Differential activation of neuronal cell types in the basolateral amygdala by corticotropin releasing factor

Dorsal raphe to basolateral amygdala corticotropin-releasing factor circuit regulates cocaine-memory reconsolidation

Environmental stimuli elicit drug craving and relapse in cocaine users by triggering the retrieval of strong cocaine-related contextual memories. Retrieval can also destabilize drug memories, requiring reconsolidation, a protein synthesis-dependent storage process, to maintain memory strength. Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) signaling in the basolateral amygdala (BLA) is necessary for cocaine-memory reconsolidation. We have hypothesized that a critical source of CRF in the BLA is the dorsal raphe nucleus (DR) based on its neurochemistry, anatomical connectivity, and requisite involvement in cocaine-memory reconsolidation. To test this hypothesis, male and female Sprague-Dawley rats received adeno-associated viruses to express Gi-coupled designer receptors exclusively activated by designer drugs (DREADDs) selectively in CRF neurons of the DR and injection cannulae directed at the BLA. The rats were trained to self-administer cocaine in a distinct environmental context then received extinction training in a different context. Next, they were briefly re-exposed to the cocaine-predictive context to destabilize (reactivate) cocaine memories. Intra-BLA infusions of the DREADD agonist deschloroclozapine (DCZ; 0.1 mM, 0.5 µL/hemisphere) immediately after memory reactivation attenuated cocaine-memory strength, relative to vehicle infusion. This was indicated by a selective, DCZ-induced and memory reactivation-dependent decrease in drug-seeking behavior in the cocaine-predictive context in DREADD-expressing males and females at test compared to respective controls. Notably, BLA-projecting DR CRF neurons that exhibited increased c-Fos expression during memory reconsolidation co-expressed the glutamatergic neuronal marker, vesicular glutamate transporter 3. Together, these findings suggest that the DRCRF → BLA circuit is engaged to maintain cocaine-memory strength after memory destabilization, and this phenomenon may be mediated by DR CRF and/or glutamate release in the BLA.

Activation of NPY Receptors in the BLA Inhibits Projections to the Bed Nucleus of the Stria Terminalis and Buffers Stress-Induced Decreases in Social Interaction in Male Rats

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) increases resilience and buffers behavioral stress responses in male rats in part through decreasing the excitability of principal output neurons in the basolateral amygdala (BLA). Intra-BLA administration of NPY acutely increases social interaction (SI) through activation of either Y1 or Y5 receptors, whereas repeated NPY (rpNPY) injections (once daily for 5 d) produce persistent increases in SI through Y5 receptor-mediated neuroplasticity in the BLA. In this series of studies, we characterized the neural circuits from the BLA that underlie these behavioral responses to NPY. Using neuronal tract tracing, NPY Y1 and Y5 receptor immunoreactivity was identified on subpopulations of BLA neurons projecting to the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) and the central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA). Inhibition of BLA→BNST, but not BLA→CeA, neurons using projection-restricted, cre-driven designer receptors exclusively activated by designer drug-Gi expression increased SI and prevented stress-induced decreases in SI produced by a 30 min restraint stress. This behavioral profile was similar to that seen after both acute and rpNPY injections into the BLA. Intracellular recordings of BLA→BNST neurons demonstrated NPY-mediated inhibition via suppression of H currents, as seen previously. Repeated intra-BLA injections of NPY, which are associated with the induction of BLA neuroplasticity, decreased the activity of BLA→BNST neurons and decreased their dendritic complexity. These results demonstrate that NPY modulates the activity of BNST-projecting BLA neurons, suggesting that this pathway contributes to the stress-buffering actions of NPY and provides a novel substrate for the proresilient effects of NPY.

Dorsal Raphe to Basolateral Amygdala Corticotropin-Releasing Factor Circuit Regulates Cocaine-Memory Reconsolidation

Environmental stimuli elicit drug craving and relapse in cocaine users by triggering the retrieval of strong cocainerelated contextual memories. Retrieval can also destabilize drug memories, requiring reconsolidation, a protein synthesis-dependent storage process, to maintain memory strength. Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) signaling in the basolateral amygdala (BLA) is necessary for cocainememory reconsolidation. We have hypothesized that a critical source of CRF in the BLA is the dorsal raphe nucleus (DR) based on its neurochemistry, anatomical connectivity, and requisite involvement in cocaine-memory reconsolidation. To test this hypothesis, male and female Sprague-Dawley rats received adeno-associated viruses to express Gi-coupled designer receptors exclusively activated by designer drugs (DREADDs) selectively in CRF neurons of the DR and injection cannulae directed at the BLA. The rats were trained to self-administer cocaine in a distinct environmental context then received extinction training in a different context. They were then briefly reexposed to the cocaine-predictive context to destabilize (reactivate) cocaine memories. Intra-BLA infusions of the DREADD agonist deschloroclozapine (DCZ; 0.1 mM, 0.5 μL/hemisphere) after memory reactivation attenuated cocaine-memory strength, relative to vehicle infusion. This was indicated by a selective, DCZ-induced and memory reactivation-dependent decrease in drug-seeking behavior in the cocaine-predictive context in DREADD-expressing males and females at test compared to respective controls. Notably, BLA-projecting DR CRF neurons that exhibited increased c-Fos expression during memory reconsolidation co-expressed glutamatergic and serotonergic neuronal markers. Together, these findings suggest that the DRCRF → BLA circuit is engaged to maintain cocaine-memory strength after memory destabilization, and this phenomenon may be mediated by DR CRF, glutamate, and/or serotonin release in the BLA.

Hyperexcitability: From Normal Fear to Pathological Anxiety and Trauma

Hyperexcitability in fear circuits is suggested to be important for development of pathological anxiety and trauma from adaptive mechanisms of fear. Hyperexcitability is proposed to be due to acquired sensitization in fear circuits that progressively becomes more severe over time causing changing symptoms in early and late pathology. We use the metaphor and mechanisms of kindling to examine gains and losses in function of one excitatory and one inhibitory neuropeptide, corticotrophin releasing factor and somatostatin, respectively, to explore this sensitization hypothesis. We suggest amygdala kindling induced hyperexcitability, hyper-inhibition and loss of inhibition provide clues to mechanisms for hyperexcitability and progressive changes in function initiated by stress and trauma.

Generation of a CRF1-Cre transgenic rat and the role of central amygdala CRF1 cells in nociception and anxiety-like behavior

Corticotropin-releasing factor type-1 (CRF1) receptors are critical to stress responses because they allow neurons to respond to CRF released in response to stress. Our understanding of the role of CRF1-expressing neurons in CRF-mediated behaviors has been largely limited to mouse experiments due to the lack of genetic tools available to selectively visualize and manipulate CRF1+ cells in rats. Here, we describe the generation and validation of a transgenic CRF1-Cre-tdTomato rat. We report that Crhr1 and Cre mRNA expression are highly colocalized in both the central amygdala (CeA), composed of mostly GABAergic neurons, and in the basolateral amygdala (BLA), composed of mostly glutamatergic neurons. In the CeA, membrane properties, inhibitory synaptic transmission, and responses to CRF bath application in tdTomato+ neurons are similar to those previously reported in GFP+ cells in CRFR1-GFP mice. We show that stimulatory DREADD receptors can be targeted to CeA CRF1+ cells via virally delivered Cre-dependent transgenes, that transfected Cre/tdTomato+ cells are activated by clozapine-n-oxide in vitro and in vivo, and that activation of these cells in vivo increases anxiety-like and nocifensive behaviors. Outside the amygdala, we show that Cre-tdTomato is expressed in several brain areas across the brain, and that the expression pattern of Cre-tdTomato cells is similar to the known expression pattern of CRF1 cells. Given the accuracy of expression in the CRF1-Cre rat, modern genetic techniques used to investigate the anatomy, physiology, and behavioral function of CRF1+ neurons can now be performed in assays that require the use of rats as the model organism.

Basolateral amygdala corticotropin-releasing factor receptor type 1 regulates context-cocaine memory strength during reconsolidation in a sex-dependent manner

The basolateral amygdala (BLA) is a critical brain region for cocaine-memory reconsolidation. Corticotropin-releasing factor receptor type 1 (CRFR1) is densely expressed in the BLA, and CRFR1 stimulation can activate intra-cellular signaling cascades that mediate memory reconsolidation. Hence, we tested the hypothesis that BLA CRFR1 stimulation is necessary and sufficient for cocaine-memory reconsolidation. Using an instrumental model of drug relapse, male and female Sprague-Dawley rats received cocaine self-administration training in a distinct environmental context over 10 days followed by extinction training in a different context over 7 days. Next, rats were re-exposed to the cocaine-paired context for 15 min to initiate cocaine-memory retrieval and destabilization. Immediately or 6 h after this session, the rats received bilateral vehicle, antalarmin (CRFR1 antagonist; 500 ng/hemisphere), or corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF; 0.2, 30 or 500 ng/hemisphere) infusions into the BLA. Resulting changes in drug context-induced cocaine seeking (index of context-cocaine memory strength) were assessed three days later. Female rats self-administered more cocaine infusions and exhibited more extinction responding than males. Intra-BLA antalarmin treatment immediately after memory retrieval (i.e., when cocaine memories were labile), but not 6 h later (i.e., after memory reconsolidation), attenuated drug context-induced cocaine seeking at test independent of sex, relative to vehicle. Conversely, intra-BLA CRF treatment increased this behavior selectively in females, in a U-shaped dose-dependent fashion. In control experiments, a high (behaviorally ineffective) dose of CRF treatment did not reduce BLA CRFR1 cell-surface expression in females. Thus, BLA CRFR1 signaling is necessary and sufficient, in a sex-dependent manner, for regulating cocaine-memory strength.

Corticotropin-Releasing Factor Receptor-1 Neurons in the Lateral Amygdala Display Selective Sensitivity to Acute and Chronic Ethanol Exposure

The lateral amygdala (LA) serves as the point of entry for sensory information within the amygdala complex, a structure that plays a critical role in emotional processes and has been implicated in alcohol use disorders. Within the amygdala, the corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) system has been shown to mediate some of the effects of both stress and ethanol, but the effects of ethanol on specific CRF1 receptor circuits in the amygdala have not been fully established. We used male CRF1:GFP reporter mice to characterize CRF1-expressing (CRF1+) and nonexpressing (CRF1-) LA neurons and investigate the effects of acute and chronic ethanol exposure on these populations. The CRF1+ population was found to be composed predominantly of glutamatergic projection neurons with a minority subpopulation of interneurons. CRF1+ neurons exhibited a tonic conductance that was insensitive to acute ethanol. CRF1- neurons did not display a basal tonic conductance, but the application of acute ethanol induced a δ GABAA receptor subunit-dependent tonic conductance and enhanced phasic GABA release onto these cells. Chronic ethanol increased CRF1+ neuronal excitability but did not significantly alter phasic or tonic GABA signaling in either CRF1+ or CRF1- cells. Chronic ethanol and withdrawal also did not alter basal extracellular GABA or glutamate transmitter levels in the LA/BLA and did not alter the sensitivity of GABA or glutamate to acute ethanol-induced increases in transmitter release. Together, these results provide the first characterization of the CRF1+ population of LA neurons and suggest mechanisms for differential acute ethanol sensitivity within this region.

Deletion of CRH From GABAergic Forebrain Neurons Promotes Stress Resilience and Dampens Stress-Induced Changes in Neuronal Activity

Dysregulation of the corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) system has been implicated in stress-related psychopathologies such as depression and anxiety. Although most studies have linked CRH/CRH receptor 1 signaling to aversive, stress-like behavior, recent work has revealed a crucial role for distinct CRH circuits in maintaining positive emotional valence and appetitive responses under baseline conditions. Here we addressed whether deletion of CRH, specifically from GABAergic forebrain neurons (Crh ^CKO-GABA mice) differentially affects general behavior under baseline and chronic stress conditions. Expression mapping in Crh ^{CK O-GABA} mice revealed absence of Crh in GABAergic neurons of the cortex and limbic regions including the hippocampus, central nucleus of the amygdala and the bed nucleus of the stria terminals, but not in the paraventricular nucleus of hypothalamus. Consequently, conditional CRH knockout animals exhibited no alterations in circadian and stress-induced corticosterone release compared to controls. Under baseline conditions, absence of Crh from forebrain GABAergic neurons resulted in social interaction deficits but had no effect on other behavioral measures including locomotion, anxiety, immobility in the forced swim test, acoustic startle response and fear conditioning. Interestingly, following exposure to chronic social defeat stress, Crh ^CKO-GABA mice displayed a resilient phenotype, which was accompanied by a dampened, stress-induced expression of immediate early genes c-fos and zif268 in several brain regions. Collectively our data reveals the requirement of GABAergic CRH circuits in maintaining appropriate social behavior in naïve animals and further supports the ability of CRH to promote divergent behavioral states under baseline and severe stress conditions.

The center of the emotional universe: Alcohol, stress, and CRF1 amygdala circuitry

The commonalities between different phases of stress and alcohol use as well as the high comorbidity between alcohol use disorders (AUDs) and anxiety disorders suggest common underlying cellular mechanisms governing the rewarding and aversive aspects of these related conditions. As an integrative center that assigns emotional salience to a wide variety of internal and external stimuli, the amygdala complex plays a major role in how alcohol and stress influence cellular physiology to produce disordered behavior. Previous work has illustrated the broad role of the amygdala in alcohol, stress, and anxiety. However, the challenge of current and future studies is to identify the specific dysregulations that occur within distinct amygdala circuits and subpopulations and the commonalities between these alterations in each disorder, with the long-term goal of identifying potential targets for therapeutic intervention. Specific intra-amygdala circuits and cell type-specific subpopulations are emerging as critical targets for stress- and alcohol-induced plasticity, chief among them the corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) and CRF receptor 1 (CRF1) system. CRF and CRF1 have been implicated in the effects of alcohol in several amygdala nuclei, including the basolateral (BLA) and central amygdala (CeA); however, the precise circuitry involved in these effects and the role of these circuits in stress and anxiety are only beginning to be understood.

Stress in Regulation of GABA Amygdala System and Relevance to Neuropsychiatric Diseases

The amygdala is an almond-shaped nucleus located deep and medially within the temporal lobe and is thought to play a crucial role in the regulation of emotional processes. GABAergic neurotransmission inhibits the amygdala and prevents us from generating inappropriate emotional and behavioral responses. Stress may cause the reduction of the GABAergic interneuronal network and the development of neuropsychological diseases. In this review, we summarize the recent evidence investigating the possible mechanisms underlying GABAergic control of the amygdala and its interaction with acute and chronic stress. Taken together, this study may contribute to future progress in finding new approaches to reverse the attenuation of GABAergic neurotransmission induced by stress in the amygdala.

Activation of CRF/CRFR1 signaling in the basolateral nucleus of the amygdala contributes to chronic forced swim-induced depressive-like behaviors in rats

The basolateral nucleus of the amygdala (BLA) plays a key role in processing stressful events and affective disorders. Previously we have documented that exposure of chronic forced swim (FS) to rats produces a depressive-like behavior and that sensitization of BLA neurons is involved in this process. In the present study, we demonstrated that chronic FS stress (CFSS) could activate corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF)/CRF receptor type 1 (CRFR1) signaling in the BLA, and blockade of CRF/CRFR1 signaling by intra-BLA injection of NBI27914 (NBI), a selective CRFR1 antagonist, could prevent the CFSS-induced depressive-like behaviors in rats, indicating that activation of CRF/CRFR1 signaling in the BLA is required for CFSS-induced depression. Furthermore, we discovered that exposure of chronic FS to rats could reinforce long-term potentiation (LTP) at the external capsule (EC)-BLA synapse and increase BLA neuronal excitability, and that all these alterations were inhibited by CRFR1 antagonist NBI. Moreover, we found that application of exogenous CRF also may facilitate LTP at the EC-BLA synapse and sensitize BLA neuronal excitability in normal rats via the activation of CRFR1. We conclude that activation of CRF/CRFR1 signaling in the BLA contributes to chronic FS-induced depressive-like behaviors in rats through potentiating synaptic efficiency at the EC-BLA pathway and sensitizing BLA neuronal excitability.

Changes in the Prefrontal Glutamatergic and Parvalbumin Systems of Mice Exposed to Unpredictable Chronic Stress

The prefrontal cortex (PFC) is highly sensitive to the effects of stress, a known risk factor of mood disorders including anxiety and depression. Abnormalities in PFC functioning have been well described in humans displaying stress-induced depressive symptoms, and hypoactivity of the PFC is now recognized to be a key feature of the depressed brain. However, little is known about the causes and mechanisms leading to this altered prefrontal functional activity in the context of stress-related mood disorders. We previously showed that unpredictable chronic mild stress (UCMS) in mice increases prefrontal expression of parvalbumin (PV), an activity-dependent calcium-binding albumin protein expressed in a specific subtype of GABAergic neurons, highlighting a potential mechanism through which chronic stress leads to hypofunction of the PFC. In this study, we aimed to investigate the mechanisms by which chronic stress alters the prefrontal GABA system. We hypothesized that chronic stress-induced enhancement of glutamatergic transmission in the PFC is a crucial contributing factor to changes within the prefrontal GABAergic and, specifically, PV system. BALB/c male and female mice were exposed to daily handling (control) or 2 or 4 weeks of UCMS. Female mice displayed a more severe altered phenotype than males, as shown by increased anxiety- and depressive-like behaviors and deficits in PFC-dependent cognitive abilities, particularly after exposure to 2 weeks of UCMS. This behavioral phenotype was paralleled by a large increase in prefrontal PV messenger RNA (mRNA) and number of PV-expressing neurons, supporting our previous findings. We further showed that the expression of pre- and postsynaptic markers of glutamatergic transmission (VGlut1 presynaptic terminals and pERK1/2, respectively) onto PV neurons was increased by 2 weeks of UCMS in a sex-specific manner; this was associated with sex-specific changes in the mRNA expression of the NR2B subunit of the NMDA receptor. These findings provide evidence of increased glutamatergic transmission onto prefrontal PV neurons, particularly in female mice, which could potentially contribute to their increased PV expression and the extent of their behavioral impairment following UCMS. Finally, our analysis of activity of subcortical regions sending glutamatergic afferents to the PFC reveals that glutamatergic neurons from the basolateral amygdala might be specifically involved in UCMS-induced changes in prefrontal glutamatergic transmission.

Involvement of CRFR1 in the Basolateral Amygdala in the Immediate Fear Extinction Deficit

Several animal and clinical studies have highlighted the ineffectiveness of fear extinction sessions delivered shortly after trauma exposure. This phenomenon, termed the immediate extinction deficit, refers to situations in which extinction programs applied shortly after fear conditioning may result in the reduction of fear behaviors (in rodents, frequently measured as freezing responses to the conditioned cue) during extinction training, but failure to consolidate this reduction in the long term. The molecular mechanisms driving this immediate extinction resistance remain unclear. Here we present evidence for the involvement of the corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) system in the basolateral amygdala (BLA) in male Wistar rats. Intra-BLA microinfusion of the CRFR₁ antagonist NBI30775 enhances extinction recall, whereas administration of the CRF agonist CRF_6–33 before delayed extinction disrupts recall of extinction. We link the immediate fear extinction deficit with dephosphorylation of GluA1 glutamate receptors at Ser⁸⁴⁵ and enhanced activity of the protein phosphatase calcineurin in the BLA. Their reversal after treatment with the CRFR₁ antagonist indicates their dependence on CRFR₁ actions. These findings can have important implications for the improvement of therapeutic approaches to trauma, as well as furthering our understanding of the neurobiological mechanisms underlying fear-related disorders.

Region-specific roles of the corticotropin-releasing factor-urocortin system in stress

Dysregulation of the corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF)-urocortin (UCN) system has been implicated in stress-related psychopathologies such as depression and anxiety. It has been proposed that CRF-CRF receptor type 1 (CRFR1) signalling promotes the stress response and anxiety-like behaviour, whereas UCNs and CRFR2 activation mediate stress recovery and the restoration of homeostasis. Recent findings, however, provide clear evidence that this view is overly simplistic. Instead, a more complex picture has emerged that suggests that there are brain region- and cell type-specific effects of CRFR signalling that are influenced by the individual's prior experience and that shape molecular, cellular and ultimately behavioural responses to stressful challenges.

CRF receptor type 1 (but not type 2) located within the amygdala plays a role in the modulation of anxiety in mice exposed to the elevated plus maze

The amygdala (Amy) is an important center that processes threatening stimuli. Among the neurotransmitters implicated in the control of emotional states, the corticotrophin releasing factor (CRF) is an important modulator, acting at CRF1 and CRF2 receptors. Few studies have investigated the role of CRF and its receptors in the Amy on anxiety in mice. Here, we investigated the effects of intra-Amy (aimed at the basolateral nucleus) injections of CRF (37.5 and 75pmol/0.1μl), urocortin 3 (UCn3, a selective CRF2 agonist; 4, 8, 16 or 24pmol/0.1μl), CP376395 (a selective CRF1 antagonist; 0.375, 0.75 or 1.5nmol/0.1μl), antisauvagine-30 (ASV-30, a selective CRF2 antagonist; 1 or 3nmol/0.1μl) on the behavior of mice exposed to the elevated plus maze (EPM). Both spatiotemporal (e.g., percentage of open-arm entries and percentage of open-arm time; %OE and %OT) and complementary [e.g., frequency of protected and unprotected stretched attend postures (pSAP and uSAP) and head dips (pHD and uHD); frequency and time spent on open arm end exploration (OAEE)] measures were recorded during a 5-min test in the EPM. While intra-Amy injections of CRF decreased %OE, %OT and OAEE, suggesting an anxiogenic-like action, UCn3 (all doses) did not change any behavior. In contrast, injections of CP376395 (0.75nmol) produced an anxiolytic-like effect, by increasing %OT and OAEE and decreasing pSAP and pHD. Neither spatiotemporal nor complementary measures were changed by intra-Amy ASV-30. These results suggest that CRF plays a marked anxiogenic role at CRF1 receptors in the amygdala of mice exposed to the EPM.

Ketamine Strengthens CRF-Activated Amygdala Inputs to Basal Dendrites in mPFC Layer V Pyramidal Cells in the Prelimbic but not Infralimbic Subregion, A Key Suppressor of Stress Responses

A single sub-anesthetic dose of ketamine, a short-acting NMDA receptor blocker, induces a rapid and prolonged antidepressant effect in treatment-resistant major depression. In animal models, ketamine (24 h) reverses depression-like behaviors and associated deficits in excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs) generated in apical dendritic spines of layer V pyramidal cells of medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). However, little is known about the effects of ketamine on basal dendrites. The basal dendrites of layer V cells receive an excitatory input from pyramidal cells of the basolateral amygdala (BLA), neurons that are activated by the stress hormone CRF. Here we found that CRF induces EPSCs in PFC layer V cells and that ketamine enhanced this effect through the mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 synaptogenic pathway; the CRF-induced EPSCs required an intact BLA input and were generated primarily in basal dendrites. In contrast to its detrimental effects on apical dendritic structure and function, chronic stress did not induce a loss of CRF-induced EPSCs in basal dendrites, thereby creating a relative imbalance in favor of amygdala inputs. The effects of ketamine were complex: ketamine enhanced apical EPSC responses in all mPFC subregions, anterior cingulate (AC), prelimbic (PL), and infralimbic (IL) but enhanced CRF-induced EPSCs only in AC and PL-responses were unchanged in IL, a critical area for suppression of stress responses. We propose that by restoring the strength of apical inputs relative to basal amygdala inputs, especially in IL, ketamine would ameliorate the hypothesized disproportional negative influence of the amygdala in chronic stress and major depression.

Distribution of corticotropin-releasing factor in the tree shrew brain

Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) in the brain plays an important role in regulations of physiological and behavioral processes, yet CRF distribution in tree shrew brain has not been thoroughly and systematically reported. Here we examined the distribution of CRF immunoreactivity in the brain of tree shrews (Tupaia belangeri chinensis) using immunohistochemical techniques. CRF-immunoreactive (-ir) cells and fibers were present in the rhinencephalon, telencephalon, diencephalon, mesencephalon, metencephalon and myelencephalon of saline- and colchicine-treated tree shrews. Laminar distribution of CRF-ir cells was found in the main olfactory bulb and neocortex. Compared with saline-treated tree shrews, a larger number of CRF-ir cells in colchicine-treated tree shrews were found in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus, medial preoptic area, dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus, reuniens thalamic nucleus, inferior colliculus, Edinger-Westphal nucleus, median raphe nucleus, locus coeruleus, parabrachial nucleus, dorsal tegmental nucleus, lateral reticular nucleus, and inferior olive. CRF-ir fibers from the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus projected toward and through the internal zone of the median eminence. In addition, density of CRF immunoreactivity is significantly different in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, central amygdaloid nucleus, suprachiasmatic nucleus, median raphe nucleus, Edinger-Westphal nucleus, locus coeruleus and inferior olive between tree shrews and rats after saline or colchicine treatment. Our findings provide, for the first time, the comprehensive description of CRF immunoreactivity and whole brain mapping of CRF in tree shrews, which is an anatomical basis for the participation of CRF system in the regulation of numerous behaviors.

The effect of urocortin I on the hypothalamic ACTH secretagogues and its impact on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis

Urocortin I (UCN I) is a structural analogue of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF), which, together with arginine-vasopressin (AVP), are the principle adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) secretagogues in mammals. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of UCN I on the hypothalamic CRF and AVP concentration and its impact on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. First, male Wistar rats were injected intracerebroventricularly (ICV) with 0.5, 1, 2 and 5 μg of UCN I. After 30 min hypothalamic CRF and AVP concentrations were determined by immunoassays. In parallel, the trunk blood was collected and plasma ACTH and corticosterone concentration was determined by ELISA and chemofluorescent assay, respectively. Second, rats were pretreated ICV with selective antagonists of receptors being implicated in the regulation of the HPA axis (0.1 μg antalarmin for CRFR1, 1 μg astressin 2B for CRFR2 or 0.1 μg deamino-Pen1,Tyr2,Arg8-vasopressin for AVPR3) and treated ICV with the most effective dose of UCN I (5 μg). After 30 min plasma corticosterone concentration was determined by chemofluorescent assay. UCN I induced dose-dependent augmentation of the hypothalamic CRF and AVP concentration, associated with dose-dependent elevation of the plasma ACTH and corticosterone concentration. The most significant effect of UCN I on the plasma corticosterone concentration was inhibited by antalarmin, but was not influenced by astressin 2B or deamino-Pen1,Tyr2,Arg8-vasopressin. The present study demonstrates that UCN I modulates the concentration of the hypothalamic ACTH secretagogues in parallel with the concentration of the plasma ACTH and corticosterone. Our results suggest that UCN I may activate the HPA axis by stimulation of the hypothalamic CRF production, and this process is mediated by CRFR1, and not by CRFR2. UCN I may stimulate the AVP production, as well, but, based on the results with AVPR3 antagonist, this effect is not involved in the regulation of the HPA axis.

Seizure-induced disinhibition of the HPA axis increases seizure susceptibility

Stress is the most commonly reported precipitating factor for seizures. The proconvulsant actions of stress hormones are thought to mediate the effects of stress on seizure susceptibility. Interestingly, epileptic patients have increased basal levels of stress hormones, including corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and corticosterone, which are further increased following seizures. Given the proconvulsant actions of stress hormones, we proposed that seizure-induced activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis may contribute to future seizure susceptibility. Consistent with this hypothesis, our data demonstrate that pharmacological induction of seizures in mice with kainic acid or pilocarpine increases circulating levels of the stress hormone, corticosterone, and exogenous corticosterone administration is sufficient to increase seizure susceptibility. However, the mechanism(s) whereby seizures activate the HPA axis remain unknown. Here we demonstrate that seizure-induced activation of the HPA axis involves compromised GABAergic control of CRH neurons, which govern HPA axis function. Following seizure activity, there is a collapse of the chloride gradient due to changes in NKCC1 and KCC2 expression, resulting in reduced amplitude of sIPSPs and even depolarizing effects of GABA on CRH neurons. Seizure-induced activation of the HPA axis results in future seizure susceptibility which can be blocked by treatment with an NKCC1 inhibitor, bumetanide, or blocking the CRH signaling with Antalarmin. These data suggest that compromised GABAergic control of CRH neurons following an initial seizure event may cause hyperexcitability of the HPA axis and increase future seizure susceptibility.