1
|
Xu R, Beatty WL, Greigert V, Witola WH, Sibley LD. Multiple pathways for glucose phosphate transport and utilization support growth of Cryptosporidium parvum. Nat Commun 2024; 15:380. [PMID: 38191884 PMCID: PMC10774378 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-44696-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2023] [Accepted: 12/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Cryptosporidium parvum is an obligate intracellular parasite with a highly reduced mitochondrion that lacks the tricarboxylic acid cycle and the ability to generate ATP, making the parasite reliant on glycolysis. Genetic ablation experiments demonstrated that neither of the two putative glucose transporters CpGT1 and CpGT2 were essential for growth. Surprisingly, hexokinase was also dispensable for parasite growth while the downstream enzyme aldolase was required, suggesting the parasite has an alternative way of obtaining phosphorylated hexose. Complementation studies in E. coli support a role for direct transport of glucose-6-phosphate from the host cell by the parasite transporters CpGT1 and CpGT2, thus bypassing a requirement for hexokinase. Additionally, the parasite obtains phosphorylated glucose from amylopectin stores that are released by the action of the essential enzyme glycogen phosphorylase. Collectively, these findings reveal that C. parvum relies on multiple pathways to obtain phosphorylated glucose both for glycolysis and to restore carbohydrate reserves.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rui Xu
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, 63130, USA
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Wandy L Beatty
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, 63130, USA
| | - Valentin Greigert
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, 63130, USA
| | - William H Witola
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61802, USA
| | - L David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, 63130, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Xu R, Beatty WL, Greigert V, Witola WH, Sibley LD. Multiple pathways for glucose phosphate transport and utilization support growth of Cryptosporidium parvum. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.06.27.546703. [PMID: 37425855 PMCID: PMC10327089 DOI: 10.1101/2023.06.27.546703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/11/2023]
Abstract
Cryptosporidium parvum is an obligate intracellular parasite with a highly reduced mitochondrion that lacks the TCA cycle and the ability to generate ATP, making the parasite reliant on glycolysis. Genetic ablation experiments demonstrated that neither of the two putative glucose transporters CpGT1 and CpGT2 were essential for growth. Surprisingly, hexokinase was also dispensable for parasite growth while the downstream enzyme aldolase was required, suggesting the parasite has an alternative way of obtaining phosphorylated hexose. Complementation studies in E. coli support a role for direct transport of glucose-6-phosphate from the host cell by the parasite transporters CpGT1 and CpGT2, thus bypassing a requirement for hexokinase. Additionally, the parasite obtains phosphorylated glucose from amylopectin stores that are released by the action of the essential enzyme glycogen phosphorylase. Collectively, these findings reveal that C. parvum relies on multiple pathways to obtain phosphorylated glucose both for glycolysis and to restore carbohydrate reserves.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rui Xu
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA
| | - Wandy L. Beatty
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA
| | - Valentin Greigert
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA
| | - William H. Witola
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61802, USA
| | - L. David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Dengler F, Hammon HM, Liermann W, Görs S, Bachmann L, Helm C, Ulrich R, Delling C. Cryptosporidium parvumcompetes with the intestinal epithelial cells for glucose and impairs systemic glucose supply in neonatal calves. Vet Res 2023; 54:40. [PMID: 37138353 PMCID: PMC10156424 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-023-01172-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2023] [Accepted: 03/10/2023] [Indexed: 05/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Cryptosporidiosis is one of the main causes of diarrhea in children and young livestock. The interaction of the parasite with the intestinal host cells has not been characterized thoroughly yet but may be affected by the nutritional demand of the parasite. Hence, we aimed to investigate the impact of C. parvum infection on glucose metabolism in neonatal calves. Therefore, N = 5 neonatal calves were infected with C. parvum on the first day of life, whereas a control group was not (N = 5). The calves were monitored clinically for one week, and glucose absorption, turnover and oxidation were assessed using stable isotope labelled glucose. The transepithelial transport of glucose was measured using the Ussing chamber technique. Glucose transporters were quantified on gene and protein expression level using RT-qPCR and Western blot in the jejunum epithelium and brush border membrane preparations. Plasma glucose concentration and oral glucose absorption were decreased despite an increased electrogenic phlorizin sensitive transepithelial transport of glucose in infected calves. No difference in the gene or protein abundance of glucose transporters, but an enrichment of glucose transporter 2 in the brush border was observed in the infected calves. Furthermore, the mRNA for enzymes of the glycolysis pathway was increased indicating enhanced glucose oxidation in the infected gut. In summary, C. parvum infection modulates intestinal epithelial glucose absorption and metabolism. We assume that the metabolic competition of the parasite for glucose causes the host cells to upregulate their uptake mechanisms and metabolic machinery to compensate for the energy losses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Franziska Dengler
- Institute of Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biophysics, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinärplatz 1, Vienna, Austria.
- Institute of Veterinary Physiology, Leipzig University, An den Tierkliniken 7, Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Harald M Hammon
- Research Institute for Farm Animal Biology (FBN), Institute of Nutritional Physiology, Wilhelm-Stahl-Allee 2, Dummerstorf, Germany
| | - Wendy Liermann
- Research Institute for Farm Animal Biology (FBN), Institute of Nutritional Physiology, Wilhelm-Stahl-Allee 2, Dummerstorf, Germany
| | - Solvig Görs
- Research Institute for Farm Animal Biology (FBN), Institute of Nutritional Physiology, Wilhelm-Stahl-Allee 2, Dummerstorf, Germany
| | - Lisa Bachmann
- Research Institute for Farm Animal Biology (FBN), Institute of Nutritional Physiology, Wilhelm-Stahl-Allee 2, Dummerstorf, Germany
- Faculty of Agriculture and Food Science, University of Applied Science Neubrandenburg, Brodaer Strasse 2, Neubrandenburg, Germany
| | - Christiane Helm
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Leipzig University, An den Tierkliniken 33-37, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Reiner Ulrich
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Leipzig University, An den Tierkliniken 33-37, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Cora Delling
- Institute of Parasitology, Leipzig University, An den Tierkliniken 35, Leipzig, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Watanabe N, Bando H, Murakoshi F, Sakurai R, Kabir MHB, Fukuda Y, Kato K. The role of atypical MAP kinase 4 in the host interaction with Cryptosporidium parvum. Sci Rep 2023; 13:1096. [PMID: 36658270 PMCID: PMC9852575 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-28269-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2022] [Accepted: 01/16/2023] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Cryptosporidium parvum is an apicomplexan parasite that causes severe zoonotic diarrhea in humans and calves. Since there are no effective treatments or vaccines for infants or immunocompromised patients, it is important to understand the molecular mechanisms of the parasite-host interaction for novel drug discovery. Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAP kinase) is a key host factor in interactions between host and various pathogens, including parasites. Although the function of conventional MAP kinases against parasite infection has been investigated, that of atypical MAP kinases remains largely unknown. Therefore, we focused on one of the atypical MAP kinases, MAPK4, and its effect on C. parvum infection in human intestinal cells. Here, we report that MAPK4-deficient intestinal cells showed a significant reduction in C. parvum infection. We also show that host MAPK4 has a role in host cell survival from C. parvum infection. In addition, we show that C. parvum requires host MAPK4 for its successful invasion and asexual reproduction. Taken together, our data suggest that MAPK4 is an important host factor contributing to C. parvum infection in human intestinal cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nina Watanabe
- Laboratory of Sustainable Animal Environment, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, 232-3 Yomogida, Naruko-Onsen, Osaki, Miyagi, 989-6711, Japan
| | - Hironori Bando
- Laboratory of Sustainable Animal Environment, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, 232-3 Yomogida, Naruko-Onsen, Osaki, Miyagi, 989-6711, Japan.,Department of Parasitology, Asahikawa Medical University, 2-1-1-1, Midorigaoka-Higashi, Asahikawa, Hokkaido, 078-8510, Japan
| | - Fumi Murakoshi
- Laboratory of Sustainable Animal Environment, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, 232-3 Yomogida, Naruko-Onsen, Osaki, Miyagi, 989-6711, Japan.,Department of Infectious Diseases, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, 465, Kawaramachi-Hirokoji, Kamigyo-ku, Kyoto, 602-8566, Japan
| | - Riku Sakurai
- Laboratory of Sustainable Animal Environment, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, 232-3 Yomogida, Naruko-Onsen, Osaki, Miyagi, 989-6711, Japan
| | - Mohammad Hazzaz Bin Kabir
- Laboratory of Sustainable Animal Environment, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, 232-3 Yomogida, Naruko-Onsen, Osaki, Miyagi, 989-6711, Japan
| | - Yasuhiro Fukuda
- Laboratory of Sustainable Animal Environment, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, 232-3 Yomogida, Naruko-Onsen, Osaki, Miyagi, 989-6711, Japan
| | - Kentaro Kato
- Laboratory of Sustainable Animal Environment, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, 232-3 Yomogida, Naruko-Onsen, Osaki, Miyagi, 989-6711, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Identification of potent anti-Cryptosporidium new drug leads by screening traditional Chinese medicines. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2022; 16:e0010947. [PMID: 36441814 PMCID: PMC9731497 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0010947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2022] [Revised: 12/08/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Cryptosporidium spp. are gastrointestinal opportunistic protozoan parasites that infect humans, domestic animals, and wild animals all over the world. Cryptosporidiosis is the second leading infectious diarrheal disease in infants less than 5 years old. Cryptosporidiosis is a common zoonotic disease associated with diarrhea in infants and immunocompromised individuals. Consequently, cryptosporidiosis is considered a serious economic, veterinary, and medical concern. The treatment options for cryptosporidiosis are limited. To address this problem, we screened a natural product library containing 87 compounds of Traditional Chinese Medicines for anti-Cryptosporidium compounds that could serve as novel drug leads and therapeutic targets against C. parvum. To examine the anti-Cryptosporidium activity and half-maximal inhibitory doses (EC50) of these compounds, we performed in vitro assays (Cryptosporidium growth inhibition assay and host cell viability assay) and in vivo experiments in mice. In these assays, the C. parvum HNJ-1 strain was used. Four of the 87 compounds (alisol-A, alisol-B, atropine sulfate, and bufotalin) showed strong anti-Cryptosporidium activity in vitro (EC50 values = 122.9±6.7, 79.58±13.8, 253.5±30.3, and 63.43±18.7 nM, respectively), and minimum host cell cytotoxicity (cell survival > 95%). Furthermore, atropine sulfate (200 mg/kg) and bufotalin (0.1 mg/kg) also showed in vivo inhibitory effects. Our findings demonstrate that atropine sulfate and bufotalin are effective against C. parvum infection both in vitro and in vivo. These compounds may, therefore, represent promising novel anti-Cryptosporidium drug leads for future medications against cryptosporidiosis.
Collapse
|
6
|
Abstract
Currently, nitazoxanide is the only FDA-approved treatment for cryptosporidiosis; unfortunately, it is ineffective in immunocompromised patients, has varied efficacy in immunocompetent individuals, and is not approved in infants under 1 year of age. Identifying new inhibitors for the treatment of cryptosporidiosis requires standardized and quantifiable in vitro assays for assessing potency, selectivity, timing of activity, and reversibility. Here, we provide new protocols for defining which stages of the life cycle are susceptible to four highly active compound classes that likely inhibit different targets in the parasite. We also utilize a newly developed long-term culture system to define assays for monitoring reversibility as a means of defining cidal activity as a function of concentration and time of treatment. These assays should provide valuable in vitro parameters to establish conditions for efficacious in vivo treatment. Cryptosporidium parvum and Cryptosporidium hominis have emerged as major enteric pathogens of infants in the developing world, in addition to their known importance in immunocompromised adults. Although there has been recent progress in identifying new small molecules that inhibit Cryptosporidium sp. growth in vitro or in animal models, we lack information about their mechanism of action, potency across the life cycle, and cidal versus static activities. Here, we explored four potent classes of compounds that include inhibitors that likely target phosphatidylinositol 4 kinase (PI4K), phenylalanine-tRNA synthetase (PheRS), and several potent inhibitors with unknown mechanisms of action. We utilized monoclonal antibodies and gene expression probes for staging life cycle development to define the timing of when inhibitors were active during the life cycle of Cryptosporidium parvum grown in vitro. These different classes of inhibitors targeted different stages of the life cycle, including compounds that blocked replication (PheRS inhibitors), prevented the segmentation of daughter cells and thus blocked egress (PI4K inhibitors), or affected sexual-stage development (a piperazine compound of unknown mechanism). Long-term cultivation of C. parvum in epithelial cell monolayers derived from intestinal stem cells was used to distinguish between cidal and static activities based on the ability of parasites to recover from treatment. Collectively, these approaches should aid in identifying mechanisms of action and for designing in vivo efficacy studies based on time-dependent concentrations needed to achieve cidal activity.
Collapse
|