Mnemonic effects of testosterone and its 5α-reduced metabolites in the conditioned fear and inhibitory avoidance tasks

Effect of Chronic Tibolone Administration on Memory and Choline Acetyltransferase and Tryptophan Hydroxylase Content in Aging Mice

Gonadal steroids exert different effects on the central nervous system (CNS), such as preserving neuronal function and promoting neuronal survival. Estradiol, progesterone, and testosterone reduce neuronal loss in the CNS in animal models of neurodegeneration. However, hormone replacement therapy has been associated with higher rates of endometrial, prostate, and breast cancer. Tibolone (TIB), the metabolites of which show estrogenic and progestogenic effects, is an alternative to reduce this risk. However, the impact of TIB on memory and learning, as well as on choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) and tryptophan hydroxylase (TPH) levels in the hippocampus of aging males, is unknown. We administered TIB to aged C57BL/6J male mice at different doses (0.01 or 1.0 mg/kg per day for 12 weeks) and evaluated its effects on memory and learning and the content of ChAT and TPH. We assessed memory and learning with object recognition and elevated T-maze tasks. Additionally, we determined ChAT and TPH protein levels in the hippocampus by Western blotting. TIB administration increased the percentage of time spent on the novel object in the object recognition task. In addition, the latency of leaving the enclosed arm increased in both TIB groups, suggesting an improvement in fear-based learning. We also observed decreased ChAT content in the group treated with the 0.01 mg/kg TIB dose. In the case of TPH, no changes were observed with either TIB dose. These results show that long-term TIB administration improves memory without affecting locomotor activity and modulates cholinergic but not serotonergic systems in the hippocampus of aged male mice.

Stress-related cellular pathophysiology as a crosstalk risk factor for neurocognitive and psychiatric disorders

In this narrative review, we examine biological processes linking psychological stress and cognition, with a focus on how psychological stress can activate multiple neurobiological mechanisms that drive cognitive decline and behavioral change. First, we describe the general neurobiology of the stress response to define neurocognitive stress reactivity. Second, we review aspects of epigenetic regulation, synaptic transmission, sex hormones, photoperiodic plasticity, and psychoneuroimmunological processes that can contribute to cognitive decline and neuropsychiatric conditions. Third, we explain mechanistic processes linking the stress response and neuropathology. Fourth, we discuss molecular nuances such as an interplay between kinases and proteins, as well as differential role of sex hormones, that can increase vulnerability to cognitive and emotional dysregulation following stress. Finally, we explicate several testable hypotheses for stress, neurocognitive, and neuropsychiatric research. Together, this work highlights how stress processes alter neurophysiology on multiple levels to increase individuals' risk for neurocognitive and psychiatric disorders, and points toward novel therapeutic targets for mitigating these effects. The resulting models can thus advance dementia and mental health research, and translational neuroscience, with an eye toward clinical application in cognitive and behavioral neurology, and psychiatry.

Regulation of sex differences in risk-based decision making by gonadal hormones: Insights from rodent models

Men and women differ in their ability to evaluate options that vary in their rewards and the risks that are associated with these outcomes. Most studies have shown that women are more risk averse than men and that gonadal hormones significantly contribute to this sex difference. Gonadal hormones can influence risk-based decision making (i.e., risk taking) by modulating the neurobiological substrates underlying this cognitive process. Indeed, estradiol, progesterone and testosterone modulate activity in the prefrontal cortex, amygdala and nucleus accumbens associated with reward and risk-related information. The use of animal models of decision making has advanced our understanding of the intersection between the behavioral, neural and hormonal mechanisms underlying sex differences in risk taking. This review will outline the current state of this literature, identify the current gaps in knowledge and suggest the neurobiological mechanisms by which hormones regulate risky decision making. Collectively, this knowledge can be used to understand the potential consequences of significant hormonal changes, whether endogenously or exogenously induced, on risk-based decision making as well as the neuroendocrinological basis of neuropsychiatric diseases that are characterized by impaired risk taking, such as substance use disorder and schizophrenia.

Hypothalamic cellular and molecular plasticity linked to sexual experience in male rats and mice

Male sexual behavior is subject to learning, resulting in increased efficiency of experienced males compared to naive ones. The improvement in behavioral parameters is underpinned by cellular and molecular changes in the neural circuit controlling sexual behavior, particularly in the hypothalamic medial preoptic area. This review provides an update on the mechanisms related to the sexual experience in male rodents, emphasizing the differences between rats and mice.

Regulation of risky decision making by gonadal hormones in males and females

Psychiatric diseases characterized by dysregulated risky decision making are differentially represented in males and females. The factors that govern such sex differences, however, remain poorly understood. Using a task in which rats make discrete trial choices between a small, "safe" food reward and a large food reward accompanied by varying probabilities of footshock punishment, we recently showed that females are more risk averse than males. The objective of the current experiments was to test the extent to which these sex differences in risky decision making are mediated by gonadal hormones. Male and female rats were trained in the risky decision-making task, followed by ovariectomy (OVX), orchiectomy (ORX), or sham surgery. Rats were then retested in the task, under both baseline conditions and following administration of estradiol and/or testosterone. OVX increased choice of the large, risky reward (increased risky choice), an effect that was attenuated by estradiol administration. In contrast, ORX decreased risky choice, but testosterone administration was without effect in either ORX or sham males. Estradiol, however, decreased risky choice in both groups of males. Importantly, none of the effects of hormonal manipulation on risky choice were due to altered shock sensitivity or food motivation. These data show that gonadal hormones are required for maintaining sex-typical profiles of risk-taking behavior in both males and females, and that estradiol is sufficient to promote risk aversion in both sexes. The findings provide novel information about the mechanisms supporting sex differences in risk taking and may prove useful in understanding sex differences in the prevalence of psychiatric diseases associated with altered risk taking.

Hormonal regulation of circuit function: sex, systems and depression

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a debilitating chronic illness that is two times more prevalent in women than in men. The mechanisms associated with the increased female susceptibility to depression remain poorly characterized. Aberrant neuronal oscillatory activity within the putative depression network is an emerging mechanism underlying MDD. However, innate sex differences in network activity and its contribution to depression vulnerability have not been well described. In this review, current evidence of sex differences in neuronal oscillatory activity, including the influence of sex hormones and female cycling, will first be described followed by evidence of disrupted neuronal circuit function in MDD and the effects of antidepressant treatment. Lastly, current knowledge of sex differences in MDD-associated aberrant circuit function and oscillatory activity will be highlighted, with an emphasis on the role of sex steroids and female cycling. Collectively, it is clear that there are significant gaps in the literature regarding innate and pathologically associated sex differences in network activity and that the elucidation of these differences is invaluable to our understanding of sex-specific vulnerabilities and therapies for MDD.

Differential impacts on multiple forms of spatial and contextual memory in diazepam binding inhibitor knockout mice

Learning and memory are fundamental processes that are disrupted in many neurological disorders including Alzheimer's disease and epilepsy. The hippocampus plays an integral role in these functions, and modulation of synaptic transmission mediated by γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) type-A receptors (GABA_A Rs) impacts hippocampus-dependent learning and memory. The protein diazepam binding inhibitor (DBI) differentially modulates GABA_A Rs in various brain regions, including hippocampus, and changes in DBI levels may be linked to altered learning and memory. The effects of genetic loss of DBI signaling on these processes, however, have not been determined. In these studies, we examined male and female constitutive DBI knockout mice and wild-type littermates to investigate the role of DBI signaling in modulating multiple forms of hippocampus-dependent spatial learning and memory. DBI knockout mice did not show impaired discrimination of objects in familiar and novel locations in an object location memory test, but did exhibit reduced time spent exploring the objects. Multiple parameters of Barnes maze performance, testing the capability to utilize spatial reference cues, were disrupted in DBI knockout mice. Furthermore, whereas most wild-type mice adopted a direct search strategy upon learning the location of the target hole, knockout mice showed higher rates of using an inefficient random strategy. In addition, DBI knockout mice displayed typical levels of contextual fear conditioning, but lacked a sex difference observed in wild-type mice. Together, these data suggest that DBI selectively influences certain forms of spatial learning and memory, indicating novel roles for DBI signaling in modulating hippocampus-dependent behavior in a task-specific manner.

Androgen receptor is a negative regulator of contextual fear memory in male mice

Although sex-hormones have a well-documented role in memory formation, most literature has focused on estrogens, whereas the role of androgens and their receptor (the androgen receptor; AR) in fear memory is relatively unexplored. To address this gap, we used a transgenic mouse model of AR overexpression (CMV-AR) to determine if AR regulates fear memory, and if this effect can be reversed either by the removal of circulating androgens via gonadectomy, or by antagonising AR activity with flutamide. We found that AR overexpression results in reduced freezing in response to foot shock, and that this difference is reversed with both gonadectomy and flutamide treatment. Differences between genotypes were reinstated by testosterone replacement in gonadectomized mice, suggesting that reduced fear memory in mutants results from AR activation by testosterone and is not secondary to group differences in circulating testosterone. Potential transcriptional mechanisms by which CMV-AR exerts its effects on fear memory were assessed by quantitating the expression of memory-related genes in area CA1 of the hippocampus. Several genes that are altered with AR inhibition and activation, including genes that encode for the histone variant H2A.Z, cholinergic receptors, glutamate receptors, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor. Overall, our findings suggest that AR is a negative regulator of fear memory and identify potential gene targets through which AR may mediate this effect.

Prenatal Exposure to DEHP Induces Neuronal Degeneration and Neurobehavioral Abnormalities in Adult Male Mice

Phthalates are a family of synthetic chemicals that are used in producing a variety of consumer products. Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is an widely used phthalate and poses a public health concern. Prenatal exposure to DEHP has been shown to induce premature reproductive senescence in animal studies. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that prenatal exposure to DEHP impairs neurobehavior and recognition memory in her male offspring and we investigated one possible mechanism-oxidative damage in the hippocampus. Pregnant CD-1 female mice were orally administered 200 μg, 500 mg, or 750 mg/kg/day DEHP or vehicle from gestational day 11 until birth. The neurobehavioral impact of the prenatal DEHP exposure was assessed at the ages of 16-22 months. Elevated plus maze and open field tests were used to measure anxiety levels. Y-maze and novel object recognition tests were employed to measure memory function. The oxidative damage in the hippocampus was measured by the levels of oxidative DNA damage and by Spatial light interference microscopic counting of hippocampal neurons. Adult male mice that were prenatally exposed to DEHP exhibited anxious behaviors and impaired spatial and short-term recognition memory. The number of hippocampal pyramidal neurons was significantly decreased in the DEHP mice. Furthermore, DEHP mice expressed remarkably high levels of cyclooxygenase-2, 8-hydroxyguanine, and thymidine glycol in their hippocampal neurons. DEHP mice also had lower circulating testosterone concentrations and displayed a weaker immunoreactivity than the control mice to androgen receptor expression in the brain. This study found that prenatal exposure to DEHP caused elevated anxiety behavior and impaired recognition memory. These behavioral changes may originate from neurodegeneration caused by oxidative damage and inflammation in the hippocampus. Decreased circulating testosterone concentrations and decreased expression of androgen receptor in the brain also may be factors contributing to the impaired neurobehavior in the DEHP mice.

Cognitive Impacts of Estrogen Treatment in Androgen-Deprived Males: What Needs to be Resolved

Background:

Many prostate cancer (PCa) patients are on androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) as part of their cancer treatments but ADT may lead to cognitive impairments. ADT depletes men of both androgen and estrogen. Whether estradiol supplementation can improve cognitive impairments in patients on ADT is understudied.

Objective:

To summarize data on the effects of estradiol treatment on cognitive function of androgen-deprived genetic male populations (PCa patients and male-to-female transsexuals) and castrated male animals.

Method:

Publications were identified by a literature search on PubMed and Google Scholar.

Results:

While some studies showed that estradiol improves cognitive function (most notably, spatial ability) for castrated rats, what remains uninvestigated are: 1) whether estradiol can improve cognition after long-term androgen deprivation, 2) how estradiol affects memory retention, and 3) how early vs. delayed estradiol treatment after castration influences cognition. For androgen-deprived genetic males, estradiol treatment may improve some cognitive functions (e.g., verbal and visual memory), but the findings are not consistent due to large variability in the study design between studies.

Conclusion:

Future studies are required to determine the best estradiol treatment protocol to maximize cognitive benefits for androgen-deprived genetic males. Tests that assess comparable cognitive domains in human and rodents are needed. What particularly under-investigated is how the effects of estradiol on cognitive ability intersect with other parameters; sleep, depression and physical fatigue. Such studies have clinical implications to improve the quality of life for both PCa patients on ADT as well as for male-to-female transsexuals.

Effects of testosterone dose on spatial memory among castrated adult male rats

Previous research on the activational effects of testosterone on spatial memory has produced mixed results, possibly because such effects are dose-dependent. We tested a wide range of testosterone doses using two spatial memory tasks: a working-reference memory version of the radial-arm maze (RAM) and an object location memory task (OLMT). Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were castrated or sham-castrated and given daily injections of drug vehicle (Oil Sham and Oil GDX) or one of four doses of testosterone propionate (0.125, 0.250, 0.500, and 1.000 mg T) beginning seven days before the first day of behavioral tests and continuing throughout testing. For the RAM, four arms of the maze were consistently baited on each day of testing. Testosterone had a significant effect on working memory on the RAM, with the Oil Sham, 0.125 mg T, and 0.500 mg T groups performing better than the Oil GDX group. In contrast, there was no significant effect of testosterone on spatial reference memory on the RAM. For the OLMT, we tested long-term memory using a 2 h inter-trial interval between first exposure to two identical objects and re-exposure after one object had been moved. Only the 0.125 and 0.500 mg T groups showed a significant increase in exploration of the moved object during the testing trials, indicating better memory than all other groups. Testosterone replacement restored spatial memory among castrated male rats on both behavioral tasks, but there was a complex dose-response relationship; therefore, the therapeutic value of testosterone is likely sensitive to dose.

No effect of testosterone on behavior in aged Wistar rats

In men, aging is accompanied by a gradual decline in androgen secretion. Studies suggest beneficial effects of endogenous and exogenous testosterone on affective behavior and cognitive functions. The aim of this study was to describe behavioral and cognitive sex differences and to analyze the effects of long-term androgen deficiency in aged male rats. Thirty-months old rats divided into three groups (males, females and males gonadectomized as young adults) underwent a battery of behavioral tests assessing locomotor activity, anxiety, memory, anhedonia, sociability and depression-like behavior. No major effect of gonadectomy was found in any of the analyzed behavioral measures in male rats. The only consistent sex difference was confirmed in depression-like behavior with longer immobility time observed in males. In an interventional experiment, a single dose of testosterone had no effect on gonadectomized male and female rats in the forced swim test. In contrast to previous studies this comprehensive behavioral phenotyping of aged rats revealed no major role of endogenous testosterone. Based on our results long-term hypogonadism does not alter the behavior of aged male rats, neither does acute testosterone treatment. Whether these findings have any consequences on androgen replacement therapy in aged men remains to be elucidated.

The Effect of Luteinizing Hormone Reducing Agent on Anxiety and Novel Object Recognition Memory in Gonadectomized Rats

INTRODUCTION

Mood disorders such as anxiety and depression are common following menopause and andropause. Lack of sex steroid hormones is suggested as the primary cause of these disturbances. The level of luteinizing hormone (LH) would also rise 3-4 times than normal in these people. The potential effects of LH on mood and cognitive symptoms following menopause and andropause are still unknown. This study aimed to investigate the effect of increased LH on novel object discrimination (NOD) memory and anxiety like behavior in gonadectomized rats.

METHODS

Four-month-old male and female Wistar rats were randomly assigned into 4 groups (in each sex): control rats (Cont), gonadectomized without treatment (GnX), gonadectomized treated with triptorelin, a GnRH agonist which reduces LH release eventually, (GnX+Tr), gonadectomized treated with triptorelin plus sex steroid hormone, estradiol in female and testosterone in male rats (GnX+Tr+S/T). After 4 weeks treatment, anxiety score (elevated plus maze) and NOD were measured. Data were analyzed using One-way ANOVA, and P-values less than 0.05 were considered as significant.

RESULTS

Gonadectomy increased anxiety like behaviors (decrease of presence time in the open arms) in female rats (P=0.012), but not in male ones (P=0.662). Additionally, triptorelin alone reduced the increased anxiety score in gonadectomized female rats, compared to group treated with both triptorelin and estradiol. Furthermore, it was shown that gonadectomy and or treatment with triptorelin and sex steroids had no significant effect on novel object recognition memory in both female (P=0.472) and male rats (P=0.798).

CONCLUSION

Findings of this study revealed that increased level of LH following menopause or andropause should be considered as a possible cause for increased anxiety. Also, this study showed that LH reducing agents would reduce anxiety like behavior in gonadectomized female rats. The effect of increased LH on cognitive functions such as novel object recognition memory was not evident in this study and needs further studies.

Competition, testosterone, and adult neurobehavioral plasticity

Motivation in performance is often measured via competitions. Winning a competition has been found to increase the motivation to perform in subsequent competitions. One potential neurobiological mechanism that regulates the motivation to compete involves sex hormones, such as the steroids testosterone and estradiol. A wealth of studies in both nonhuman animals and humans have shown that a rise in testosterone levels before and after winning a competition enhances the motivation to compete. There is strong evidence for acute behavioral effects in response to steroid hormones. Intriguingly, a substantial testosterone surge following a win also appears to improve an individual's performance in later contests resulting in a higher probability of winning again. These effects may occur via androgen and estrogen pathways modulating dopaminergic regions, thereby behavior on longer timescales. Hormones thus not only regulate and control social behavior but are also key to adult neurobehavioral plasticity. Here, we present literature showing hormone-driven behavioral effects that persist for extended periods of time beyond acute effects of the hormone, highlighting a fundamental role of sex steroid hormones in adult neuroplasticity. We provide an overview of the relationship between testosterone, motivation measured from objective effort, and their influence in enhancing subsequent effort in competitions. Implications for an important role of testosterone in enabling neuroplasticity to improve performance will be discussed.

Gonadectomy reduces the density of androgen receptor-immunoreactive neurons in male rat's hippocampus: testosterone replacement compensates it

BACKGROUND

In the present study, the role of gonadectomy on memory impairment and the density of androgen receptor-immunoreactive neurons in rats' hippocampus as well as the ability of testosterone to compensate of memory and the density of androgen receptors in the hippocampus was evaluated.

METHODS

Adult male rats (except intact-no testosterone group) were bilaterally castrated, and behavioral tests performed 2 weeks later. Animals bilaterally cannulated into lateral ventricles and then received testosterone (10, 40 and 120 µg/0.5 µl DMSO) or vehicle (DMSO; 0.5 µl) for gonadectomized-vehicle group, 30 min before training in water maze test. The androgen receptor-immunoreactive neurons were detected by immunohistochemical technique in the hippocampal areas.

RESULTS

In the gonadectomized male rats, a memory deficit was found in Morris water maze test on test day (5th day) after DMSO administration. Gonadectomy decreased density of androgen receptor-immunoreactive neurons in the rats' hippocampus. The treatment with testosterone daily for 5 days attenuated memory deficits induced by gonadectomy. Testosterone also significantly increased the density of androgen receptor-immunoreactive neurons in the hippocampal areas. The intermediate dose of this hormone (40 µg) appeared to have a significant effect on spatial memory and the density of androgen receptor-immunoreactive neurons in gonadectomized rats' hippocampus.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study suggests that testosterone can compensate memory failure in gonadectomized rats. Also testosterone replacement can compensate the reduction of androgen receptor-immunoreactive neurons density in the rats' hippocampus after gonadectomy.

Neo-synthesis of estrogenic or androgenic neurosteroids determine whether long-term potentiation or depression is induced in hippocampus of male rat

Estrogenic and androgenic steroids synthesized in the brain may rapidly modulate synaptic plasticity interacting with specific membrane receptors. We explored by electrophysiological recordings in hippocampal slices of male rat the influence of 17β-estradiol (E2) and 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT) neo-synthesis on the synaptic changes induced in the CA1 region. Induction of long-term depression (LTD) and depotentiation (DP) by low frequency stimulation (LFS, 15 min-1 Hz) and of long-term potentiation (LTP) by high frequency stimulation (HFS, 1 s-100 Hz), medium (MFS, 1 s-50 Hz), or weak (WFS, 1 s-25 Hz) frequency stimulation was assayed under inhibitors of enzymes converting testosterone (T) into DHT (5α-reductase) and T into E2 (P450-aromatase). We found that LFS-LTD depends on DHT synthesis, since it was fully prevented under finasteride, an inhibitor of DHT synthesis, and rescued by exogenous DHT, while the E2 synthesis was not involved. Conversely, the full development of HFS-LTP requires the synthesis of E2, as demonstrated by the LTP reduction observed under letrozole, an inhibitor of E2 synthesis, and its full rescue by exogenous E2. For intermediate stimulation protocols DHT, but not E2 synthesis, was involved in the production of a small LTP induced by WFS, while the E2 synthesis was required for the MFS-dependent LTP. Under the combined block of DHT and E2 synthesis all stimulation frequencies induced partial LTP. Overall, these results indicate that DHT is required for converting the partial LTP into LTD whereas E2 is needed for the full expression of LTP, evidencing a key role of the neo-synthesis of sex neurosteroids in determining the direction of synaptic long-term effects.

Pharmacological blockade of the aromatase enzyme, but not the androgen receptor, reverses androstenedione-induced cognitive impairments in young surgically menopausal rats

Androstenedione, the main circulating ovarian hormone present after menopause, has been shown to positively correlate with poor spatial memory in an ovary-intact rodent model of follicular depletion, and to impair spatial memory when administered exogenously to surgically menopausal ovariectomized rats. Androstenedione can be converted directly to estrone via the aromatase enzyme, or to testosterone. The current study investigated the hormonal mechanism underlying androstenedione-induced cognitive impairments. Young adult ovariectomized rats were given either androstenedione, androstenedione plus the aromatase inhibitor anastrozole to block conversion to estrone, androstenedione plus the androgen receptor blocker flutamide to block androgen receptor activity, or vehicle treatment, and were then administered a battery of learning and memory maze tasks. Since we have previously shown that estrone administration to ovariectomized rats impaired cognition, we hypothesized that androstenedione's conversion to estrone underlies, in part, its negative cognitive impact. Here, androstenedione administration impaired spatial reference and working memory. Further, androstenedione did not induce memory deficits when co-administered with the aromatase inhibitor, anastrozole, whereas pharmacological blockade of the androgen receptor failed to block the cognitive impairing effects of androstenedione. Anastrozole alone did not impact performance on any cognitive measure. The current data support the tenet that androstenedione impairs memory through its conversion to estrone, rather than via actions on the androgen receptor. Studying the effects of aromatase and estrogen metabolism is critical to elucidating how hormones impact women's health across the lifespan, and results hold important implications for understanding and optimizing the hormone milieu from the many endogenous and exogenous hormone exposures across the lifetime.

Dehydroepiandrosterone: a neuroactive steroid

Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and its sulfate bound form (DHEAS) are important steroids of mainly adrenal origin. They are produced also in gonads and in the brain. Dehydroepiandrosterone easily crosses the brain-blood barrier and in part is also produced locally in the brain tissue. In the brain, DHEA exerts its effects after conversion to either testosterone and dihydrotestosterone or estradiol via androgen and estrogen receptors present in the most parts of the human brain, through mainly non-genomic mechanisms, or eventually indirectly via the effects of its metabolites formed locally in the brain. As a neuroactive hormone, DHEA in co-operation with other hormones and transmitters significantly affects some aspects of human mood, and modifies some features of human emotions and behavior. It has been reported that its administration can increase feelings of well-being and is useful in ameliorating atypical depressive disorders. It has neuroprotective and antiglucocorticoid activity and modifies immune reactions, and some authors have also reported its role in degenerative brain diseases. Here we present a short overview of the possible actions of dehydroepiandrosterone and its sulfate in the brain, calling attention to various mechanisms of their action as neurosteroids and to prospects for the knowledge of their role in brain disorders.

3α-diol administration decreases hippocampal PKA (II) mRNA expression and impairs Morris water maze performance in adult male rats

The effect of testosterone and its metabolites on learning and memory has been the subject of many studies. This study used the Morris water maze task to investigate the effect of intra-hippocampal injection of 3α-diol (one of the metabolites of testosterone) on acquisition stage of spatial memory in adult male rats. During the experiment we observed that 3α-diol, significantly impaired Morris water maze performance in treated rat's compared with controls. Because signaling event mediated by protein kinase A (PKA) especially PKA (II) are critical for many neuronal functions such as learning and memory, the hippocampus was analyzed for mRNA expression of PKA (II) using TaqMan real time RT-PCR. The results indicated that the transcription levels of PKA (II) were significantly decreased in animals treated with 3α-diol compared with controls. Thus, the findings suggest that administration of 3α-diol in hippocampus of adult male rats impairs memory function, possibly via down-regulation of PKA.

Reconceptualizing sex, brain and psychopathology: interaction, interaction, interaction

In recent years there has been a growing recognition of the influence of sex on brain structure and function, and in relation, on the susceptibility, prevalence and response to treatment of psychiatric disorders. Most theories and descriptions of the effects of sex on the brain are dominated by an analogy to the current interpretation of the effects of sex on the reproductive system, according to which sex is a divergence system that exerts a unitary, overriding and serial effect on the form of other systems. We shortly summarize different lines of evidence that contradict aspects of this analogy. The new view that emerges from these data is of sex as a complex system whose different components interact with one another and with other systems to affect body and brain. The paradigm shift that this understanding calls for is from thinking of sex in terms of sexual dimorphism and sex differences, to thinking of sex in terms of its interactions with other factors and processes. Our review of data obtained from animal models of psychopathology clearly reveals the need for such a paradigmatic shift, because in the field of animal behaviour whether a sex difference exists and its direction depend on the interaction of many factors including, species, strain, age, specific test employed and a multitude of environmental factors. We conclude by explaining how the new conceptualization can account for sex differences in psychopathology.

The effect of opiodergic system and testosterone on anxiety behavior in gonadectomized rats

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Removal of the testes (gonadectomy; GDX), the primary source of androgens, increases anxiety behavior in several tasks. Opioids are known to play a role in mediating the effects of androgen. In the present study, the effect of testosterone and opioidergic system on anxiety behavior was investigated.

METHODS

Adult male Wistar rats were bilaterally castrated. The elevated plus maze which is a useful test to investigate the effects of anxiogenic or anxiolytic drugs in rodents was used.

RESULTS

The data indicated that there is a decrease, 10 days after castration, in the percentage of OAT (the ratio of time spent in the open arms to total times spent in any arms × 100) and OAE (the ratio of entries into open arms to total entries × 100) but not locomotor activity, showing anxiogenic-like effects of gonadectomy. Intraperitoneal injection of testosterone (200, 300 and 450 mg/kg) and morphine (2.5, 5 and 7.5mg/kg), before testing 10 days after castration, showed an increase in OAT and OAE. Furthermore, injection of naloxone (5 and 7.5mg/kg, i.p.), 5 min before testing 10 days after castration, decreased OAT and OAE. Also, injection of a significant dose of testosterone (300 mg/kg, i.p.), 1h before the injection of different doses of morphine (1, 2.5, 5 and 7.5mg/kg, i.p.), 10 days after castration, did not significantly alter OAT, OAE and locomotor activity. While, administration of a significant dose of testosterone (300 mg/kg, i.p.), 1h before the infusion of different doses of naloxone (1, 2.5, 5 and 7.5mg/kg, i.p.), 10 days after castration, decreased OAT and OAE.

CONCLUSION

The results show the involvement of testosterone and opioidergic system in anxiogenic-like behaviors induced by gonadectomy.

Interaction of APOE genotype and testosterone on episodic memory in middle-aged men

Age-related changes in testosterone are believed to be a key component of the processes that contribute to cognitive aging in men. The APOE-ε4 allele may interact with testosterone and moderate the hormone's association with cognition. The goals of the present study were to examine the degree to which free testosterone is associated with episodic memory in a community-based sample of middle-aged men, and examine the potential interaction between free testosterone and the APOE-ε4 allele. Data were used from 717 participants in the Vietnam Era Twin Study of Aging. Average age was 55.4 years (standard deviation = 2.5). Significant positive associations were observed between free testosterone level and verbal episodic memory, as well as a significant interaction between free testosterone and APOE-ε4 status. In ε4 carriers free testosterone was positively associated with verbal episodic memory performance (story recall), whereas no association was observed in ε4 noncarriers. Results support the hypothesis that APOE-ε4 status increases susceptibility to other risk factors, such as low testosterone, which may ultimately contribute to cognitive decline or dementia.

Denial or receipt of expected reward through maternal contact during the neonatal period differentially affect the development of the rat amygdala and program its function in adulthood in a sex-dimorphic way

Early experiences affect brain development and thus adult brain function and behavior. We employed a novel early experience model involving denial (DER) or receipt of expected reward (RER) through maternal contact in a T-maze. Exposure to the DER experience for the first time, on postnatal day 10 (PND10), was stressful for the pups, as assessed by increased corticosterone levels, and was accompanied by enhanced activation of the amygdala, as assessed by c-Fos immunohistochemistry. Re-exposure to the same experience on days 11-13 led to adaptation. Corticosterone levels of the RER pups did not differ on the first and last days of training (PND10 and 13 respectively), while on PND11 and 12 they were lower than those of the CTR. The RER experience did not lead to activation of the amygdala. Males and females exposed as neonates to the DER or RER experience, and controls were tested as adults in the open field task (OF), the elevated plus maze (EPM), and cued and contextual fear conditioning (FC). No group differences were found in the EPM, while in the OF, both male and female DER animals, showed increased rearings, compared to the controls. In the FC, the RER males had increased memory for both context and cued conditioned fear, than either the DER or CTR. On the other hand, the DER males, but not females showed an increased activation, as assessed by c-Fos expression, of the amygdala following fear conditioning. Our results show that the DER early experience programmed the function of the adult amygdala as to render it more sensitive to fearful stimuli. This programming by the DER early experience could be mediated through epigenetic modifications of histones leading to chromatin opening, as indicated by our results showing increased levels of phospho-acetyl-histone-3 in the amygdala of the DER males.

Sex-specific effect of the anabolic steroid, 17α-methyltestosterone, on inhibitory avoidance learning in periadolescent rats

The illicit use of anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) has gained popularity among adolescents in the last decade. However, although it is known that exposure to AAS impairs cognition in adult animal models, the cognitive effects during adolescence remain undetermined. An inhibitory avoidance task (IAT) was used to assess the effect of AAS (17α-methyltestosterone; 17α-meT--7.5 mg/kg) in male and female periadolescent rats. A single injection of 17α-meT immediately before the footshock produced significant impairment of inhibitory avoidance learning in males but not females. Generalized anxiety, locomotion, and risk assessment behaviors (RAB) were not affected. Our results show that exposure to a single pharmacological dose of 17α-meT during periadolescence exerts sex-specific cognitive effects without affecting anxiety. Thus, disruption of the hormonal milieu during this early developmental period might have negative impact on learning and memory.

Sex dependent influence of a functional polymorphism in steroid 5-α-reductase type 2 (SRD5A2) on post-traumatic stress symptoms

A non-synonymous, single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in the gene coding for steroid 5-α-reductase type 2 (SRD5A2) is associated with reduced conversion of testosterone to dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Because SRD5A2 participates in the regulation of testosterone and cortisol metabolism, hormones shown to be dysregulated in patients with PTSD, we examined whether the V89L variant (rs523349) influences risk for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Study participants (N = 1,443) were traumatized African-American patients of low socioeconomic status with high rates of lifetime trauma exposure recruited from the primary care clinics of a large, urban hospital. PTSD symptoms were measured with the post-traumatic stress symptom scale (PSS). Subjects were genotyped for the V89L variant (rs523349) of SRD5A2. We initially found a significant sex-dependent effect of genotype in male but not female subjects on symptoms. Associations with PTSD symptoms were confirmed using a separate internal replication sample with identical methods of data analysis, followed by pooled analysis of the combined samples (N = 1,443, sex × genotype interaction P < 0.002; males: n = 536, P < 0.001). These data support the hypothesis that functional variation within SRD5A2 influences, in a sex-specific way, the severity of post-traumatic stress symptoms and risk for diagnosis of PTSD.

Testosterone depletion in adult male rats increases mossy fiber transmission, LTP, and sprouting in area CA3 of hippocampus

Androgens have dramatic effects on neuronal structure and function in hippocampus. However, androgen depletion does not always lead to hippocampal impairment. To address this apparent paradox, we evaluated the hippocampus of adult male rats after gonadectomy (Gdx) or sham surgery. Surprisingly, Gdx rats showed increased synaptic transmission and long-term potentiation of the mossy fiber (MF) pathway. Gdx rats also exhibited increased excitability and MF sprouting. We then addressed the possible underlying mechanisms and found that Gdx induced a long-lasting upregulation of MF BDNF immunoreactivity. Antagonism of Trk receptors, which bind neurotrophins, such as BDNF, reversed the increase in MF transmission, excitability, and long-term potentiation in Gdx rats, but there were no effects of Trk antagonism in sham controls. To determine which androgens were responsible, the effects of testosterone metabolites DHT and 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol were examined. Exposure of slices to 50 nm DHT decreased the effects of Gdx on MF transmission, but 50 nm 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol had no effect. Remarkably, there was no effect of DHT in control males. The data suggest that a Trk- and androgen receptor-sensitive form of MF transmission and synaptic plasticity emerges after Gdx. We suggest that androgens may normally be important in area CA3 to prevent hyperexcitability and aberrant axon outgrowth but limit MF synaptic transmission and some forms of plasticity. The results also suggest a potential explanation for the maintenance of hippocampal-dependent cognitive function after androgen depletion: a reduction in androgens may lead to compensatory upregulation of MF transmission and plasticity.

High serum androstenedione levels correlate with impaired memory in the surgically menopausal rat: a replication and new findings

After natural menopause in women, androstenedione becomes the primary hormone secreted by the residual follicle-depleted ovaries. In two independent studies, in rodents that had undergone ovarian follicular depletion, we found that higher endogenous serum androstenedione levels correlated with increased working memory errors. This led to the hypothesis that higher androstenedione levels impair memory. The current study directly tested this hypothesis, examining the cognitive effects of exogenous androstenedione administration in rodents. Middle-aged ovariectomised rats received vehicle or one of two doses of androstenedione. Rats were tested on a spatial working and reference memory maze battery including the water-radial arm maze, Morris water maze (MM) and delay match-to-sample task. Androstenedione at the highest dose impaired reference memory as well as the ability to maintain performance as memory demand was elevated. This was true for both high temporal demand memory retention of one item of spatial information, as well as the ability to handle multiple items of spatial working memory information. We measured glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) protein in multiple brain regions to determine whether the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) system relates to androstenedione-induced memory impairments. Results showed that higher entorhinal cortex GAD levels were correlated with worse MM performance, irrespective of androstenedione treatment. These findings suggest that androstenedione, the main hormone produced by the follicle-depleted ovary, is detrimental to working memory, reference memory and memory retention. Furthermore, while spatial reference memory performance might be related to the GABAergic system, it does not appear to be altered with androstenedione administration, at least at the doses used in the current study.

Dissociating behavioral, autonomic, and neuroendocrine effects of androgen steroids in animal models

Developments in behavioral assessment, autonomic and/or baseline reactivity, psychopharmacology, and genetics, have contributed significantly to the assessment of performance-enhancing drugs in animal models. Particular classes of steroid hormones: androgenic steroids are of interest. Anecdotally, the performance enhancing effects of androgens are attributed to anabolic events. However, there is a discrepancy between anecdotal evidence and investigative data. While some androgen steroids may promote muscle growth (myogenesis), effects of androgens on performance enhancement are not always seen. Indeed, some effects of androgens on performance may be attributable to their psychological and cardiovascular effects. As such, we consider androgen effects in terms of their behavioral, autonomic, and neuroendocrine components. Techniques are discussed in this chapter, some of which are well established, while others have been more recently developed to study androgen action. Androgens may be considered for their positive impact, negative consequence, or psychotropic properties. Thus, this review aims to elucidate some of the effects and/or mechanisms of androgens on behavioral, autonomic, and/or neuroendocrine assessment that may underlie their controversial performance enhancing effects.

Photoperiod alters fear responses and basolateral amygdala neuronal spine density in white-footed mice (Peromyscus leucopus)

Photoperiodism is a biological phenomenon in which environmental day length is monitored to ascertain time of year to engage in seasonally appropriate adaptations. This trait is common among organisms living outside of the tropics. White-footed mice (Peromyscus leucopus) are small photoperiodic rodents which display a suite of adaptive responses to short day lengths, including reduced hippocampal volume, impairments in hippocampal-mediated memory, and enhanced hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis reactivity. Because these photoperiodic changes in brain and behavior mirror some of the etiology of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), we hypothesized that photoperiod may also alter fear memory and neuronal morphology within the hippocampus-basolateral amygdala-prefrontal cortex fear circuit. Ten weeks of exposure to short days increased fear memory in an auditory-cued fear conditioning test. Short days also increased dendritic spine density of the neurons of the basolateral amygdala, without affecting morphology of pyramidal neurons within the infralimbic region of the medial prefrontal cortex. Taken together, photoperiodic phenotypic changes in brain morphology and physiology induced by a single environmental factor, exposure to short day lengths, affect responses to fearful stimuli in white-footed mice. These results have potential implications for understanding seasonal changes in fear responsiveness, as well as for expanding translational animal models for studying gene-environment interactions underlying psychiatric diseases, such as PTSD.

Role of gonadal hormones in anxiety and fear memory formation and inhibition in male mice

Recent research investigating Pavlovian fear conditioning and fear extinction has elucidated the neurocircuitry involved in acquisition and inhibition of fear responses. Modulatory factors that may underlie individual differences in fear acquisition and inhibition, however, are not well understood. Testosterone is known to affect anxiety-like behavior and cognitive processing. In this study, we hypothesized that castration would increase anxiety and reduce memory for contextual fear conditioning in an age-dependent manner. In addition, castration would reduce the rate of extinction to context, as high levels of testosterone correlate with reduced PTSD-like symptoms. We compared behaviors in male mice that were castrated at one of two different time points, either before puberty (at 4 weeks) or after puberty (at 10 weeks) to sham-operated control mice. The behaviors investigated included: anxiety, cued and contextual fear conditioning, and extinction of the fear memory. An interaction of hormone status and age and a significant effect of age were measured in the elevated plus maze, a measure of anxiety. Castration caused a significant reduction of contextual fear memory, but no effect on cued fear memory. There was no significant effect of castration on extinction. Interestingly, a significant effect of age of the mouse at the time of testing was observed on extinction. These results suggest that endogenous androgens during puberty are important for anxiety and fear memory formation. In addition, these results define a late post-adolescent developmental time point for changes in anxiety and fear extinction.

II. Cognitive performance of middle-aged female rats is influenced by capacity to metabolize progesterone in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus

Cognitive decline can occur with aging; however, some individuals experience less cognitive decline than do others. Secretion of ovarian hormones is reduced post-menopause and may contribute to cognitive function. The extent to which hormonal effects may be parsed out from other age-related factors to influence cognition is of interest. Middle-aged (12-month-old) female rats that were retired breeders were categorized as maintaining or declining reproductive function based upon their estrous cyclicity (regular 4-5 day cycles), fertility (> 60 % successful pregnancy), and fecundity (>10 pups/litter). Performance in object recognition, Y-maze, water maze, inhibitory avoidance, and contextual-cued fear conditioning was evaluated. Estradiol, progesterone (P(4)), dihydroprogesterone, and 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (3α,5α-THP) were assessed in medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and hippocampus; corticosterone was assessed in plasma. Rats maintaining reproductive function performed significantly better on the object recognition, Y-maze, water maze, inhibitory avoidance, and cued fear conditioning tasks than did rats with declining reproductive function. Steroid concentrations varied greatly within groups. Higher levels of P(4) in mPFC and hippocampus were associated with better Y-maze performance. In mPFC, higher levels of P(4) were associated with poorer inhibitory avoidance performance; greater levels of 3α,5α-THP were associated with better object memory. Neither estradiol nor corticosterone levels significantly contributed to cognitive performance. Thus, the capacity for cortico-limbic P(4) utilization may influence cognitive performance in aging.

Influence of testosterone on synaptic transmission in the rat medial vestibular nuclei: estrogenic and androgenic effects

In brainstem slices of young male rat, we investigated the influence of the neuroactive steroid testosterone (T) on the synaptic responses by analyzing the field potential evoked in the medial vestibular nucleus (MVN) by vestibular afferent stimulation. T induced three distinct and independent long-term synaptic changes: fast long-lasting potentiation (fLP), slow long-lasting potentiation (sLP) and long-lasting depression (LD). The fLP was mediated by 17β-estradiol (E(2)) since it was abolished by blocking the estrogen receptors (ERs) or the enzyme converting T to E(2). Conversely, sLP and LD were mediated by 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT) since they were prevented by blocking the androgen receptors (ARs) or the enzyme converting T to DHT. Therefore, the synaptic effects of T were mediated by its androgenic or estrogenic metabolites. The pathways leading to estrogenic and androgenic conversion of T might be co-localized since, the occurrence of fLP under block of androgenic pathway, and that of sLP and LD under estrogenic block, were higher than those observed without blocks. In case of co-localization, the effect on synaptic transmission should depend on the prevailing enzymatic activity. We conclude that circulating and neuronal T can remarkably influence synaptic responses of the vestibular neurons in different and opposite ways, depending on its conversion to estrogenic or androgenic metabolites.

3alpha-androstanediol, but not testosterone, attenuates age-related decrements in cognitive, anxiety, and depressive behavior of male rats

Some hippocampally-influenced affective and/or cognitive processes decline with aging. The role of androgens in this process is of interest. Testosterone (T) is aromatized to estrogen, and reduced to dihydrotestosterone (DHT), which is converted to 5α-androstane, 3α, 17α-diol (3α-diol). To determine the extent to which some age-related decline in hippocampally-influenced behaviors may be due to androgens, we examined the effects of variation in androgen levels due to age, gonadectomy, and androgen replacement on cognitive (inhibitory avoidance, Morris water maze) and affective (defensive freezing, forced swim) behavior among young (4 months), middle-aged (13 months), and aged (24 months) male rats. Plasma and hippocampal levels of androgens were determined. In experiment 1, comparisons were made between 4-, 13-, and 24-month-old rats that were intact or gonadectomized (GDX) and administered a T-filled or empty silastic capsule. There was age-related decline in performance of the inhibitory avoidance, water maze, defensive freezing, and forced swim tasks, and hippocampal 3α-diol levels. Chronic, long-term (1–4 weeks) T-replacement reversed the effects of GDX in 4- and 13-month-old, but not 24-month-old, rats in the inhibitory avoidance task. Experiments 2 and 3 assessed whether acute subcutaneous T or 3α-diol, respectively, could reverse age-associated decline in performance. 3α-diol, but not T, compared to vehicle, improved performance in the inhibitory avoidance, water maze, forced swim, and defensive freezing tasks, irrespective of age. Thus, age is associated with a decrease in 3α-diol production and 3α-diol administration reinstates cognitive and affective performance of aged male rats.

Males show stronger contextual fear conditioning than females after context pre-exposure

Estradiol affects the structure and function of the hippocampus. We have found that repeated estradiol affects neurogenesis and cell death in the hippocampus of adult female, but not male rats. In the present study we sought to determine whether using the same regimen of estradiol would influence hippocampus-dependent behaviour. Adult male and female rats were given estradiol or sesame oil for 15 days, and then tested using a contextual pre-exposure paradigm in which performance depends on the hippocampus. The time spent freezing displayed by rats was scored on subsequent days in (1) the training context, (2) a novel context in which rats had never been shocked, and (3) the training context a second time. Irrespective of treatment, males showed stronger memory for the context by exhibiting greater freezing in both the training context exposures and the novel context. Previous estradiol treatment, in either sex, did not affect the ability to learn and retain information about the training context. However, female rats treated with estradiol and exposed to a novel context after fear conditioning exhibited less freezing behaviour than controls. Taken together, our results demonstrate that gonadectomized male rats outperform females, regardless of previous treatment with estradiol, on a hippocampus-contextual fear conditioning test, and that previous estradiol treatment has a subtle effect on performance in female but not male rats.

Antiseizure effects of 3alpha-androstanediol and/or 17beta-estradiol may involve actions at estrogen receptor beta

Testosterone (T), the principal androgen secreted by the testes, can have antiseizure effects. Some of these effects may be mediated by T's metabolites. T is metabolized to 3alpha-androstanediol (3alpha-diol). T, but not 3alpha-diol, binds androgen receptor. We investigated effects of 3alpha-diol (1 mg/kg, SC) and/or an androgen receptor blocker (flutamide 10 mg, SC), 1 hour prior to administration of pentylenetetrazol (85 mg/kg, IP). Juvenile male rats administered 3alpha-diol had less seizure activity than those administered vehicle. Flutamide had no effects. T is aromatized to 17beta-estradiol (E(2)), which, like 3alpha-diol, acts at estrogen receptors (ERs). Selective estrogen receptor modulators that favor ERalpha (propyl pyrazole triol, 17alpha-E(2)) or ERbeta (diarylpropionitrile, coumestrol, 3alpha-diol), or both (17beta-E(2)), were administered (0.1 mg/kg, SC) to juvenile male rats 1 hour before pentylenetetrazol. Estrogens with activity at ERbeta, but not those selective for ERalpha, produced antiseizure effects. Actions at ERbeta may underlie some antiseizure effects of T's metabolites.

Chronic administration of androgens with actions at estrogen receptor beta have anti-anxiety and cognitive-enhancing effects in male rats

Androgen levels decline with aging. Some androgens may exert anti-anxiety and cognitive-enhancing effects; however, determining which androgens have anxiolytic-like and/or mnemonic effects is of interest given the different mechanisms that may underlie some of their effects. For example, the 5 alpha-reduced metabolite of testosterone (T), dihydrotesterone, can be further converted to 5 alpha-androstane,17beta-diol-3 alpha-diol (3 alpha-diol) and 5 alpha-androstane,17beta-diol-3beta-diol (3beta-diol), both of which bind with high affinity to the beta isomer of the intracellular estrogen receptor beta (ER beta). However, androsterone, another metabolite of T, does not bind well to ER beta. To investigate the effects of T metabolites, male rats were subjected to gonadectomy then implanted with silastic capsules of 3 alpha-diol, 3beta-diol, androsterone, or oil control. After recovery, the rats were tested in elevated plus maze (EPM), light/dark transition (LD), and Morris water maze (MWM). 3 alpha-diol both decreased anxiety-like behavior in the EPM and LD, and increased cognition in MWM, while 3beta-diol improved cognition in MWM, but had no effects on anxiety behavior, compared to vehicle or androsterone. These data suggest that the actions of 3 alpha-diol and 3beta-diol at ER beta may be responsible for some of testosterone's anti-anxiety and cognitive-enhancing effects.

Chronic administration of androgens with actions at estrogen receptor beta have anti-anxiety and cognitive-enhancing effects in male rats

Androgen levels decline with aging. Some androgens may exert anti-anxiety and cognitive-enhancing effects; however, determining which androgens have anxiolytic-like and/or mnemonic effects is of interest given the different mechanisms that may underlie some of their effects. For example, the 5 alpha-reduced metabolite of testosterone (T), dihydrotesterone, can be further converted to 5 alpha-androstane,17beta-diol-3 alpha-diol (3 alpha-diol) and 5 alpha-androstane,17beta-diol-3beta-diol (3beta-diol), both of which bind with high affinity to the beta isomer of the intracellular estrogen receptor beta (ER beta). However, androsterone, another metabolite of T, does not bind well to ER beta. To investigate the effects of T metabolites, male rats were subjected to gonadectomy then implanted with silastic capsules of 3 alpha-diol, 3beta-diol, androsterone, or oil control. After recovery, the rats were tested in elevated plus maze (EPM), light/dark transition (LD), and Morris water maze (MWM). 3 alpha-diol both decreased anxiety-like behavior in the EPM and LD, and increased cognition in MWM, while 3beta-diol improved cognition in MWM, but had no effects on anxiety behavior, compared to vehicle or androsterone. These data suggest that the actions of 3 alpha-diol and 3beta-diol at ER beta may be responsible for some of testosterone's anti-anxiety and cognitive-enhancing effects.

Progestogens and estrogen influence impulsive burying and avoidant freezing behavior of naturally cycling and ovariectomized rats

Steroid hormones, progesterone and estradiol, may influence approach and/or anxiety behavior. Female rats in behavioral estrous, have elevated levels of these steroid hormones and demonstrate more approach and less anxiety behavior than do diestrous rats. Ovariectomy obviates these cyclic variations and systemic progesterone and/or estrogen replacement can enhance approach and anti-anxiety behavior. However, the role of progesterone and/or estrogen in mediating impulsive, avoidant and/or fear behaviors requires further investigation. We hypothesized that if progesterone and/or estrogen influences impulsivity and/or fear then rats in behavioral estrous would demonstrate less impulsive behavior in a burying task and freezing behavior in a conditioned fear task than will diestrous rats. Ovariectomized rats administered progesterone and/or estrogen would show less impulsive burying and freezing behaviors than will vehicle-administered rats. Experiment 1: Naturally cycling rats were tested in marble burying or conditioned fear when they were in behavioral estrous or diestrous. Experiment 2: Ovariectomized rats were administered progesterone, estrogen or vehicle, then tested in marble burying or conditioned fear. Results of Experiment 1 show rats in behavioral estrous demonstrate less impulsive burying and less freezing behavior than diestrous rats. Results of Experiment 2 show administration of progesterone or both estrogen and progesterone decreases impulsive burying and each decrease freezing behavior compared to vehicle. Thus, progesterone and/or estrogen may mediate impulsive and/or avoidant behavior.

Androgens with activity at estrogen receptor beta have anxiolytic and cognitive-enhancing effects in male rats and mice

Testosterone (T) and its metabolites may underlie some beneficial effects for anxiety and cognition, but the mechanisms for these effects are unclear. T is reduced to dihydrotestosterone (DHT), which can be converted to 5alpha-androstane,3alpha,17beta-diol (3alpha-diol) and/or 5alpha-androstane-3beta,17beta-diol (3beta-diol). Additionally, T can be converted to androstenedione, and then to androsterone. These metabolites bind with varying affinity to androgen receptors (ARs; T and DHT), estrogen receptors (ERbeta; 3alpha-diol, 3beta-diol), or GABA(A)/benzodiazepine receptors (GBRs; 3alpha-diol, androsterone). Three experiments were performed to investigate the hypothesis that reduced anxiety-like and enhanced cognitive performance may be due in part to actions of T metabolites at ERbeta. Experiment 1: Gonadectomized (GDX) wildtype and ERbeta knockout mice (betaERKO) were subcutaneously (SC) administered 3alpha-diol, 3beta-diol, androsterone, or oil vehicle at weekly intervals, and tested in anxiety tasks (open field, elevated plus maze, light-dark transition) or for cognitive performance in the object recognition task. Experiment 2: GDX rats were administered SC 3alpha-diol, 3beta-diol, androsterone, or oil vehicle, and tested in the same tasks. Experiment 3: GDX rats were androsterone- or vehicle-primed and administered an antagonist of ARs (flutamide), ERs (tamoxifen), or GBRs (flumazenil), or vehicle and then tested in the elevated plus maze. Both rats and wildtype mice, but not betaERKO mice, consistently had reduced anxiety and improved performance in the object recognition task. Androsterone was only effective at reducing anxiety-like behavior in the elevated plus maze and this effect was modestly reduced by flumazenil administration. Thus, actions at ERbeta may be required for T's anxiety-reducing and cognitive-enhancing effects.

Region and sex differences in constituent dopamine neurons and immunoreactivity for intracellular estrogen and androgen receptors in mesocortical projections in rats

Many cortical and prefrontal functions show sex differences in their development, adult capacity, and dysfunction in disorders like schizophrenia. Correlations between circulating gonadal hormones and certain prefrontal functions have also been identified in humans and experimental animal models. Although multiple mechanisms may be involved, such hormone sensitivities/sex differences could be related to gonadal steroid actions on another regulator of cortical/prefrontal cortical function, the mesocortical dopamine system. Thus, although it is well known that perturbations in prefrontal dopamine signaling induce behavioral deficits, it is also known that several endpoints of these afferents are sensitive to gonadal steroids and/or are sexually dimorphic. This study explored possible substrates for this in two ways: by comparing the distributions of immunoreactivity for intracellular estrogen (alpha and beta) and androgen receptors among retrogradely labeled dopaminergic and nondopaminergic mesocortical neurons projecting to prefrontal, premotor, and primary motor cortices, areas in which male rat dopamine axons are differentially hormone-sensitive; and by comparing anatomical data in males and females. These analyses revealed region-, cell-, and sex-specific specializations in receptor localization that paralleled established patterns of mesocortical hormone sensitivity, including the androgen sensitivity of dopamine axons and dopamine-dependent functions in prefrontal cortex. It was also found that the proportions of dopamine neurons making up mesocortical projections were approximately 30% in males, whereas in females, significantly more constituent cells were dopaminergic. Together, these features may be part of the neurobiology giving mesocortical afferents their hormone sensitivities and/or sex differences in physiology, function, and dysfunction in disease.

Sex-specific effects of gonadectomy and hormone treatment on acquisition of a 12-arm radial maze task by Sprague Dawley rats

The effects of gonadectomy and hormone treatment on spatial learning were evaluated in adult male and female rats using a modified version of a 12-arm radial maze task. In this version, procedures were used to minimize the effectiveness of strategies less reliant on working and reference memory. Results demonstrate significant sex differences favoring male performance on the working memory component of the task. In contrast, females performed slightly better than males on the reference memory component of the task. In females, ovariectomy produced a decrease in overall accuracy (i.e. an increase in the number of arm entries necessary to obtain all food pellets) as well as declines in working and reference memory performance. Both accuracy and working memory performance, but not reference memory performance, were restored by estradiol treatment. In males, castration impaired working memory performance but did not significantly affect overall accuracy or reference memory performance. Surprisingly, all groups of males performed poorly on the reference memory component of the task, and testosterone treatment appeared to worsen, rather than improve, both accuracy and reference memory performance in males. This may reflect a male preference for certain strategies that were rendered ineffective on this task. Significant sex differences, as well as treatment effects, on arm preference patterns were also detected; however, these differences were not sufficient to account for the effects of sex and treatment on acquisition. Collectively, the data demonstrate robust effects of gonadectomy and hormone treatment on acquisition of this modified radial arm maze task in females, with lesser effects in males.

Reflexive testosterone release: a model system for studying the nongenomic effects of testosterone upon male behavior

Male mammals of many species exhibit reflexive testosterone release in mating situations. In house mice (Mus musculus), the dramatic robustness of such release, occurring primarily in response to a novel female, suggests some function. The resulting testosterone elevations typically peak during copulatory behavior and may serve to activate transitory motivational and physiological responses that facilitate reproduction. However, such a function requires that testosterone be working through either nongenomic, or very quick genomic, mechanisms. The first part of the review describes reflexive sex hormone release in house mice. The second part summarizes research implicating testosterone's fast actions in affecting anxiety, reward, learning, analgesia, and penile reflexes in rodents, all of which could optimize male mating success. The review concludes with a speculative model of how spontaneous and reflexive hormone release might interact to regulate reproductive behavior and why mice appear to be an ideal species for examining testosterone's quick effects.

Androgen administration to aged male mice increases anti-anxiety behavior and enhances cognitive performance

Although androgen secretion is reduced with aging, and may underlie decrements in cognitive and affective performance, the effects and mechanisms of androgens to mediate these behaviors are not well understood. Testosterone (T), the primary male androgen, is aromatized to estrogen (E(2)), and reduced to dihydrotestosterone (DHT), which is converted to 5alpha-androstane, 3alpha, 17beta-diol (3alpha-diol). To ascertain whether actions of the neuroactive metabolite of T, 3alpha-diol, mediates cognitive and affective behaviors, intact, aged male C57/B6 mice (24 month old) as well as young, intact and gonadectomized (GDX; 12 week old) mice were administered s.c. T, 3alpha-diol, E(2), or sesame oil vehicle (1 mg/kg; n=4-5/group) at weekly intervals and 1 h later mice were tested in the activity box, roto-rod, open field, elevated plus maze, zero maze, mirror maze, dark-light transition, forced swim, or Vogel tasks. Mice were trained in the inhibitory avoidance or conditioned contextual fear and were administered hormones following training and then were tested. After the last test occasion, tissues were collected for evaluation of hormone levels and effects on gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-stimulated chloride flux. T, 3alpha-diol, or E(2) increased anti-anxiety and antidepressant behavior of aged, intact mice in the open field, light-dark transition, mirror maze, and forced swim tasks. T or 3alpha-diol, but not E(2), enhanced anti-anxiety behavior in the elevated plus maze, zero maze, and the Vogel task, and increased motor behavior in the activity monitor, latency to fall in the Roto-rod task, and cognitive performance in the hippocampally-mediated, but not the amygdala-mediated, portion of the conditioned fear task and in the inhibitory avoidance task. Anti-anxiety and enhanced cognitive performance was associated with regimen that increased plasma and hippocampal 3alpha-diol levels and GABA-stimulated chloride flux. Similar patterns were seen among young, adult GDX but not in intact mice. Thus, 3alpha-diol can enhance affective and cognitive behavior of male mice.