based interventions.
Originality/value
The majority of adult respondents were female, raising questions about the population of online autistic survey respondents. Further, the high numbers of reported gender other than male or female in the adult respondents, as well as at least on MtF child from the caregiver respondents indicates that future studies should consider these intersections. These accompanied significant discrepancies in reporting bias between caregivers and ABA-exposed individuals, which highlight the need for the inclusion of the adult autistic voice in future intervention design. Based on the findings, the author predicts that nearly half of ABA-exposed autistic children will be expected to meet the PTSD criteria four weeks after commencing the intervention; if ABA intervention persists, there will tend to be an increase in parent satisfaction despite no decrease in PTSS severity.
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Kuan PF, Waszczuk MA, Kotov R, Clouston S, Yang X, Singh PK, Glenn ST, Cortes Gomez E, Wang J, Bromet E, Luft BJ. Gene expression associated with PTSD in World Trade Center responders: An RNA sequencing study. Transl Psychiatry 2017; 7:1297. [PMID: 29249826 PMCID: PMC5802695 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-017-0050-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2017] [Accepted: 09/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The gene expression approach has provided promising insights into the pathophysiology of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However, few studies used hypothesis-free transcriptome-wide approach to comprehensively understand gene expression underpinning PTSD. A transcriptome-wide expression study using RNA sequencing of whole blood was conducted in 324 World Trade Center responders (201 with never, 81 current, 42 past PTSD). Samples from current and never PTSD reponders were randomly split to form discovery (N = 195) and replication (N = 87) cohorts. Differentially expressed genes were used in pathway analysis and to create a polygenic expression score. There were 448 differentially expressed genes in the discovery cohort, of which 99 remained significant in the replication cohort, including FKBP5, which was found to be up-regulated in current PTSD regardless of the genotypes. Several enriched biological pathways were found, including glucocorticoid receptor signaling and immunity-related pathways, but these pathways did not survive FDR correction. The polygenic expression score computed by aggregating 30 differentially expressed genes using the elastic net algorithm achieved sensitivity/specificity of 0.917/0.508, respectively for identifying current PTSD in the replication cohort. Polygenic scores were similar in current and past PTSD, with both groups scoring higher than trauma-exposed controls without any history of PTSD. Together with the pathway analysis results, these findings point to HPA-axis and immune dysregulation as key biological processes underpinning PTSD. A novel polygenic expression aggregate that differentiates PTSD patients from trauma-exposed controls might be a useful screening tool for research and clinical practice, if replicated in other populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pei-Fen Kuan
- 0000 0001 2216 9681grid.36425.36Department of Applied Mathematics and Statistics, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA
| | | | - Roman Kotov
- Department of Psychiatry, Stony Book University, Stony Brook, NY, USA
| | - Sean Clouston
- Department of Family and Preventive Medicine, Stony Book University, Stony Brook, NY, USA
| | - Xiaohua Yang
- 0000 0001 2181 8635grid.240614.5Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo, NY USA
| | - Prashant K. Singh
- 0000 0001 2181 8635grid.240614.5Department of Cancer Genetics, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo, NY USA
| | - Sean T. Glenn
- 0000 0001 2181 8635grid.240614.5Department of Cancer Genetics, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo, NY USA
| | - Eduardo Cortes Gomez
- 0000 0001 2181 8635grid.240614.5Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo, NY USA
| | - Jianmin Wang
- 0000 0001 2181 8635grid.240614.5Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo, NY USA
| | - Evelyn Bromet
- Department of Psychiatry, Stony Book University, Stony Brook, NY, USA
| | - Benjamin J. Luft
- 0000 0001 2216 9681grid.36425.36Department of Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA
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Na KS, Kim EK, Park JT. Decreased plasma adiponectin among male firefighters with symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder. J Affect Disord 2017; 221:254-258. [PMID: 28662456 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2017.06.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2016] [Revised: 03/05/2017] [Accepted: 06/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recent studies have reported that adiponectin-mediated neuromolecular pathways are involved in fear extinction, implying that adiponectin may be an important biological marker for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However, no study has investigated the association between adiponectin and patients with PTSD. METHODS We examined plasma adiponectin levels, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP), and psychopathological factors using the Korean version of the Impact Event Scale-Revised (IES-R-K) and the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale in 507 male firefighters. The PTSD symptom group was defined as those with a score of 25 or higher on the IES-R-K. Multiple logistic regression analysis was conducted to examine the covariates for the PTSD symptom group. RESULTS Out of 507 male firefighters, 139 (27.4%) had a score of 25 or more on the IES-R-K. The PTSD symptom group had lower plasma adiponectin levels than the controls. There was an inverse correlation between plasma adiponectin levels and PTSD severity. There was no correlation between adiponectin levels and depression. The adiponectin level was associated with the presence of PTSD symptom (odds ratio = 0.955, 95% CI = 0.920-0.991). LIMITATIONS A cross-sectional design and using self-rated instruments. CONCLUSIONS To the best of our knowledge, the results showed that decreased adiponectin-mediated activity is associated with PTSD. Future studies are necessary to identify the causative role of adiponectin for PTSD as well as any possible covariates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyoung-Sa Na
- Department of Psychiatry, Gachon University Gil Medical Center, Incheon, Republic of Korea
| | - Eun-Kyoung Kim
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Korea Workers' Compensation & Welfare Service, Ansan, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong-Tae Park
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Korea University Ansan Hospital, Ansan, Republic of Korea.
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Maheu ME, Ressler KJ. Developmental pathway genes and neural plasticity underlying emotional learning and stress-related disorders. Learn Mem 2017; 24:492-501. [PMID: 28814475 PMCID: PMC5580529 DOI: 10.1101/lm.044271.116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2017] [Accepted: 05/18/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The manipulation of neural plasticity as a means of intervening in the onset and progression of stress-related disorders retains its appeal for many researchers, despite our limited success in translating such interventions from the laboratory to the clinic. Given the challenges of identifying individual genetic variants that confer increased risk for illnesses like depression and post-traumatic stress disorder, some have turned their attention instead to focusing on so-called "master regulators" of plasticity that may provide a means of controlling these potentially impaired processes in psychiatric illnesses. The mammalian homolog of Tailless (TLX), Wnt, and the homeoprotein Otx2 have all been proposed to constitute master regulators of different forms of plasticity which have, in turn, each been implicated in learning and stress-related disorders. In the present review, we provide an overview of the changing distribution of these genes and their roles both during development and in the adult brain. We further discuss how their distinct expression profiles provide clues as to their function, and may inform their suitability as candidate drug targets in the treatment of psychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marissa E Maheu
- Department of Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, Massachusetts 02478, USA
| | - Kerry J Ressler
- Department of Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, Massachusetts 02478, USA
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22
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Role of beta-catenin and endocannabinoids in the nucleus accumbens in extinction in rats exposed to shock and reminders. Neuroscience 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2017.06.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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23
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Whole-genome DNA methylation status associated with clinical PTSD measures of OIF/OEF veterans. Transl Psychiatry 2017; 7:e1169. [PMID: 28696412 PMCID: PMC5538114 DOI: 10.1038/tp.2017.129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2017] [Accepted: 05/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Emerging knowledge suggests that post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) pathophysiology is linked to the patients' epigenetic changes, but comprehensive studies examining genome-wide methylation have not been performed. In this study, we examined genome-wide DNA methylation in peripheral whole blood in combat veterans with and without PTSD to ascertain differentially methylated probes. Discovery was initially made in a training sample comprising 48 male Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF)/Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF) veterans with PTSD and 51 age/ethnicity/gender-matched combat-exposed PTSD-negative controls. Agilent whole-genome array detected ~5600 differentially methylated CpG islands (CpGI) annotated to ~2800 differently methylated genes (DMGs). The majority (84.5%) of these CpGIs were hypermethylated in the PTSD cases. Functional analysis was performed using the DMGs encoding the promoter-bound CpGIs to identify networks related to PTSD. The identified networks were further validated by an independent test set comprising 31 PTSD+/29 PTSD- veterans. Targeted bisulfite sequencing was also used to confirm the methylation status of 20 DMGs shown to be highly perturbed in the training set. To improve the statistical power and mitigate the assay bias and batch effects, a union set combining both training and test set was assayed using a different platform from Illumina. The pathways curated from this analysis confirmed 65% of the pool of pathways mined from training and test sets. The results highlight the importance of assay methodology and use of independent samples for discovery and validation of differentially methylated genes mined from whole blood. Nonetheless, the current study demonstrates that several important epigenetically altered networks may distinguish combat-exposed veterans with and without PTSD.
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Individual Differences in Behavioural Despair Predict Brain GSK-3beta Expression in Mice: The Power of a Modified Swim Test. Neural Plast 2016; 2016:5098591. [PMID: 27478647 PMCID: PMC4949347 DOI: 10.1155/2016/5098591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2016] [Revised: 05/09/2016] [Accepted: 05/18/2016] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
While deficient brain plasticity is a well-established pathophysiologic feature of depression, little is known about disorder-associated enhanced cognitive processing. Here, we studied a novel mouse paradigm that potentially models augmented learning of adverse memories during development of a depressive-like state. We used a modification of the classic two-day protocol of a mouse Porsolt test with an additional session occurring on Day 5 following the initial exposure. Unexpectedly, floating behaviour and brain glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta (GSK-3beta) mRNA levels, a factor of synaptic plasticity as well as a marker of distress and depression, were increased during the additional swimming session that was prevented by imipramine. Observed increases of GSK-3beta mRNA in prefrontal cortex during delayed testing session correlated with individual parameters of behavioural despair that was not found in the classic Porsolt test. Repeated swim exposure was accompanied by a lower pGSK-3beta/GSK-3beta ratio. A replacement of the second or the final swim sessions with exposure to the context of testing resulted in increased GSK-3beta mRNA level similar to the effects of swimming, while exclusion of the second testing prevented these changes. Together, our findings implicate the activation of brain GSK-3beta expression in enhanced contextual conditioning of adverse memories, which is associated with an individual susceptibility to a depressive syndrome.
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Kao CY, He Z, Zannas AS, Hahn O, Kühne C, Reichel JM, Binder EB, Wotjak CT, Khaitovich P, Turck CW. Fluoxetine treatment prevents the inflammatory response in a mouse model of posttraumatic stress disorder. J Psychiatr Res 2016; 76:74-83. [PMID: 26897419 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2016.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2015] [Revised: 01/29/2016] [Accepted: 02/05/2016] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Despite intense research efforts the molecular mechanisms affecting stress-vulnerable brain regions in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) remain elusive. In the current study we have applied global transcriptomic profiling to a PTSD mouse model induced by foot shock fear conditioning. We compared the transcriptomes of prelimbic cortex, anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), basolateral amygdala, central nucleus of amygdala, nucleus accumbens (NAc) and CA1 of the dorsal hippocampus between shocked and non-shocked (control) mice, with and without fluoxetine treatment by RNA sequencing. Differentially expressed (DE) genes were identified and clustered for in silico pathway analysis. Findings in relevant brain regions were further validated with immunohistochemistry. DE genes belonging to 11 clusters were identified including increased inflammatory response in ACC in shocked mice. In line with this finding, we noted higher microglial activation in ACC of shocked mice. Chronic fluoxetine treatment initiated in the aftermath of the trauma prevented inflammatory gene expression alterations in ACC and ameliorated PTSD-like symptoms, implying an important role of the immune response in PTSD pathobiology. Our results provide novel insights into molecular mechanisms affected in PTSD and suggest therapeutic applications with anti-inflammatory agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chi-Ya Kao
- Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Department of Translational Research in Psychiatry, Kraepelinstrasse 2-10, 80804 Munich, Germany; Graduate School of Systemic Neurosciences, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Grosshadernerstr. 2, 82152 Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
| | - Zhisong He
- CAS-MPG Partner Institute for Computational Biology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 320 Yue Yang Road Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Anthony S Zannas
- Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Department of Translational Research in Psychiatry, Kraepelinstrasse 2-10, 80804 Munich, Germany; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Duke University Medical Center, 27710 Durham, NC, USA
| | - Oliver Hahn
- CAS-MPG Partner Institute for Computational Biology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 320 Yue Yang Road Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Claudia Kühne
- Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Department of Translational Research in Psychiatry, Kraepelinstrasse 2-10, 80804 Munich, Germany
| | - Judith M Reichel
- Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Department of Stress Neurobiology and Neurogenetics, Kraepelinstrasse 2-10, 80804 Munich, Germany
| | - Elisabeth B Binder
- Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Department of Translational Research in Psychiatry, Kraepelinstrasse 2-10, 80804 Munich, Germany; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University Medical School, 30307 Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Carsten T Wotjak
- Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Department of Stress Neurobiology and Neurogenetics, Kraepelinstrasse 2-10, 80804 Munich, Germany
| | - Philipp Khaitovich
- CAS-MPG Partner Institute for Computational Biology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 320 Yue Yang Road Shanghai, People's Republic of China.
| | - Christoph W Turck
- Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Department of Translational Research in Psychiatry, Kraepelinstrasse 2-10, 80804 Munich, Germany.
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Kao CY, He Z, Henes K, Asara JM, Webhofer C, Filiou MD, Khaitovich P, Wotjak CT, Turck CW. Fluoxetine Treatment Rescues Energy Metabolism Pathway Alterations in a Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Mouse Model. MOLECULAR NEUROPSYCHIATRY 2016; 2:46-59. [PMID: 27606320 DOI: 10.1159/000445377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2015] [Accepted: 03/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a prevalent psychiatric disorder. Several studies have attempted to characterize molecular alterations associated with PTSD, but most findings were limited to the investigation of specific cellular markers in the periphery or defined brain regions. In the current study, we aimed to unravel affected molecular pathways/mechanisms in the fear circuitry associated with PTSD. We interrogated a foot shock-induced PTSD mouse model by integrating proteomics and metabolomics profiling data. Alterations at the proteome level were analyzed using in vivo (15)N metabolic labeling combined with mass spectrometry in the prelimbic cortex (PrL), anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), basolateral amygdala, central nucleus of the amygdala and CA1 of the hippocampus between shocked and nonshocked (control) mice, with and without fluoxetine treatment. In silico pathway analyses revealed an upregulation of the citric acid cycle pathway in PrL, and downregulation in ACC and nucleus accumbens (NAc). Chronic fluoxetine treatment prevented decreased citric acid cycle activity in NAc and ACC and ameliorated conditioned fear response in shocked mice. Our results shed light on the role of energy metabolism in PTSD pathogenesis and suggest potential therapy through mitochondrial targeting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chi-Ya Kao
- Departments of Translational Research in Psychiatry, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany; Graduate School of Systemic Neurosciences, Ludwig Maximilians University Munich, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
| | - Zhisong He
- CAS-MPG Partner Institute for Computational Biology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Kathrin Henes
- Departments of Stress Neurobiology and Neurogenetics, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany
| | - John M Asara
- Division of Signal Transduction, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, and Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Mass., USA
| | - Christian Webhofer
- Departments of Translational Research in Psychiatry, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany
| | - Michaela D Filiou
- Departments of Translational Research in Psychiatry, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany
| | - Philipp Khaitovich
- CAS-MPG Partner Institute for Computational Biology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Carsten T Wotjak
- Departments of Stress Neurobiology and Neurogenetics, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany; Graduate School of Systemic Neurosciences, Ludwig Maximilians University Munich, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
| | - Christoph W Turck
- Departments of Translational Research in Psychiatry, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany; Graduate School of Systemic Neurosciences, Ludwig Maximilians University Munich, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
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Couroussé T, Bacq A, Belzung C, Guiard B, Balasse L, Louis F, Le Guisquet AM, Gardier AM, Schinkel AH, Giros B, Gautron S. Brain organic cation transporter 2 controls response and vulnerability to stress and GSK3β signaling. Mol Psychiatry 2015; 20:889-900. [PMID: 25092247 DOI: 10.1038/mp.2014.86] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2014] [Revised: 06/20/2014] [Accepted: 06/23/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Interactions between genetic and environmental factors, like exposure to stress, have an important role in the pathogenesis of mood-related psychiatric disorders, such as major depressive disorder. The polyspecific organic cation transporters (OCTs) were shown previously to be sensitive to the stress hormone corticosterone in vitro, suggesting that these transporters might have a physiologic role in the response to stress. Here, we report that OCT2 is expressed in several stress-related circuits in the brain and along the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis. Genetic deletion of OCT2 in mice enhanced hormonal response to acute stress and impaired HPA function without altering adrenal sensitivity to adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). As a consequence, OCT2(-/-) mice were potently more sensitive to the action of unpredictable chronic mild stress (UCMS) on depression-related behaviors involving self-care, spatial memory, social interaction and stress-sensitive spontaneous behavior. The functional state of the glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK3β) signaling pathway, highly responsive to acute stress, was altered in the hippocampus of OCT2(-/-) mice. In vivo pharmacology and western blot experiments argue for increased serotonin tonus as a main mechanism for impaired GSK3β signaling in OCT2(-/-) mice brain during acute response to stress. Our findings identify OCT2 as an important determinant of the response to stress in the brain, suggesting that in humans OCT2 mutations or blockade by certain therapeutic drugs could interfere with HPA axis function and enhance vulnerability to repeated adverse events leading to stress-related disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Couroussé
- 1] INSERM U1130, Paris, France [2] CNRS UMR 8246, Paris, France [3] Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, Paris, France [4] Université Paris Descartes, Ecole Doctorale Médicament Toxicologie Chimie Environnement, Paris, France
| | - A Bacq
- 1] INSERM U1130, Paris, France [2] CNRS UMR 8246, Paris, France [3] Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, Paris, France
| | | | - B Guiard
- Laboratoire de Neuropharmacologie EA3544, Université Paris-Sud XI, Faculté de Pharmacie, Châtenay-Malabry, France
| | - L Balasse
- 1] INSERM U1130, Paris, France [2] CNRS UMR 8246, Paris, France [3] Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, Paris, France
| | - F Louis
- 1] INSERM U1130, Paris, France [2] CNRS UMR 8246, Paris, France [3] Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, Paris, France
| | | | - A M Gardier
- Laboratoire de Neuropharmacologie EA3544, Université Paris-Sud XI, Faculté de Pharmacie, Châtenay-Malabry, France
| | - A H Schinkel
- Division of Molecular Biology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - B Giros
- 1] INSERM U1130, Paris, France [2] CNRS UMR 8246, Paris, France [3] Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, Paris, France [4] Douglas Hospital, Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - S Gautron
- 1] INSERM U1130, Paris, France [2] CNRS UMR 8246, Paris, France [3] Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, Paris, France
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Chen C, Ji M, Xu Q, Zhang Y, Sun Q, Liu J, Zhu S, Li W. Sevoflurane attenuates stress-enhanced fear learning by regulating hippocampal BDNF expression and Akt/GSK-3β signaling pathway in a rat model of post-traumatic stress disorder. J Anesth 2014; 29:600-8. [PMID: 25533726 DOI: 10.1007/s00540-014-1964-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2014] [Accepted: 12/10/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a psychiatric disease that may occur after intense psychological trauma or physiological stress. Accumulating evidence suggests that brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and the serine/threonine kinase (Akt)/glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β) signaling pathway are critically involved in brain plasticity, including hippocampal-dependent learning and memory, while sevoflurane impairs memory processing. Thus, we hypothesized that sevoflurane can suppress fear learning by regulating the expression of BDNF and the Akt/GSK-3β signaling pathway in a rat model of PTSD. METHOD Rats were exposed to sevoflurane during or after a 15 foot-shock stressor. Thereafter, rats were subjected to a single foot-shock in a totally different environment. The fear response was recorded in response to the 15 foot-shock and the single foot-shock environments. In another set of experiments, the brain tissue was harvested and subjected to biochemistry studies. RESULTS Our data suggested that increasing sevoflurane concentrations decreased stress-enhanced fear learning (SEFL) when given during but not after the stressor. Furthermore, administration of lithium chloride (100 mg/kg, intraperitoneally) 30 min before the contextual fear conditioning reversed the inhibitory effect of 0.8 % sevoflurane on SEFL as well as phosphorylated (p)-Akt, p-GSK-3β and BDNF expressions. CONCLUSION Our data suggested that increasing sevoflurane administration during but not after the stressor can impair SEFL in a rat model of PTSD, which may be due, at least in part, to the regulation of hippocampal BDNF expression and the Akt/GSK-3β signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunlong Chen
- Department of Anesthesiology, Jinling Hospital, School of Medicine, Nanjing University, 305 East Zhongshan Road, Nanjing, 210002, China
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Hendriksen H, Olivier B, Oosting RS. From non-pharmacological treatments for post-traumatic stress disorder to novel therapeutic targets. Eur J Pharmacol 2014; 732:139-58. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2014.03.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2013] [Revised: 03/17/2014] [Accepted: 03/24/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Developing a European research network to address unmet needs in anxiety disorders. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2013; 37:2312-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2012] [Revised: 12/10/2012] [Accepted: 01/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Polta SA, Fenzl T, Jakubcakova V, Kimura M, Yassouridis A, Wotjak CT. Prognostic and symptomatic aspects of rapid eye movement sleep in a mouse model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Front Behav Neurosci 2013; 7:60. [PMID: 23750131 PMCID: PMC3668327 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2013.00060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2013] [Accepted: 05/19/2013] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Not every individual develops Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) after the exposure to a potentially traumatic event. Therefore, the identification of pre-existing risk factors and early diagnostic biomarkers is of high medical relevance. However, no objective biomarker has yet progressed into clinical practice. Sleep disturbances represent commonly reported complaints in PTSD patients. In particular, changes in rapid eye movement sleep (REMS) properties are frequently observed in PTSD patients. Here, we examined in a mouse model of PTSD whether (1) mice developed REMS alterations after trauma and (2) whether REMS architecture before and/or shortly after trauma predicted the development of PTSD-like symptoms. We monitored sleep-wake behavior via combined electroencephalogram/electromyogram recordings immediately before (24 h pre), immediately after (0-48 h post) and 2 months after exposure to an electric foot shock in male C57BL/6N mice (n = 15). PTSD-like symptoms, including hyperarousal, contextual, and generalized fear, were assessed 1 month post-trauma. Shocked mice showed early onset and sustained elevation of REMS compared to non-shocked controls. In addition, REMS architecture before trauma was correlated with the intensity of acoustic startle responses, but not contextual fear, 1 month after trauma. Our data suggest REMS as prognostic (pre-trauma) and symptomatic (post-trauma) marker of PTSD-like symptoms in mice. Translated to the situation in humans, REMS may constitute a viable, objective, and non-invasive biomarker in PTSD and other trauma-related psychiatric disorders, which could guide pharmacological interventions in humans at high risk.
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Antimigratory Effects of the Methanol Extract from Momordica charantia on Human Lung Adenocarcinoma CL1 Cells. EVIDENCE-BASED COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2012; 2012:819632. [PMID: 23320038 PMCID: PMC3535856 DOI: 10.1155/2012/819632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2012] [Revised: 10/26/2012] [Accepted: 11/12/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Momordica charantia has been found to exhibit anticancer activity, in addition to its well-known therapeutic functions. We have demonstrated that the leaf extract of Momordica charantia (MCME) induces apoptosis in several human cancer cells through caspase- and mitochondria-dependent pathways. In this study, a different susceptibility to MCME was found in human lung adenocarcinoma CL1 cells with different metastatic ability, leading to the significant difference of cell viability and invasiveness between MCME-treated CL1-0 and CL1-5 cells. MCME was found to upregulate the expression of Wnt-2 and affect the migratory and invasive ability of CL1 cells through suppressed MMP-2 and MMP-9 enzymatic activities. We proposed that MCME mediates inhibition against migration of CL1 cells by reducing the expression and activation of Src and FAK to decrease the expression of downstream Akt, β-catenin, and MMPs.
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Maguschak KA, Ressler KJ. A role for WNT/β-catenin signaling in the neural mechanisms of behavior. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2012; 7:763-73. [PMID: 22415718 PMCID: PMC3749067 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-012-9350-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2011] [Accepted: 02/19/2012] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Wnt signaling pathways play a role in a variety of cellular processes including development, cell proliferation, cell fate, and motility. The Wnt/β-catenin pathway is among the most studied of the Wnt pathways and is highly conserved throughout evolution. Recent in vitro and slice physiology experiments have shown that this pathway also functions in synaptic transmission and activity-dependent synaptic plasticity. Since it has now been shown that many components of this signaling pathway are found in the adult brain, Wnt/β-catenin signaling may be important for maintaining and protecting neural connections throughout the lifespan. Here we summarize the role of Wnt/β-catenin signaling in the postnatal brain and discuss recent studies suggesting that deregulated Wnt signaling can result in altered behavior and cognitive disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kerry J. Ressler
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MA, USA. Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University School of Medicine, 954 Gatewood Dr, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
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Eagle AL, Knox D, Roberts MM, Mulo K, Liberzon I, Galloway MP, Perrine SA. Single prolonged stress enhances hippocampal glucocorticoid receptor and phosphorylated protein kinase B levels. Neurosci Res 2012. [PMID: 23201176 DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2012.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Animal models of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can explore neurobiological mechanisms by which trauma enhances fear and anxiety reactivity. Single prolonged stress (SPS) shows good validity in producing PTSD-like behavior. While SPS-induced behaviors have been linked to enhanced glucocorticoid receptor (GR) expression, the molecular ramifications of enhanced GR expression have yet to be identified. Phosphorylated protein kinase B (pAkt) is critical for stress-mediated enhancement in general anxiety and memory, and may be regulated by GRs. However, it is currently unknown if pAkt levels are modulated by SPS, as well as if the specificity of GR and pAkt related changes contribute to anxiety-like behavior after SPS. The current study set out to examine the effects of SPS on GR and pAkt protein levels in the amygdala and hippocampus and to examine the specificity of these changes to unconditioned anxiety-like behavior. Levels of GR and pAkt were increased in the hippocampus, but not amygdala. Furthermore, SPS had no effect on unconditioned anxiety-like behavior suggesting that generalized anxiety is not consistently observed following SPS. The results suggest that SPS-enhanced GR expression is associated with phosphorylation of Akt, and also suggest that these changes are not related to an anxiogenic phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew L Eagle
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA.
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Yen YC, Mauch CP, Dahlhoff M, Micale V, Bunck M, Sartori SB, Singewald N, Landgraf R, Wotjak CT. Increased levels of conditioned fear and avoidance behavior coincide with changes in phosphorylation of the protein kinase B (AKT) within the amygdala in a mouse model of extremes in trait anxiety. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2012; 98:56-65. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2012.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2011] [Revised: 03/26/2012] [Accepted: 04/25/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Thoeringer CK, Henes K, Eder M, Dahlhoff M, Wurst W, Holsboer F, Deussing JM, Moosmang S, Wotjak CT. Consolidation of remote fear memories involves Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone (CRH) receptor type 1-mediated enhancement of AMPA receptor GluR1 signaling in the dentate gyrus. Neuropsychopharmacology 2012; 37:787-96. [PMID: 22030710 PMCID: PMC3260988 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2011.256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Persistent dreadful memories and hyperarousal constitute prominent psychopathological features of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Here, we used a contextual fear conditioning paradigm to demonstrate that conditional genetic deletion of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) receptor 1 within the limbic forebrain in mice significantly reduced remote, but not recent, associative and non-associative fear memories. Per os treatment with the selective CRHR1 antagonist DMP696 (3 mg/kg) attenuated consolidation of remote fear memories, without affecting their expression and retention. This could be achieved, if DMP696 was administered for 1 week starting as late as 24 h after foot shock. Furthermore, by combining electrophysiological recordings and western blot analyses, we demonstrate a delayed-onset and long-lasting increase in AMPA receptor (AMPAR) GluR1-mediated signaling in the dentate gyrus (DG) of the dorsal hippocampus 1 month after foot shock. These changes were absent from CRHR1-deficient mice and after DMP696 treatment. Inactivation of hippocampal GluR1-containing AMPARs by antisense oligonucleotides or philantotoxin 433 confirmed the behavioral relevance of AMPA-type glutamatergic neurotransmission in maintaining the high levels of remote fear in shocked mice with intact CRHR1 signaling. We conclude that limbic CRHR1 receptors enhance the consolidation of remote fear memories in the first week after foot shock by increasing the expression of Ca(2+)-permeable GluR1-containing AMPARs in the DG. These findings suggest both receptors as rational targets for the prevention and therapy, respectively, of psychopathology associated with exaggerated fear memories, such as PTSD.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Maik Dahlhoff
- Institute of Molecular Animal Breeding and Biotechnology, Gene Center, LMU Munich, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Wurst
- Institute of Developmental Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum Munich, Neuherberg, Germany
| | | | | | - Sven Moosmang
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Technical University Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Carsten T Wotjak
- Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany,Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Kraepelinstr. 2-10, 80804 Munich, Germany, Tel: +49 89 30622 652, Fax: +49 89 30622 610, E-mail:
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Butler RK, Ford GK, Hogan M, Roche M, Doyle KM, Kelly JP, Kendall DA, Chapman V, Finn DP. Fear-induced suppression of nociceptive behaviour and activation of Akt signalling in the rat periaqueductal grey: role of fatty acid amide hydrolase. J Psychopharmacol 2012; 26:83-91. [PMID: 21926424 DOI: 10.1177/0269881111413823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
The endocannabinoid system regulates nociception and aversion and mediates fear-conditioned analgesia (FCA). We investigated the effects of the fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) inhibitor URB597, which inhibits the catabolism of the endocannabinoid anandamide and related N-acylethanolamines, on expression of FCA and fear and pain related behaviour per se in rats. We also examined associated alterations in the expression of the signal transduction molecule phospho-Akt in the periaqueductal grey (PAG) by immunoblotting. FCA was modelled by assessing formalin-evoked nociceptive behaviour in an arena previously paired with footshock. URB597 (0.3 mg/kg, i.p.) enhanced FCA and increased fear-related behaviour in formalin-treated rats. Conditioned fear per se in non-formalin-treated rats was associated with increased expression of phospho-Akt in the PAG. URB597 reduced the expression of fear-related behaviour in the early part of the trial, an effect that was accompanied by attenuation of the fear-induced increase in phospho-Akt expression in the PAG. Intra-plantar injection of formalin also reduced the fear-induced increase in phospho-Akt expression. These data provide evidence for a role of FAAH in FCA, fear responding in the presence or absence of nociceptive tone, and fear-evoked increases in PAG phospho-Akt expression. In addition, the results suggest that fear-evoked activation of Akt signalling in the PAG is abolished in the presence of nociceptive tone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan K Butler
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Medicine, NCBES Neuroscience Cluster and Centre for Pain Research, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland
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Hauger RL, Olivares-Reyes JA, Dautzenberg FM, Lohr JB, Braun S, Oakley RH. Molecular and cell signaling targets for PTSD pathophysiology and pharmacotherapy. Neuropharmacology 2011; 62:705-14. [PMID: 22122881 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2011] [Revised: 11/01/2011] [Accepted: 11/14/2011] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The reasons for differences in vulnerability or resilience to the development of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are unclear. Here we review key genetic diatheses and molecular targets especially signaling pathways that mediate responses to trauma and severe stress and their potential contribution to the etiology of PTSD. Sensitization of glucocorticoid receptor (GR) signaling and dysregulation of GR modulators FKBP5, STAT5B, Bcl-2, and Bax have been implicated in PTSD pathophysiology. Furthermore, Akt, NFκB, MKP-1, and p11, which are G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) pathway molecules, can promote or prevent sustained high anxiety- and depressive-like behavior following severe stress. Agonist-induced activation of the corticotropin releasing factor CRF(1) receptor is crucial for survival in the context of serious danger or trauma, but persistent CRF(1) receptor hypersignaling when a threatening or traumatic situation is no longer present is maladaptive. CRF(1) receptor single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) can confer susceptibility or resilience to childhood trauma while a SNP for the PAC1 receptor, another class B1 GPCR, has been linked genetically to PTSD. GRK3 phosphorylation of the CRF(1) receptor protein and subsequent binding of βarrestin2 rapidly terminate Gs-coupled CRF(1) receptor signaling by homologous desensitization. A deficient GRK-βarrestin2 mechanism would result in excessive CRF(1) receptor signaling thereby contributing to PTSD and co-morbid posttraumatic depression. Clinical trials are needed to assess if small molecule CRF(1) receptor antagonists are effective prophylactic agents when administered immediately after trauma. βarrestin2-biased agonists for CRF receptors and possibly other GPCRs implicated in PTSD, however, may prove to be novel pharmacotherapy with greater selectivity and therapeutic efficacy. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled 'Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard L Hauger
- Center of Excellence for Stress and Mental Health, VA Healthcare System, 3350 La Jolla Village Drive, San Diego, CA 92161, USA.
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A novel role of the WNT-dishevelled-GSK3β signaling cascade in the mouse nucleus accumbens in a social defeat model of depression. J Neurosci 2011; 31:9084-92. [PMID: 21697359 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0039-11.2011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Based on earlier gene expression and chromatin array data, we identified the protein, dishevelled (DVL)-2, as being regulated in the nucleus accumbens (NAc), a key brain reward region, in the mouse social defeat model of depression. Here, we validate these findings by showing that DVL2 mRNA and protein levels are downregulated in NAc of mice susceptible to social defeat stress, effects not seen in resilient mice. Other DVL isoforms, DVL1 and DVL3, show similar patterns of regulation. Downregulation of DVL was also demonstrated in the NAc of depressed humans examined postmortem. Interestingly, several members of the WNT (Wingless)-DVL signaling cascade, including phospho-GSK3β (glycogen synthase kinase-3β), also show significant downregulation in the NAc of susceptible, but not resilient, mice, demonstrating concerted regulation of this pathway in the NAc due to social defeat stress. By using viral-mediated gene transfer to overexpress a dominant-negative mutant of DVL in NAc, or by using a pharmacological inhibitor of DVL administered into this brain region, we show that blockade of DVL function renders mice more susceptible to social defeat stress and promotes depression-like behavior in other assays. Similar prodepression-like effects were induced upon overexpressing GSK3β in the NAc, while overexpressing a dominant-negative mutant of GSK3β promoted resilience to social defeat stress. These findings are consistent with the knowledge that downregulation of DVL and phospho-GSK3β reflects an increase in GSK3β activity. These studies reveal a novel role for the DVL-GSK3β signaling pathway, acting within the brain's reward circuitry, in regulating susceptibility to chronic stress.
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Reduced hippocampus volume in the mouse model of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. J Psychiatr Res 2011; 45:650-9. [PMID: 21106206 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2010.10.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2010] [Revised: 10/08/2010] [Accepted: 10/22/2010] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Some, but not all studies in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), report reduced hippocampus (HPC) volume. In particular it is unclear, whether smaller hippocampal volume represents a susceptibility factor for PTSD rather than a consequence of the trauma. To gain insight into the relationship of brain morphology and trauma exposure, we investigated volumetric and molecular changes of the HPC in a mouse model of PTSD by means of in vivo Manganese Enhanced Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MEMRI) and ex vivo ultramicroscopic measurements. Exposure to a brief inescapable foot shock led to a volume reduction in both left HPC and right central amygdala two months later. This volume loss was mirrored by a down-regulation of growth-associated protein-43 (GAP43) in the HPC. Enriched housing decreased the intensity of trauma-associated contextual fear, independently of whether it was provided before or after the shock. Beyond that, enriched housing led to an increase in intracranial volume, including the lateral ventricles and the hippocampus, and to an up-regulation of GAP43 as revealed by MEMRI and Western blot analysis, thus partially compensating for trauma-related HPC volume loss and down-regulation of GAP43 expression. Together these data demonstrate that traumatic experience in mice causes a reduction in HPC and central amygdala volume possibly due to a shrinkage of axonal protrusions. Enriched housing might induce trophic changes, which may contribute to the amelioration of trauma-associated PTSD-like symptoms at behavioural, morphological and molecular levels.
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