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Chen Z, Wang W, Zhou S, Ding L, Xu Z, Sun X, Huo H, Liu L. Single-cell RNA sequencing reveals dynamics of gene expression for 2D elongation and 3D growth in Physcomitrium patens. Cell Rep 2024; 43:114524. [PMID: 39046878 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2024.114524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2023] [Revised: 05/09/2024] [Accepted: 07/08/2024] [Indexed: 07/27/2024] Open
Abstract
The transition from two-dimensional (2D) to 3D growth likely facilitated plants to colonize land, but its heterogeneity is not well understood. In this study, we utilized single-cell RNA sequencing to analyze the moss Physcomitrium patens, whose morphogenesis involves a transition from 2D to 3D growth. We profiled over 17,000 single cells covering all major vegetative tissues, including 2D filaments (chloronema and caulonema) and 3D structures (bud and gametophore). Pseudotime analyses revealed larger numbers of candidate genes that determine cell fates for 2D tip elongation or 3D bud differentiation. Using weighted gene co-expression network analysis, we identified a module that connects β-type carbonic anhydrases (βCAs) with auxin. We further validated the cellular expression patterns of βCAs and demonstrated their roles in 3D gametophore development. Overall, our study provides insights into cellular heterogeneity in a moss and identifies molecular signatures that underpin the 2D-to-3D growth transition at single-cell resolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zexi Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Green Transformation of Bio-Resources, Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan 430062, China
| | - Wenbo Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Green Transformation of Bio-Resources, Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan 430062, China
| | - Shizhao Zhou
- CAS Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan 650201, China
| | - Lulu Ding
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Green Transformation of Bio-Resources, Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan 430062, China
| | - Zhanwu Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Green Transformation of Bio-Resources, Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan 430062, China
| | - Xuwu Sun
- National Key Laboratory of Cotton Bio-breeding and Integrated Utilization, State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Adaptation and Improvement, Key Laboratory of Plant Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Henan University, 85 Minglun Street, Kaifeng 475001, China
| | - Heqiang Huo
- Mid-Florida Research and Education Center, Department of Environmental Horticulture, University of Florida, 2725 South Binion Road, Apopka, FL 32703, USA
| | - Li Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Green Transformation of Bio-Resources, Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan 430062, China.
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2
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Bi G, Zhao S, Yao J, Wang H, Zhao M, Sun Y, Hou X, Haas FB, Varshney D, Prigge M, Rensing SA, Jiao Y, Ma Y, Yan J, Dai J. Near telomere-to-telomere genome of the model plant Physcomitrium patens. NATURE PLANTS 2024; 10:327-343. [PMID: 38278953 DOI: 10.1038/s41477-023-01614-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2021] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 01/28/2024]
Abstract
The model plant Physcomitrium patens has played a pivotal role in enhancing our comprehension of plant evolution and development. However, the current genome harbours numerous regions that remain unfinished and erroneous. To address these issues, we generated an assembly using Oxford Nanopore reads and Hi-C mapping. The assembly incorporates telomeric and centromeric regions, thereby establishing it as a near telomere-to-telomere genome except a region in chromosome 1 that is not fully assembled due to its highly repetitive nature. This near telomere-to-telomere genome resolves the chromosome number at 26 and provides a gap-free genome assembly as well as updated gene models to aid future studies using this model organism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guiqi Bi
- Shenzhen Branch, Guangdong Laboratory of Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Agricultural Genomics Institute at Shenzhen, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shenzhen, China
| | - Shijun Zhao
- CAS Key Laboratory of Quantitative Engineering Biology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Synthetic Genomics and Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Synthetic Genomics, Shenzhen Institute of Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jiawei Yao
- Shenzhen Branch, Guangdong Laboratory of Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Agricultural Genomics Institute at Shenzhen, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shenzhen, China
| | - Huan Wang
- Shenzhen Branch, Guangdong Laboratory of Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Agricultural Genomics Institute at Shenzhen, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shenzhen, China
- Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Microbial Signals and Disease Control, Integrative Microbiology Research Centre, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Mengkai Zhao
- College of Life Sciences and Oceanography, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Yuanyuan Sun
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Innovative Academy of Seed Design, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xueren Hou
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Innovative Academy of Seed Design, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Fabian B Haas
- Department of Algal Development and Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Biology Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Deepti Varshney
- Faculty of Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Michael Prigge
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Stefan A Rensing
- Faculty of Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Yuling Jiao
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Innovative Academy of Seed Design, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- School of Life Sciences, Center for Quantitative Biology, and Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Yingxin Ma
- CAS Key Laboratory of Quantitative Engineering Biology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Synthetic Genomics and Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Synthetic Genomics, Shenzhen Institute of Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, China
| | - Jianbin Yan
- Shenzhen Branch, Guangdong Laboratory of Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Agricultural Genomics Institute at Shenzhen, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shenzhen, China.
| | - Junbiao Dai
- Shenzhen Branch, Guangdong Laboratory of Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Agricultural Genomics Institute at Shenzhen, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shenzhen, China.
- CAS Key Laboratory of Quantitative Engineering Biology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Synthetic Genomics and Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Synthetic Genomics, Shenzhen Institute of Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, China.
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.
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3
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Hiromoto Y, Minamino N, Kikuchi S, Kimata Y, Matsumoto H, Nakagawa S, Ueda M, Higaki T. Comprehensive and quantitative analysis of intracellular structure polarization at the apical-basal axis in elongating Arabidopsis zygotes. Sci Rep 2023; 13:22879. [PMID: 38129559 PMCID: PMC10739889 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-50020-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2023] [Accepted: 12/14/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Abstract
A comprehensive and quantitative evaluation of multiple intracellular structures or proteins is a promising approach to provide a deeper understanding of and new insights into cellular polarity. In this study, we developed an image analysis pipeline to obtain intensity profiles of fluorescent probes along the apical-basal axis in elongating Arabidopsis thaliana zygotes based on two-photon live-cell imaging data. This technique showed the intracellular distribution of actin filaments, mitochondria, microtubules, and vacuolar membranes along the apical-basal axis in elongating zygotes from the onset of cell elongation to just before asymmetric cell division. Hierarchical cluster analysis of the quantitative data on intracellular distribution revealed that the zygote may be compartmentalized into two parts, with a boundary located 43.6% from the cell tip, immediately after fertilization. To explore the biological significance of this compartmentalization, we examined the positions of the asymmetric cell divisions from the dataset used in this distribution analysis. We found that the cell division plane was reproducibly inserted 20.5% from the cell tip. This position corresponded well with the midpoint of the compartmentalized apical region, suggesting a potential relationship between the zygote compartmentalization, which begins with cell elongation, and the position of the asymmetric cell division.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yukiko Hiromoto
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Kumamoto University, 2-39-1 Kurokami, Chuo-Ku, Kumamoto, 860-8555, Japan
| | - Naoki Minamino
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Kumamoto University, 2-39-1 Kurokami, Chuo-Ku, Kumamoto, 860-8555, Japan
| | - Suzuka Kikuchi
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Kumamoto University, 2-39-1 Kurokami, Chuo-Ku, Kumamoto, 860-8555, Japan
| | - Yusuke Kimata
- Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai, 980-8578, Japan
| | - Hikari Matsumoto
- Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai, 980-8578, Japan
| | - Sakumi Nakagawa
- Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai, 980-8578, Japan
| | - Minako Ueda
- Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai, 980-8578, Japan
- Suntory Rising Stars Encouragement Program in Life Sciences (SunRiSE), Kyoto, Japan
| | - Takumi Higaki
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Kumamoto University, 2-39-1 Kurokami, Chuo-Ku, Kumamoto, 860-8555, Japan.
- International Research Organization for Advanced Science and Technology, Kumamoto University, 2-39-1 Kurokami, Chuo-Ku, Kumamoto, Japan.
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Ruan J, Lai L, Ou H, Yi P. Two subtypes of GTPase-activating proteins coordinate tip growth and cell size regulation in Physcomitrium patens. Nat Commun 2023; 14:7084. [PMID: 37925570 PMCID: PMC10625565 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-42879-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2023] [Accepted: 10/24/2023] [Indexed: 11/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The establishment of cell polarity is a prerequisite for many developmental processes. However, how it is achieved during tip growth in plants remains elusive. Here, we show that the RHO OF PLANTs (ROPs), ROP GUANINE NUCLEOTIDE EXCHANGE FACTORs (RopGEFs), and ROP GTPASE-ACTIVATING PROTEINs (RopGAPs) assemble into membrane domains in tip-growing cells of the moss Physcomitrium patens. The confinement of membrane domains requires redundant global inactivation of ROPs by PpRopGAPs and the PLECKSTRIN HOMOLOGY (PH) domain-containing RenGAP PpREN. Unexpectedly, PpRopGAPs and PpREN exert opposing effects on domain size and cell width upon overexpression. Biochemical and functional analyses indicate that PpRopGAPs are recruited to the membrane by active ROPs to restrict domain size through clustering, whereas PpREN rapidly inactivates ROPs and inhibits PpRopGAP-induced clustering. We propose that the activity- and clustering-based domain organization by RopGAPs and RenGAPs is a general mechanism for coordinating polarized cell growth and cell size regulation in plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingtong Ruan
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Resource and Eco-Environment of Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Sichuan University, No. 24 South Section 1, Yihuan Road, Wuhou District, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610064, PR China
| | - Linyu Lai
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Resource and Eco-Environment of Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Sichuan University, No. 24 South Section 1, Yihuan Road, Wuhou District, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610064, PR China
| | - Hongxin Ou
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Resource and Eco-Environment of Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Sichuan University, No. 24 South Section 1, Yihuan Road, Wuhou District, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610064, PR China
- School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, PR China
| | - Peishan Yi
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Resource and Eco-Environment of Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Sichuan University, No. 24 South Section 1, Yihuan Road, Wuhou District, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610064, PR China.
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Guan Y, Ma L, Wang Q, Zhao J, Wang S, Wu J, Liu Y, Sun H, Huang J. Horizontally acquired fungal killer protein genes affect cell development in mosses. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2023; 113:665-676. [PMID: 36507655 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.16060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2021] [Revised: 11/25/2022] [Accepted: 12/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The moss Physcomitrium patens is crucial for studying plant development and evolution. Although the P. patens genome includes genes acquired from bacteria, fungi and viruses, the functions and evolutionary significance of these acquired genes remain largely unclear. Killer protein 4 (KP4) is a toxin secreted by the phytopathogenic fungus Ustilago maydis that inhibits the growth of sensitive target strains by blocking their calcium uptake. Here, we show that KP4 genes in mosses were acquired from fungi through at least three independent events of horizontal gene transfer. Two paralogous copies of KP4 (PpKP4-1 and PpKP4-2) exist in P. patens. Knockout mutants ppkp4-1 and ppkp4-2 showed cell death at the protonemal stage, and ppkp4-2 also exhibited defects in tip growth. We provide experimental evidence indicating that PpKP4-1/2 affects P. patens protonemal cell development by mediating cytoplasmic calcium and that KP4 genes are functionally conserved between P. patens and fungi. The present study provides additional insights into the role of horizontal gene transfer in land plant development and evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanlong Guan
- Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650201, China
| | - Lan Ma
- Yunnan Key Laboratory for Wild Plant Resources, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650201, China
| | - Qia Wang
- Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650201, China
| | - Jinjie Zhao
- Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650201, China
| | - Shuanghua Wang
- Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650201, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Jinsong Wu
- Yunnan Key Laboratory for Wild Plant Resources, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650201, China
| | - Yang Liu
- Key Laboratory of Southern Subtropical Plant Diversity, Fairy Lake Botanical Garden, Shenzhen & Chinese Academy of Science, Shenzhen, 518004, China
| | - Hang Sun
- Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650201, China
| | - Jinling Huang
- Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650201, China
- Institute of Plant Stress Biology, State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Adaptation and Improvement, School of Life Sciences, Henan University, Kaifeng, 475001, China
- Department of Biology, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, 27858, USA
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6
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Mamaeva A, Lyapina I, Knyazev A, Golub N, Mollaev T, Chudinova E, Elansky S, Babenko VV, Veselovsky VA, Klimina KM, Gribova T, Kharlampieva D, Lazarev V, Fesenko I. RALF peptides modulate immune response in the moss Physcomitrium patens. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 14:1077301. [PMID: 36818838 PMCID: PMC9933782 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1077301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2022] [Accepted: 01/13/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND RAPID ALKALINIZATION FACTOR (RALFs) are cysteine-rich peptides that regulate multiple physiological processes in plants. This peptide family has considerably expanded during land plant evolution, but the role of ancient RALFs in modulating stress responses is unknown.Results: Here, we used the moss Physcomitrium patens as a model to gain insight into the role of RALF peptides in the coordination of plant growth and stress response in non-vascular plants. The quantitative proteomic analysis revealed concerted downregulation of M6 metalloprotease and some membrane proteins, including those involved in stress response, in PpRALF1, 2 and 3 knockout (KO) lines. The subsequent analysis revealed the role of PpRALF3 in growth regulation under abiotic and biotic stress conditions, implying the importance of RALFs in responding to various adverse conditions in bryophytes. We found that knockout of the PpRALF2 and PpRALF3 genes resulted in increased resistance to bacterial and fungal phytopathogens, Pectobacterium carotovorum and Fusarium solani, suggesting the role of these peptides in negative regulation of the immune response in P. patens. Comparing the transcriptomes of PpRALF3 KO and wild-type plants infected by F. solani showed that the regulation of genes in the phenylpropanoid pathway and those involved in cell wall modification and biogenesis was different in these two genotypes. CONCLUSION Thus, our study sheds light on the function of the previously uncharacterized PpRALF3 peptide and gives a clue to the ancestral functions of RALF peptides in plant stress response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Mamaeva
- Laboratory of System Analysis of Proteins and Peptides, Shemyakin and Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - Irina Lyapina
- Laboratory of System Analysis of Proteins and Peptides, Shemyakin and Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - Andrey Knyazev
- Laboratory of System Analysis of Proteins and Peptides, Shemyakin and Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - Nina Golub
- Laboratory of System Analysis of Proteins and Peptides, Shemyakin and Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - Timur Mollaev
- Agrarian and Technological Institute, Peoples Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russia
| | - Elena Chudinova
- Agrarian and Technological Institute, Peoples Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russia
| | - Sergey Elansky
- Agrarian and Technological Institute, Peoples Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russia
- Faculty of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Vladislav V. Babenko
- Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, Federal Research and Clinical Center of Physical-Chemical Medicine of Federal Medical Biological Agency, Moscow, Russia
| | - Vladimir A. Veselovsky
- Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, Federal Research and Clinical Center of Physical-Chemical Medicine of Federal Medical Biological Agency, Moscow, Russia
| | - Ksenia M. Klimina
- Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, Federal Research and Clinical Center of Physical-Chemical Medicine of Federal Medical Biological Agency, Moscow, Russia
| | - Tatiana Gribova
- Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, Federal Research and Clinical Center of Physical-Chemical Medicine of Federal Medical Biological Agency, Moscow, Russia
| | - Daria Kharlampieva
- Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, Federal Research and Clinical Center of Physical-Chemical Medicine of Federal Medical Biological Agency, Moscow, Russia
| | - Vassili Lazarev
- Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, Federal Research and Clinical Center of Physical-Chemical Medicine of Federal Medical Biological Agency, Moscow, Russia
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology (National Research University), Dolgoprudny, Moscow, Russia
| | - Igor Fesenko
- Laboratory of System Analysis of Proteins and Peptides, Shemyakin and Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
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Pettinari G, Finello J, Plaza Rojas M, Liberatore F, Robert G, Otaiza-González S, Velez P, Theumer M, Agudelo-Romero P, Enet A, González C, Lascano R, Saavedra L. Autophagy modulates growth and development in the moss Physcomitrium patens. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:1052358. [PMID: 36600927 PMCID: PMC9807217 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.1052358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2022] [Accepted: 12/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Physcomitrium patens apical growing protonemal cells have the singularity that they continue to undergo cell divisions as the plant develops. This feature provides a valuable tool to study autophagy in the context of a multicellular apical growing tissue coupled to development. Herein, we showed that the core autophagy machinery is present in the moss P. patens, and characterized the 2D and 3D growth and development of atg5 and atg7 loss-of-function mutants under optimal and nutrient-deprived conditions. Our results showed that 2D growth of the different morphological and functional protonemata apical growing cells, chloronema and caulonema, is differentially modulated by this process. These differences depend on the protonema cell type and position along the protonemal filament, and growth condition. As a global plant response, the absence of autophagy favors the spread of the colony through protonemata growth at the expense of a reduction of the 3D growth, such as the buds and gametophore development, and thus the adult gametophytic and reproductive phases. Altogether this study provides valuable information suggesting that autophagy has roles during apical growth with differential responses within the cell types of the same tissue and contributes to life cycle progression and thus the growth and development of the 2D and 3D tissues of P. patens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgina Pettinari
- Unidad Ejecutora de Doble Dependencia INTA-CONICET (UDEA), Córdoba, Argentina
- Cátedra de Fisiología Vegetal, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Juan Finello
- Cátedra de Fisiología Vegetal, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Macarena Plaza Rojas
- Cátedra de Fisiología Vegetal, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Franco Liberatore
- Unidad Ejecutora de Doble Dependencia INTA-CONICET (UDEA), Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Germán Robert
- Unidad Ejecutora de Doble Dependencia INTA-CONICET (UDEA), Córdoba, Argentina
- Cátedra de Fisiología Vegetal, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
| | | | - Pilar Velez
- Centro de Investigaciones en Bioquímica Clínica e Inmunología (CIBICI), Universidad Nacional de Córdoba-CONICET, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Martin Theumer
- Centro de Investigaciones en Bioquímica Clínica e Inmunología (CIBICI), Universidad Nacional de Córdoba-CONICET, Córdoba, Argentina
| | | | - Alejandro Enet
- Unidad Ejecutora de Doble Dependencia INTA-CONICET (UDEA), Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Claudio González
- Cátedra de Fisiología Vegetal, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Ramiro Lascano
- Unidad Ejecutora de Doble Dependencia INTA-CONICET (UDEA), Córdoba, Argentina
- Cátedra de Fisiología Vegetal, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Laura Saavedra
- Unidad Ejecutora de Doble Dependencia INTA-CONICET (UDEA), Córdoba, Argentina
- Cátedra de Fisiología Vegetal, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
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8
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Yi P, Goshima G. Division site determination during asymmetric cell division in plants. THE PLANT CELL 2022; 34:2120-2139. [PMID: 35201345 PMCID: PMC9134084 DOI: 10.1093/plcell/koac069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2021] [Accepted: 02/20/2022] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
During development, both animals and plants exploit asymmetric cell division (ACD) to increase tissue complexity, a process that usually generates cells dissimilar in size, morphology, and fate. Plants lack the key regulators that control ACD in animals. Instead, plants have evolved two unique cytoskeletal structures to tackle this problem: the preprophase band (PPB) and phragmoplast. The assembly of the PPB and phragmoplast and their contributions to division plane orientation have been extensively studied. However, how the division plane is positioned off the cell center during asymmetric division is poorly understood. Over the past 20 years, emerging evidence points to a critical role for polarly localized membrane proteins in this process. Although many of these proteins are species- or cell type specific, and the molecular mechanism underlying division asymmetry is not fully understood, common features such as morphological changes in cells, cytoskeletal dynamics, and nuclear positioning have been observed. In this review, we provide updates on polarity establishment and nuclear positioning during ACD in plants. Together with previous findings about symmetrically dividing cells and the emerging roles of developmental cues, we aim to offer evolutionary insight into a common framework for asymmetric division-site determination and highlight directions for future work.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Gohta Goshima
- Sugashima Marine Biological Laboratory, Graduate School of Science, Nagoya University, Toba 517-0004, Japan
- Division of Biological Science, Graduate School of Science, Nagoya University, Nagoya Aichi 464-8602, Japan
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9
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Li X, Chaves AM, Dees DCT, Mansoori N, Yuan K, Speicher TL, Norris JH, Wallace IS, Trindade LM, Roberts AW. Cellulose synthesis complexes are homo-oligomeric and hetero-oligomeric in Physcomitrium patens. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2022; 188:2115-2130. [PMID: 35022793 PMCID: PMC8968406 DOI: 10.1093/plphys/kiac003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2021] [Accepted: 12/03/2021] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The common ancestor of seed plants and mosses contained homo-oligomeric cellulose synthesis complexes (CSCs) composed of identical subunits encoded by a single CELLULOSE SYNTHASE (CESA) gene. Seed plants use different CESA isoforms for primary and secondary cell wall deposition. Both primary and secondary CESAs form hetero-oligomeric CSCs that assemble and function in planta only when all the required isoforms are present. The moss Physcomitrium (Physcomitrella) patens has seven CESA genes that can be grouped into two functionally and phylogenetically distinct classes. Previously, we showed that PpCESA3 and/or PpCESA8 (class A) together with PpCESA6 and/or PpCESA7 (class B) form obligate hetero-oligomeric complexes required for normal secondary cell wall deposition. Here, we show that gametophore morphogenesis requires a member of class A, PpCESA5, and is sustained in the absence of other PpCESA isoforms. PpCESA5 also differs from the other class A PpCESAs as it is able to self-interact and does not co-immunoprecipitate with other PpCESA isoforms. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that homo-oligomeric CSCs containing only PpCESA5 subunits synthesize cellulose required for gametophore morphogenesis. Analysis of mutant phenotypes also revealed that, like secondary cell wall deposition, normal protonemal tip growth requires class B isoforms (PpCESA4 or PpCESA10), along with a class A partner (PpCESA3, PpCESA5, or PpCESA8). Thus, P. patens contains both homo-oligomeric and hetero-oligomeric CSCs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Tori L Speicher
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada 89557, USA
| | - Joanna H Norris
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island 02881, USA
| | - Ian S Wallace
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada 89557, USA
| | - Luisa M Trindade
- Wageningen UR Plant Breeding, Wageningen University and Research, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
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10
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Ginanjar EF, Teh OK, Fujita T. Characterisation of rapid alkalinisation factors in Physcomitrium patens reveals functional conservation in tip growth. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2022; 233:2442-2457. [PMID: 34954833 DOI: 10.1111/nph.17942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2021] [Accepted: 12/17/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Small signalling peptides are key molecules for cell-to-cell communications in plants. The cysteine-rich signalling peptide, rapid alkalinisation factors (RALFs) family are involved in diverse developmental and stress responses and have expanded considerably during land plant evolution, implying neofunctionalisations in the RALF family. However, the ancestral roles of RALFs when land plant first acquired them remain unknown. Here, we functionally characterised two of the three RALFs in bryophyte Physcomitrium patens using loss-of-function mutants, overexpressors, as well as fluorescent proteins tagged reporter lines. We showed that PpRALF1 and PpRALF2 have overlapping functions in promoting protonema tip growth and elongation, showing a homologous function as the Arabidopsis RALF1 in promoting root hair tip growth. Although both PpRALFs are secreted to the plasma membrane on which PpRALF1 symmetrically localised, PpRALF2 showed a polarised localisation at the growing tip. Notably, proteolytic cleavage of PpRALF1 is necessary for its function. Our data reveal a possible evolutionary origin of the RALF functions and suggest that functional divergence of RALFs is essential to drive complex morphogenesis and to facilitate other novel processes in land plants.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ooi-Kock Teh
- Faculty of Science, Hokkaido University, Hokkaido, 060-0810, Japan
- Institute for the Advancement of Higher Education, Hokkaihdo University, Sapporo, 060-0817, Japan
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, Academia Sinica, 128 Sec.2, Academia Rd, Nankang, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Tomomichi Fujita
- Faculty of Science, Hokkaido University, Hokkaido, 060-0810, Japan
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11
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Naramoto S, Hata Y, Fujita T, Kyozuka J. The bryophytes Physcomitrium patens and Marchantia polymorpha as model systems for studying evolutionary cell and developmental biology in plants. THE PLANT CELL 2022; 34:228-246. [PMID: 34459922 PMCID: PMC8773975 DOI: 10.1093/plcell/koab218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2021] [Accepted: 08/25/2021] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Bryophytes are nonvascular spore-forming plants. Unlike in flowering plants, the gametophyte (haploid) generation of bryophytes dominates the sporophyte (diploid) generation. A comparison of bryophytes with flowering plants allows us to answer some fundamental questions raised in evolutionary cell and developmental biology. The moss Physcomitrium patens was the first bryophyte with a sequenced genome. Many cell and developmental studies have been conducted in this species using gene targeting by homologous recombination. The liverwort Marchantia polymorpha has recently emerged as an excellent model system with low genomic redundancy in most of its regulatory pathways. With the development of molecular genetic tools such as efficient genome editing, both P. patens and M. polymorpha have provided many valuable insights. Here, we review these advances with a special focus on polarity formation at the cell and tissue levels. We examine current knowledge regarding the cellular mechanisms of polarized cell elongation and cell division, including symmetric and asymmetric cell division. We also examine the role of polar auxin transport in mosses and liverworts. Finally, we discuss the future of evolutionary cell and developmental biological studies in plants.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yuki Hata
- Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8577, Japan
| | - Tomomichi Fujita
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060-0810, Japan
| | - Junko Kyozuka
- Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8577, Japan
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12
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Zhu L. Targeted Gene Knockouts by Protoplast Transformation in the Moss Physcomitrella patens. Front Genome Ed 2022; 3:719087. [PMID: 34977859 PMCID: PMC8718793 DOI: 10.3389/fgeed.2021.719087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Targeted gene knockout is particularly useful for analyzing gene functions in plant growth, signaling, and development. By transforming knockout cassettes consisting of homologous sequences of the target gene into protoplasts, the classical gene targeting method aims to obtain targeted gene replacement, allowing for the characterization of gene functions in vivo. The moss Physcomitrella patens is a known model organism for a high frequency of homologous recombination and thus harbors a remarkable rate of gene targeting. Other moss features, including easy to culture, dominant haploidy phase, and sequenced genome, make gene targeting prevalent in Physcomitrella patens. However, even gene targeting was powerful to generate knockouts, researchers using this method still experienced technical challenges. For example, obtaining a good number of targeted knockouts after protoplast transformation and regeneration disturbed the users. Off-target mutations such as illegitimate random integration mediated by nonhomologous end joining and targeted insertion wherein one junction on-target but the other end off-target is commonly present in the knockouts. Protoplast fusion during transformation and regeneration was also a problem. This review will discuss the advantages and technical challenges of gene targeting. Recently, CRISPR-Cas9 is a revolutionary technology and becoming a hot topic in plant gene editing. In the second part of this review, CRISPR-Cas9 technology will be focused on and compared to gene targeting regarding the practical use in Physcomitrella patens. This review presents an updated perspective of the gene targeting and CRISPR-Cas9 techniques to plant biologists who may consider studying gene functions in the model organism Physcomitrella patens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Zhu
- Department of Botany and Plant Sciences, University of California, Riverside, CA, United States
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13
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Bibeau JP, Galotto G, Wu M, Tüzel E, Vidali L. Quantitative cell biology of tip growth in moss. PLANT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2021; 107:227-244. [PMID: 33825083 PMCID: PMC8492783 DOI: 10.1007/s11103-021-01147-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2020] [Accepted: 03/25/2021] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
KEY MESSAGE Here we review, from a quantitative point of view, the cell biology of protonemal tip growth in the model moss Physcomitrium patens. We focus on the role of the cytoskeleton, vesicle trafficking, and cell wall mechanics, including reviewing some of the existing mathematical models of tip growth. We provide a primer for existing cell biological tools that can be applied to the future study of tip growth in moss. Polarized cell growth is a ubiquitous process throughout the plant kingdom in which the cell elongates in a self-similar manner. This process is important for nutrient uptake by root hairs, fertilization by pollen, and gametophyte development by the protonemata of bryophytes and ferns. In this review, we will focus on the tip growth of moss cells, emphasizing the role of cytoskeletal organization, cytoplasmic zonation, vesicle trafficking, cell wall composition, and dynamics. We compare some of the existing knowledge on tip growth in protonemata against what is known in pollen tubes and root hairs, which are better-studied tip growing cells. To fully understand how plant cells grow requires that we deepen our knowledge in a variety of forms of plant cell growth. We focus this review on the model plant Physcomitrium patens, which uses tip growth as the dominant form of growth at its protonemal stage. Because mosses and vascular plants shared a common ancestor more than 450 million years ago, we anticipate that both similarities and differences between tip growing plant cells will provide mechanistic information of tip growth as well as of plant cell growth in general. Towards this mechanistic understanding, we will also review some of the existing mathematical models of plant tip growth and their applicability to investigate protonemal morphogenesis. We attempt to integrate the conclusions and data across cell biology and physical modeling to our current state of knowledge of polarized cell growth in P. patens and highlight future directions in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey P Bibeau
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA, USA
| | - Giulia Galotto
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA, USA
| | - Min Wu
- Department of Mathematical Sciences, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA, USA
- Bioinformatics and Computational Biology Program, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA, USA
| | - Erkan Tüzel
- Bioengineering Department, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Luis Vidali
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA, USA.
- Bioinformatics and Computational Biology Program, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA, USA.
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14
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Qian H, Wang L, Ma X, Yi X, Wang B, Liang W. Proteome-Wide Analysis of Lysine 2-Hydroxyisobutyrylated Proteins in Fusarium oxysporum. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:623735. [PMID: 33643252 PMCID: PMC7902869 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.623735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 01/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Protein lysine 2-hydroxyisobutyrylation (K hib ), a new type of post-translational modification, occurs in histones and non-histone proteins and plays an important role in almost all aspects of both eukaryotic and prokaryotic living cells. Fusarium oxysporum, a soil-borne fungal pathogen, can cause disease in more than 150 plants. However, little is currently known about the functions of K hib in this plant pathogenic fungus. Here, we report a systematic analysis of 2-hydroxyisobutyrylated proteins in F. oxysporum. In this study, 3782 K hib sites in 1299 proteins were identified in F. oxysporum. The bioinformatics analysis showed that 2-hydroxyisobutyrylated proteins are involved in different biological processes and functions and are located in diverse subcellular localizations. The enrichment analysis revealed that K hib participates in a variety of pathways, including the ribosome, oxidative phosphorylation, and proteasome pathways. The protein interaction network analysis showed that 2-hydroxyisobutyrylated protein complexes are involved in diverse interactions. Notably, several 2-hydroxyisobutyrylated proteins, including three kinds of protein kinases, were involved in the virulence or conidiation of F. oxysporum, suggesting that K hib plays regulatory roles in pathogenesis. Moreover, our study shows that there are different K hib levels of F. oxysporum in conidial and mycelial stages. These findings provide evidence of K hib in F. oxysporum, an important filamentous plant pathogenic fungus, and serve as a resource for further exploration of the potential functions of K hib in Fusarium species and other filamentous pathogenic fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hengwei Qian
- College of Plant Health and Medicine, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China.,College of Life Sciences, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, China
| | - Lulu Wang
- College of Plant Health and Medicine, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
| | | | - Xingling Yi
- Micron Biotechnology Co., Ltd., Hangzhou, China
| | - Baoshan Wang
- College of Life Sciences, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, China
| | - Wenxing Liang
- College of Plant Health and Medicine, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
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15
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Stephan OOH. Implications of ionizing radiation on pollen performance in comparison with diverse models of polar cell growth. PLANT, CELL & ENVIRONMENT 2021; 44:665-691. [PMID: 33124689 DOI: 10.1111/pce.13929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2020] [Revised: 10/21/2020] [Accepted: 10/22/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Research concerning the effects of ionizing radiation (IR) on plant systems is essential for numerous aspects of human society, as for instance, in terms of agriculture and plant breeding, but additionally for elucidating consequences of radioactive contamination of the ecosphere. This comprehensive survey analyses effects of x- and γ-irradiation on male gametophytes comprising primarily in vitro but also in vivo data of diverse plant species. The IR-dose range for pollen performance was compiled and 50% inhibition doses (ID50 ) for germination and tube growth were comparatively related to physiological characteristics of the microgametophyte. Factors influencing IR-susceptibility of mature pollen and polarized tube growth were evaluated, such as dose-rate, environmental conditions, or species-related variations. In addition, all available reports suggesting bio-positive IR-effects particularly on pollen performance were examined. Most importantly, for the first time influences of IR specifically on diverse phylogenetic models of polar cell growth were comparatively analysed, and thus demonstrated that the gametophytic system of pollen is extremely resistant to IR, more than plant sporophytes and especially much more than comparable animal cells. Beyond that, this study develops hypotheses regarding a molecular basis for the extreme IR-resistance of the plant microgametophyte and highlights its unique rank among organismal systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Octavian O H Stephan
- Department of Biology, Friedrich-Alexander University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Erlangen, Germany
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16
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Petschinger K, Adlassnig W, Sabovljevic MS, Lang I. Lamina Cell Shape and Cell Wall Thickness Are Useful Indicators for Metal Tolerance-An Example in Bryophytes. PLANTS 2021; 10:plants10020274. [PMID: 33572599 PMCID: PMC7911191 DOI: 10.3390/plants10020274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2020] [Revised: 01/23/2021] [Accepted: 01/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Bryophytes are widely used to monitor air quality. Due to the lack of a cuticle, their cells can be compared to the roots of crop plants. This study aimed to test a hypothetical relation between metal tolerance and cell shape in biomonitoring mosses (Hypnum cupressiforme, Pleurozium schreberi, Pseudoscleropodium purum) and metal sensitive species (Physcomitrium patens, Plagiomnium affine). The tolerance experiments were conducted on leafy gametophytes exposed to solutions of ZnSO4, ZnCl2, and FeSO4 in graded concentrations of 1 M to 10−8 M. Plasmolysis in D-mannitol (0.8 M) was used as a viability measure. The selected species differed significantly in lamina cell shape, cell wall thickness, and metal tolerance. In those tested mosses, the lamina cell shape correlated significantly with the heavy metal tolerance, and we found differences for ZnSO4 and ZnCl2. Biomonitoring species with long and thin cells proved more tolerant than species with isodiametric cells. For the latter, “death zones” at intermediate metal concentrations were found upon exposure to ZnSO4. Species with a greater tolerance towards FeSO4 and ZnSO4 had thicker cell walls than less tolerant species. Hence, cell shape as a protoplast-to-wall ratio, in combination with cell wall thickness, could be a good marker for metal tolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Petschinger
- Cell Imaging and Ultrastructure Research, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, A-1090 Vienna, Austria; (K.P.); (W.A.)
| | - Wolfram Adlassnig
- Cell Imaging and Ultrastructure Research, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, A-1090 Vienna, Austria; (K.P.); (W.A.)
| | - Marko S. Sabovljevic
- Institute of Botany and Botanical Garden, Faculty of Biology, University of Belgrade, Takovska 43, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia;
| | - Ingeborg Lang
- Department of Functional and Evolutionary Ecology, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, A-1090 Vienna, Austria
- Correspondence:
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17
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Kollárová E, Baquero Forero A, Cvrčková F. The Arabidopsis thaliana Class II Formin FH13 Modulates Pollen Tube Growth. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2021; 12:599961. [PMID: 33679824 PMCID: PMC7929981 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2021.599961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2020] [Accepted: 01/29/2021] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Formins are a large, evolutionarily conserved family of actin-nucleating proteins with additional roles in regulating microfilament, microtubule, and membrane dynamics. Angiosperm formins, expressed in both sporophytic and gametophytic tissues, can be divided into two subfamilies, Class I and Class II, each often exhibiting characteristic domain organization. Gametophytically expressed Class I formins have been documented to mediate plasma membrane-based actin assembly in pollen grains and pollen tubes, contributing to proper pollen germination and pollen tube tip growth, and a rice Class II formin, FH5/RMD, has been proposed to act as a positive regulator of pollen tube growth based on mutant phenotype and overexpression data. Here we report functional characterization of the Arabidopsis thaliana pollen-expressed typical Class II formin FH13 (At5g58160). Consistent with published transcriptome data, live-cell imaging in transgenic plants expressing fluorescent protein-tagged FH13 under the control of the FH13 promoter revealed expression in pollen and pollen tubes with non-homogeneous signal distribution in pollen tube cytoplasm, suggesting that this formin functions in the male gametophyte. Surprisingly, fh13 loss of function mutations do not affect plant fertility but result in stimulation of in vitro pollen tube growth, while tagged FH13 overexpression inhibits pollen tube elongation. Pollen tubes of mutants expressing a fluorescent actin marker exhibited possible minor alterations of actin organization. Our results thus indicate that FH13 controls or limits pollen tube growth, or, more generally, that typical Class II formins should be understood as modulators of pollen tube elongation rather than merely components of the molecular apparatus executing tip growth.
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18
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Harant D, Lang I. 3D Dissection of Structural Membrane-Wall Contacts in Filamentous Moss Protonemata. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 22:ijms22010158. [PMID: 33375227 PMCID: PMC7796084 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22010158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2020] [Revised: 12/19/2020] [Accepted: 12/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
In conventional light microscopy, the adjacent cell walls of filamentous moss protonemata are seen from its narrow side thereby obscuring the major area of cell–cell connection. Optical sectioning, segmentation and 3D reconstructions allow the tilting and rotation of intracellular structures thereby greatly improving our understanding of interaction between organelles, membranes and the cell wall. Often, the findings also allow for conclusions on the respective functions. The moss Physcomitrium (Physcomitrella) patens is a model organism for growth, development and morphogenesis. Its filamentous protonemata are ideal objects for microscopy. Here, we investigated the cell wall between two neighboring cells and the connection of membranes towards this wall after plasmolysis in 0.8 M mannitol. An m-green fluorescent protein (GFP)-HDEL cell line was used to visualize the endoplasmatic reticulum (ER), the plasma membrane (PM) was stained with FM4-64. Our studies clearly show the importance of cell–cell contacts in P. patens protonemata. In 86% of the investigated cell pairs, at least one of the protoplasts remained fully attached to the adjacent cell wall. By tilting of z-stacks, volume renderings and 3D reconstructions, we visualized the amount of attached/detached PM and ER components after plasmolysis and membrane piercings through the wall of cell neighbors.
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19
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High gene space divergence contrasts with frozen vegetative architecture in the moss family Funariaceae. Mol Phylogenet Evol 2020; 154:106965. [PMID: 32956800 DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2020.106965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2020] [Revised: 09/13/2020] [Accepted: 09/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
A new paradigm has slowly emerged regarding the diversification of bryophytes, with inferences from molecular data highlighting a dynamic evolution of their genome. However, comparative studies of expressed genes among closely related taxa is so far missing. Here we contrast the dimensions of the vegetative transcriptome of Funaria hygrometrica and Physcomitrium pyriforme against the genome of their relative, Physcomitrium (Physcomitrella) patens. These three species of Funariaceae share highly conserved vegetative bodies, and are partially sympatric, growing on mineral soil in mostly temperate regions. We analyzed the vegetative gametophytic transcriptome of F. hygrometrica and P. pyriforme and mapped short reads, transcripts, and proteins to the genome and gene space of P. patens. Only about half of the transcripts of F. hygrometrica map to their ortholog in P. patens, whereas at least 90% of those of P. pyriforme align to loci in P. patens. Such divergence is unexpected given the high morphological similarity of the gametophyte but reflects the estimated times of divergence of F. hygrometrica and P. pyriforme from P. patens, namely 55 and 20 mya, respectively. The newly sampled transcriptomes bear signatures of at least one, rather ancient, whole genome duplication (WGD), which may be shared with one reported for P. patens. The transcriptomes of F. hygrometrica and P. pyriforme reveal significant contractions or expansions of different gene families. While transcriptomes offer only an incomplete estimate of the gene space, the high number of transcripts obtained suggest a significant divergence in gene sequences, and gene number among the three species, indicative of a rather strong, dynamic genome evolution, shaped in part by whole, partial or localized genome duplication. The gene ontology of their specific and rapidly-evolving protein families, suggests that the evolution of the Funariaceae may have been driven by the diversification of metabolic genes that may optimize the adaptations to environmental conditions, a hypothesis well in line with ecological patterns in the genetic diversity and structure in seed plants.
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20
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Harant D, Lang I. Stay in Touch-The Cortical ER of Moss Protonemata in Osmotic Stress Situations. PLANTS 2020; 9:plants9040421. [PMID: 32235617 PMCID: PMC7238208 DOI: 10.3390/plants9040421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2020] [Revised: 03/19/2020] [Accepted: 03/24/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Plasmolysis is usually introduced to cell biology students as a tool to illustrate the plasma membrane: hypertonic solutions cause the living protoplast to shrink by osmotic water loss; hence, it detaches from the surrounding cell wall. What happens, however, with the subcellular structures in the cell cortex during this process of turgor loss? Here, we investigated the cortical endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in moss protonema cells of Physcomitrella patens in a cell line carrying a transgenic ER marker (GFP-HDEL). The plasma membrane was labelled simultaneously with the fluorescent dye FM4-64 to achieve structural separation. By placing the protonemata in a hypertonic mannitol solution (0.8 M), we were able to follow the behaviour of the cortical ER and the protoplast during plasmolysis by confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). The protoplast shape and structural changes of the ER were further examined after depolymerisation of actin microfilaments with latrunculin B (1 µM). In its natural state, the cortical ER is a dynamic network of fine tubes and cisternae underneath the plasma membrane. Under acute and long-term plasmolysis (up to 45 min), changes in the protoplast form and the cortical ER, as well as the formation of Hechtian strands and Hechtian reticula, were observed. The processing of the high-resolution z-scans allowed the creation of 3D models and gave detailed insight into the ER of living protonema cells before, during and after plasmolysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominik Harant
- Core Facility Cell Imaging & Ultrastructure Research, Faculty of Life Sciences, The University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, A-1090 Vienna, Austria;
| | - Ingeborg Lang
- Department of Functional and Evolutionary Ecology, Faculty of Life Sciences, The University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, A-1090 Vienna, Austria
- Correspondence:
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21
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Hashida Y, Takechi K, Abiru T, Yabe N, Nagase H, Hattori K, Takio S, Sato Y, Hasebe M, Tsukaya H, Takano H. Two ANGUSTIFOLIA genes regulate gametophore and sporophyte development in Physcomitrella patens. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2020; 101:1318-1330. [PMID: 31674691 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.14592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2019] [Revised: 08/06/2019] [Accepted: 10/17/2019] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
In Arabidopsis thaliana the ANGUSTIFOLIA (AN) gene regulates the width of leaves by controlling the diffuse growth of leaf cells in the medio-lateral direction. In the genome of the moss Physcomitrella patens, we found two normal ANs (PpAN1-1 and 1-2). Both PpAN1 genes complemented the A. thaliana an-1 mutant phenotypes. An analysis of spatiotemporal promoter activity of each PpAN1 gene, using transgenic lines that contained each PpAN1-promoter- uidA (GUS) gene, showed that both promoters are mainly active in the stems of haploid gametophores and in the middle to basal region of the young sporophyte that develops into the seta and foot. Analyses of the knockout lines for PpAN1-1 and PpAN1-2 genes suggested that these genes have partially redundant functions and regulate gametophore height by controlling diffuse cell growth in gametophore stems. In addition, the seta and foot were shorter and thicker in diploid sporophytes, suggesting that cell elongation was reduced in the longitudinal direction, whereas no defects were detected in tip-growing protonemata. These results indicate that both PpAN1 genes in P. patens function in diffuse growth of the haploid and diploid generations but not in tip growth. To visualize microtubule distribution in gametophore cells of P. patens, transformed lines expressing P. patens α-tubulin fused to sGFP were generated. Contrary to expectations, the orientation of microtubules in the tips of gametophores in the PpAN1-1/1-2 double-knockout lines was unchanged. The relationships among diffuse cell growth, cortical microtubules and AN proteins are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshikazu Hashida
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Kumamoto University, Kurokami, Kumamoto, 860-8555, Japan
| | - Katsuaki Takechi
- Faculty of Advanced Science and Technology, Kumamoto University, Kurokami, Kumamoto, 860-8555, Japan
| | - Tomomi Abiru
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Kumamoto University, Kurokami, Kumamoto, 860-8555, Japan
| | - Noriyuki Yabe
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Kumamoto University, Kurokami, Kumamoto, 860-8555, Japan
| | - Hiroaki Nagase
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Kumamoto University, Kurokami, Kumamoto, 860-8555, Japan
| | - Koro Hattori
- Graduate School of Science, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 113-0033, Japan
| | - Susumu Takio
- Faculty of Advanced Science and Technology, Kumamoto University, Kurokami, Kumamoto, 860-8555, Japan
- Center for Water Cycle, Marine Environment and Disaster Management, Kumamoto University, Kurokami, Kumamoto, 860-8555, Japan
| | - Yoshikatsu Sato
- Institute of Transformative Bio-Molecules (WPI-ITbM), Nagoya University, Nagoya, 464-8601, Japan
| | - Mitsuyasu Hasebe
- National Institute for Basic Biology and SOKENDAI (Graduate School for Advanced Studies), Okazaki, 444-8585, Japan
| | - Hirokazu Tsukaya
- Graduate School of Science, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 113-0033, Japan
| | - Hiroyoshi Takano
- Faculty of Advanced Science and Technology, Kumamoto University, Kurokami, Kumamoto, 860-8555, Japan
- Institute of Pulsed Power Science, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, 860-8555, Japan
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22
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Galotto G, Bibeau JP, Vidali L. Automated Image Acquisition and Morphological Analysis of Cell Growth Mutants in Physcomitrella patens. Methods Mol Biol 2020; 1992:307-322. [PMID: 31148047 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-9469-4_20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/05/2023]
Abstract
This protocol describes the automated imaging and a quantitative analysis of the morphology of small plants from the moss Physcomitrella patens. This method can be used for the analysis of growth phenotypes produced by transient RNA interference or for the analysis of stable mutant plants. Furthermore, we describe how to acquire higher resolution images via the acquisition of a collection of multiple overlapping tiles from the same image. Information is presented to guide the investigator in the choice of vectors and basic conditions to perform transient RNA interference in moss. Detailed directions and examples for fluorescence image acquisition of small regenerating moss plants are provided. Instructions for stitching image tiles and for using an ImageJ-based macro for the quantitative morphological analysis of moss plants are also provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Galotto
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA, USA
| | - Jeffrey P Bibeau
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA, USA
| | - Luis Vidali
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA, USA.
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23
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Agudelo-Romero P, Fortes AM, Suárez T, Lascano HR, Saavedra L. Evolutionary insights into FYVE and PHOX effector proteins from the moss Physcomitrella patens. PLANTA 2020; 251:62. [PMID: 32040768 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-020-03354-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2019] [Accepted: 02/01/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Genome-wide identification, together with gene expression patterns and promoter region analysis of FYVE and PHOX proteins in Physcomitrella patens, emphasized their importance in regulating mainly developmental processes in P. patens. Phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate (PtdIns3P) is a signaling phospholipid, which regulates several aspects of plant growth and development, as well as responses to biotic and abiotic stresses. The mechanistic insights underlying PtdIns3P mode of action, specifically through effector proteins have been partially explored in plants, with main focus on Arabidopsis thaliana. In this study, we searched for genes coding for PtdIns3P-binding proteins such as FYVE and PHOX domain-containing sequences from different photosynthetic organisms to gather evolutionary insights on these phosphoinositide binding domains, followed by an in silico characterization of the FYVE and PHOX gene families in the moss Physcomitrella patens. Phylogenetic analysis showed that PpFYVE proteins can be grouped in 7 subclasses, with an additional subclass whose FYVE domain was lost during evolution to higher plants. On the other hand, PpPHOX proteins are classified into 5 subclasses. Expression analyses based on RNAseq data together with the analysis of cis-acting regulatory elements and transcription factor (TF) binding sites in promoter regions suggest the importance of these proteins in regulating stress responses but mainly developmental processes in P. patens. The results provide valuable information and robust candidate genes for future functional analysis aiming to further explore the role of this signaling pathway mainly during growth and development of tip growing cells and during the transition from 2 to 3D growth. These studies would identify ancestral regulatory players undertaken during plant evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Agudelo-Romero
- The UWA Institute of Agriculture, The University of Western Australia, M082, Perth, 6009, Australia
- The ARC Centre of Excellence in Plant Energy Biology, The University of Western Australia, M316 Perth, Perth, 6009, Australia
- Telethon Kids Institute, University of Western Australia, Nedlands, WA, Australia
| | - Ana Margarida Fortes
- Faculdade de Ciências, BioISI-Biosystems and Integrative Sciences Institute, Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande, 1749-016, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Trinidad Suárez
- Cátedra de Fisiología Vegetal, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
- Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Centro de Investigaciones en Química Biológica de Córdoba, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Hernán Ramiro Lascano
- Cátedra de Fisiología Vegetal, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
- CONICET-Instituto de Fisiología y Recursos Genéticos Vegetales, Centro de Investigaciones Agropecuarias, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA), Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Laura Saavedra
- Cátedra de Fisiología Vegetal, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina.
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas y Tecnológicas (IIByT), CONICET-Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina.
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24
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Pu X, Yang L, Liu L, Dong X, Chen S, Chen Z, Liu G, Jia Y, Yuan W, Liu L. Genome-Wide Analysis of the MYB Transcription Factor Superfamily in Physcomitrella patens. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21030975. [PMID: 32024128 PMCID: PMC7037163 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21030975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2019] [Revised: 01/25/2020] [Accepted: 01/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
MYB transcription factors (TFs) are one of the largest TF families in plants to regulate numerous biological processes. However, our knowledge of the MYB family in Physcomitrella patens is limited. We identified 116 MYB genes in the P. patens genome, which were classified into the R2R3-MYB, R1R2R3-MYB, 4R-MYB, and MYB-related subfamilies. Most R2R3 genes contain 3 exons and 2 introns, whereas R1R2R3 MYB genes contain 10 exons and 9 introns. N3R-MYB (novel 3RMYB) and NR-MYBs (novel RMYBs) with complicated gene structures appear to be novel MYB proteins. In addition, we found that the diversity of the MYB domain was mainly contributed by domain shuffling and gene duplication. RNA-seq analysis suggested that MYBs exhibited differential expression to heat and might play important roles in heat stress responses, whereas CCA1-like MYB genes might confer greater flexibility to the circadian clock. Some R2R3-MYB and CCA1-like MYB genes are preferentially expressed in the archegonium and during the transition from the chloronema to caulonema stage, suggesting their roles in development. Compared with that of algae, the numbers of MYBs have significantly increased, thus our study lays the foundation for further exploring the potential roles of MYBs in the transition from aquatic to terrestrial environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaojun Pu
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Green Transformation of Bio-Resources, Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan 430000, China; (X.P.); (W.Y.)
- Key Laboratory for Economic Plants and Biotechnology, Germplasm Bank of Wild Species, National Wild Seed Resource Center, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China; (L.Y.); (L.L.); (X.D.); (S.C.); (Z.C.); (G.L.); (Y.J.)
| | - Lixin Yang
- Key Laboratory for Economic Plants and Biotechnology, Germplasm Bank of Wild Species, National Wild Seed Resource Center, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China; (L.Y.); (L.L.); (X.D.); (S.C.); (Z.C.); (G.L.); (Y.J.)
| | - Lina Liu
- Key Laboratory for Economic Plants and Biotechnology, Germplasm Bank of Wild Species, National Wild Seed Resource Center, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China; (L.Y.); (L.L.); (X.D.); (S.C.); (Z.C.); (G.L.); (Y.J.)
| | - Xiumei Dong
- Key Laboratory for Economic Plants and Biotechnology, Germplasm Bank of Wild Species, National Wild Seed Resource Center, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China; (L.Y.); (L.L.); (X.D.); (S.C.); (Z.C.); (G.L.); (Y.J.)
| | - Silin Chen
- Key Laboratory for Economic Plants and Biotechnology, Germplasm Bank of Wild Species, National Wild Seed Resource Center, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China; (L.Y.); (L.L.); (X.D.); (S.C.); (Z.C.); (G.L.); (Y.J.)
| | - Zexi Chen
- Key Laboratory for Economic Plants and Biotechnology, Germplasm Bank of Wild Species, National Wild Seed Resource Center, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China; (L.Y.); (L.L.); (X.D.); (S.C.); (Z.C.); (G.L.); (Y.J.)
| | - Gaojing Liu
- Key Laboratory for Economic Plants and Biotechnology, Germplasm Bank of Wild Species, National Wild Seed Resource Center, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China; (L.Y.); (L.L.); (X.D.); (S.C.); (Z.C.); (G.L.); (Y.J.)
| | - Yanxia Jia
- Key Laboratory for Economic Plants and Biotechnology, Germplasm Bank of Wild Species, National Wild Seed Resource Center, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China; (L.Y.); (L.L.); (X.D.); (S.C.); (Z.C.); (G.L.); (Y.J.)
| | - Wenya Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Green Transformation of Bio-Resources, Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan 430000, China; (X.P.); (W.Y.)
| | - Li Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Green Transformation of Bio-Resources, Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan 430000, China; (X.P.); (W.Y.)
- Key Laboratory for Economic Plants and Biotechnology, Germplasm Bank of Wild Species, National Wild Seed Resource Center, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China; (L.Y.); (L.L.); (X.D.); (S.C.); (Z.C.); (G.L.); (Y.J.)
- Correspondence:
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25
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Factors Affecting Organelle Genome Stability in Physcomitrella patens. PLANTS 2020; 9:plants9020145. [PMID: 31979236 PMCID: PMC7076466 DOI: 10.3390/plants9020145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2019] [Revised: 01/21/2020] [Accepted: 01/21/2020] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Organelle genomes are essential for plants; however, the mechanisms underlying the maintenance of organelle genomes are incompletely understood. Using the basal land plant Physcomitrella patens as a model, nuclear-encoded homologs of bacterial-type homologous recombination repair (HRR) factors have been shown to play an important role in the maintenance of organelle genome stability by suppressing recombination between short dispersed repeats. In this review, I summarize the factors and pathways involved in the maintenance of genome stability, as well as the repeats that cause genomic instability in organelles in P. patens, and compare them with findings in other plant species. I also discuss the relationship between HRR factors and organelle genome structure from the evolutionary standpoint.
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26
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Le Bail A, Schulmeister S, Perroud PF, Ntefidou M, Rensing SA, Kost B. Analysis of the Localization of Fluorescent PpROP1 and PpROP-GEF4 Fusion Proteins in Moss Protonemata Based on Genomic "Knock-In" and Estradiol-Titratable Expression. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2019; 10:456. [PMID: 31031790 PMCID: PMC6473103 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2019.00456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2018] [Accepted: 03/26/2019] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Tip growth of pollen tubes, root hairs, and apical cells of moss protonemata is controlled by ROP (Rho of plants) GTPases, which were shown to accumulate at the apical plasma membrane of these cells. However, most ROP localization patterns reported in the literature are based on fluorescent protein tagging and need to be interpreted with caution, as ROP fusion proteins were generally overexpressed at undefined levels, in many cases without assessing effects on tip growth. ROP-GEFs, important regulators of ROP activity, were also described to accumulate at the apical plasma membrane during tip growth. However, to date only the localization of fluorescent ROP-GEF fusion proteins strongly overexpressed using highly active promoters have been investigated. Here, the intracellular distributions of fluorescent PpROP1 and PpROP-GEF4 fusion proteins expressed at essentially endogenous levels in apical cells of Physcomitrella patens "knock-in" protonemata were analyzed. Whereas PpROP-GEF4 was found to associate with a small apical plasma membrane domain, PpROP1 expression was below the detection limit. Estradiol-titratable expression of a fluorescent PpROP1 fusion protein at the lowest detectable level, at which plant development was only marginally affected, was therefore employed to show that PpROP1 also accumulates at the apical plasma membrane, although within a substantially larger domain. Interestingly, RNA-Seq data indicated that the majority of all genes active in protonemata are expressed at lower levels than PpROP1, suggesting that estradiol-titratable expression may represent an important alternative to "knock-in" based analysis of the intracellular distribution of fluorescent fusion proteins in protonemal cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aude Le Bail
- Cell Biology, Department of Biology, Friedrich–Alexander University Erlangen–Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Sylwia Schulmeister
- Cell Biology, Department of Biology, Friedrich–Alexander University Erlangen–Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | | | - Maria Ntefidou
- Cell Biology, Department of Biology, Friedrich–Alexander University Erlangen–Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Stefan A. Rensing
- Plant Cell Biology, Faculty of Biology, Philipps University of Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Benedikt Kost
- Cell Biology, Department of Biology, Friedrich–Alexander University Erlangen–Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
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27
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Wu SZ, Yamada M, Mallett DR, Bezanilla M. Cytoskeletal discoveries in the plant lineage using the moss Physcomitrella patens. Biophys Rev 2018; 10:1683-1693. [PMID: 30382556 DOI: 10.1007/s12551-018-0470-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2018] [Accepted: 10/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Advances in cell biology have been largely driven by pioneering work in model systems, the majority of which are from one major eukaryotic lineage, the opisthokonts. However, with the explosion of genomic information in many lineages, it has become clear that eukaryotes have incredible diversity in many cellular systems, including the cytoskeleton. By identifying model systems in diverse lineages, it may be possible to begin to understand the evolutionary origins of the eukaryotic cytoskeleton. Within the plant lineage, cell biological studies in the model moss, Physcomitrella patens, have over the past decade provided key insights into how the cytoskeleton drives cell and tissue morphology. Here, we review P. patens attributes that make it such a rich resource for cytoskeletal cell biological inquiry and highlight recent key findings with regard to intracellular transport, microtubule-actin interactions, and gene discovery that promises for many years to provide new cytoskeletal players.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shu-Zon Wu
- Department of Biological Sciences, Dartmouth College, 78 College Street, Hanover, NH, 03755, USA
| | - Moe Yamada
- Department of Biological Sciences, Dartmouth College, 78 College Street, Hanover, NH, 03755, USA
- Division of Biological Science, Graduate School of Science, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, 464-8602, Japan
| | - Darren R Mallett
- Department of Biological Sciences, Dartmouth College, 78 College Street, Hanover, NH, 03755, USA
| | - Magdalena Bezanilla
- Department of Biological Sciences, Dartmouth College, 78 College Street, Hanover, NH, 03755, USA.
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28
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Thelander M, Landberg K, Sundberg E. Auxin-mediated developmental control in the moss Physcomitrella patens. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2018; 69:277-290. [PMID: 28992074 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erx255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2017] [Accepted: 06/27/2017] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
The signalling molecule auxin regulates many fundamental aspects of growth and development in plants. We review and discuss what is known about auxin-regulated development in mosses, with special emphasis on the model species Physcomitrella patens. It is well established that mosses and other early diverging plants produce and respond to auxin. By sequencing the P. patens genome, it became clear that it encodes many core proteins important for auxin homeostasis, perception, and signalling, which have also been identified in flowering plants. This suggests that the auxin molecular network was present in the last common ancestor of flowering plants and mosses. Despite fundamental differences in their life cycles, key processes such as organ initiation and outgrowth, branching, tropic responses, as well as cell differentiation, division, and expansion appear to be regulated by auxin in the two lineages. This knowledge paves the way for studies aimed at a better understanding of the origin and evolution of auxin function and how auxin may have contributed to the evolution of land plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mattias Thelander
- Department of Plant Biology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, The Linnean Centre for Plant Biology in Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Katarina Landberg
- Department of Plant Biology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, The Linnean Centre for Plant Biology in Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Eva Sundberg
- Department of Plant Biology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, The Linnean Centre for Plant Biology in Uppsala, Sweden
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29
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Mravec J, Kračun SK, Zemlyanskaya E, Rydahl MG, Guo X, Pičmanová M, Sørensen KK, Růžička K, Willats WGT. Click chemistry-based tracking reveals putative cell wall-located auxin binding sites in expanding cells. Sci Rep 2017; 7:15988. [PMID: 29167548 PMCID: PMC5700113 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-16281-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2016] [Accepted: 11/10/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Auxin is a key plant regulatory molecule, which acts upon a plethora of cellular processes, including those related to cell differentiation and elongation. Despite the stunning progress in all disciplines of auxin research, the mechanisms of auxin-mediated rapid promotion of cell expansion and underlying rearrangement of cell wall components are poorly understood. This is partly due to the limitations of current methodologies for probing auxin. Here we describe a click chemistry-based approach, using an azido derivative of indole-3-propionic acid. This compound is as an active auxin analogue, which can be tagged in situ. Using this new tool, we demonstrate the existence of putative auxin binding sites in the cell walls of expanding/elongating cells. These binding sites are of protein nature but are distinct from those provided by the extensively studied AUXIN BINDING PROTEIN 1 (ABP1). Using immunohistochemistry, we have shown the apoplastic presence of endogenous auxin epitopes recognised by an anti-IAA antibody. Our results are intriguingly in line with previous observations suggesting some transcription-independent (non-genomic) activity of auxin in cell elongation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jozef Mravec
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871, Frederiksberg-C, Denmark.
| | - Stjepan K Kračun
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871, Frederiksberg-C, Denmark
| | | | - Maja G Rydahl
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871, Frederiksberg-C, Denmark
| | - Xiaoyuan Guo
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871, Frederiksberg-C, Denmark
| | - Martina Pičmanová
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871, Frederiksberg-C, Denmark
| | - Kasper K Sørensen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871, Frederiksberg-C, Denmark
| | - Kamil Růžička
- CEITEC Masaryk University, Kamenice 5, CZ-625 00, Brno, Czechia
- Laboratory of Hormonal Regulations in Plants, Institute of Experimental Botany, Czech Academy of Sciences, Rozvojová 263, CZ-165 02 Prague, Czechia
| | - William G T Willats
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871, Frederiksberg-C, Denmark.
- School of Agriculture, Food and Rural Development, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK.
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30
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Proteome-wide identification of lysine 2-hydroxyisobutyrylation reveals conserved and novel histone modifications in Physcomitrella patens. Sci Rep 2017; 7:15553. [PMID: 29138512 PMCID: PMC5686104 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-15854-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2017] [Accepted: 11/01/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Protein lysine 2-hydroxyisobutyrylation (Khib) is a newly identified post-translational modification found in animal and yeast cells. Previous research suggested that histone Khib is involved in male cell differentiation and plays a critical role in the regulation of chromatin functions in animals. However, information regarding protein Khib in plants is still limited. In this study, using a specific antibody and LC-MS/MS methods, we identified 11,976 Khib sites in 3,001 proteins in Physcomitrella patens. The bioinformatics analysis indicated that these Khib-modified proteins were involved in a wide range of molecular functions and cellular processes, and showed diverse subcellular localizations. Furthermore, an comparism of Khib sites in histone proteins among human, mouse and P. patens found conserved sites in the H3 and H4 histone proteins and novel sites in H1, H2A and H2B histone proteins in P. patens. This is the first report on Khib post-translational modifications in plants, and the study provides a comprehensive profile of Khib sites in histone and non-histone proteins in Physcomitrella patens.
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31
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Rensing SA. Plant Evo-Devo: How Tip Growth Evolved. Curr Biol 2016; 26:R1228-R1230. [PMID: 27923130 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2016.09.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Apical elongation of polarized plant cells (tip growth) occurs in root hairs of flowering plants and in rhizoids of bryophytes. A new report shows that the formation of these cells relies on genes already present in the first land plants.
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32
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Buschmann H, Zachgo S. The Evolution of Cell Division: From Streptophyte Algae to Land Plants. TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2016; 21:872-883. [PMID: 27477927 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2016.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2016] [Revised: 06/24/2016] [Accepted: 07/04/2016] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
The mechanism of cell division has undergone significant alterations during the evolution from aquatic streptophyte algae to land plants. Two new structures evolved, the cytokinetic phragmoplast and the preprophase band (PPB) of microtubules, whereas the ancestral mechanism of cleavage and the centrosomes disappeared. We map cell biological data onto the recently emerged phylogenetic tree of streptophytes. The tree suggests that, after the establishment of the phragmoplast mechanism, several groups independently lost their centrosomes. Surprisingly, the phragmoplast shows reductions in the Zygnematophyceae (the sister to land plants), many of which returned to cleavage. The PPB by contrast evolved stepwise and, most likely, originated in the algae. The phragmoplast/PPB mechanism established in this way served as a basis for the 3D development of land plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henrik Buschmann
- Osnabrück University, Department of Biology and Chemistry, Barbarastrasse 11, 49076 Osnabrück, Germany.
| | - Sabine Zachgo
- Osnabrück University, Department of Biology and Chemistry, Barbarastrasse 11, 49076 Osnabrück, Germany
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33
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Lütz-Meindl U. Micrasterias as a Model System in Plant Cell Biology. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2016; 7:999. [PMID: 27462330 PMCID: PMC4940373 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2016.00999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2016] [Accepted: 06/24/2016] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The unicellular freshwater alga Micrasterias denticulata is an exceptional organism due to its complex star-shaped, highly symmetric morphology and has thus attracted the interest of researchers for many decades. As a member of the Streptophyta, Micrasterias is not only genetically closely related to higher land plants but shares common features with them in many physiological and cell biological aspects. These facts, together with its considerable cell size of about 200 μm, its modest cultivation conditions and the uncomplicated accessibility particularly to any microscopic techniques, make Micrasterias a very well suited cell biological plant model system. The review focuses particularly on cell wall formation and composition, dictyosomal structure and function, cytoskeleton control of growth and morphogenesis as well as on ionic regulation and signal transduction. It has been also shown in the recent years that Micrasterias is a highly sensitive indicator for environmental stress impact such as heavy metals, high salinity, oxidative stress or starvation. Stress induced organelle degradation, autophagy, adaption and detoxification mechanisms have moved in the center of interest and have been investigated with modern microscopic techniques such as 3-D- and analytical electron microscopy as well as with biochemical, physiological and molecular approaches. This review is intended to summarize and discuss the most important results obtained in Micrasterias in the last 20 years and to compare the results to similar processes in higher plant cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ursula Lütz-Meindl
- Plant Physiology Division, Cell Biology Department, University of SalzburgSalzburg, Austria
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34
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Bressendorff S, Azevedo R, Kenchappa CS, Ponce de León I, Olsen JV, Rasmussen MW, Erbs G, Newman MA, Petersen M, Mundy J. An Innate Immunity Pathway in the Moss Physcomitrella patens. THE PLANT CELL 2016; 28:1328-42. [PMID: 27268428 PMCID: PMC4944399 DOI: 10.1105/tpc.15.00774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2015] [Revised: 05/13/2016] [Accepted: 06/02/2016] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
MAP kinase (MPK) cascades in Arabidopsis thaliana and other vascular plants are activated by developmental cues, abiotic stress, and pathogen infection. Much less is known of MPK functions in nonvascular land plants such as the moss Physcomitrella patens Here, we provide evidence for a signaling pathway in P. patens required for immunity triggered by pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). This pathway induces rapid growth inhibition, a novel fluorescence burst, cell wall depositions, and accumulation of defense-related transcripts. Two P. patens MPKs (MPK4a and MPK4b) are phosphorylated and activated in response to PAMPs. This activation in response to the fungal PAMP chitin requires a chitin receptor and one or more MAP kinase kinase kinases and MAP kinase kinases. Knockout lines of MPK4a appear wild type but have increased susceptibility to the pathogenic fungi Botrytis cinerea and Alternaria brassisicola Both PAMPs and osmotic stress activate some of the same MPKs in Arabidopsis. In contrast, abscisic acid treatment or osmotic stress of P. patens does not activate MPK4a or any other MPK, but activates at least one SnRK2 kinase. Signaling via MPK4a may therefore be specific to immunity, and the moss relies on other pathways to respond to osmotic stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Bressendorff
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Copenhagen, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Raquel Azevedo
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Copenhagen, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | - Inés Ponce de León
- Departamento de Biología Molecular, Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas Clemente Estable, 11600 Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Jakob V Olsen
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Copenhagen, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | - Gitte Erbs
- Department of Plant and Environmental Science, University of Copenhagen, 1871 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Mari-Anne Newman
- Department of Plant and Environmental Science, University of Copenhagen, 1871 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Morten Petersen
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Copenhagen, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - John Mundy
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Copenhagen, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
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35
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Schuessele C, Hoernstein SNW, Mueller SJ, Rodriguez-Franco M, Lorenz T, Lang D, Igloi GL, Reski R. Spatio-temporal patterning of arginyl-tRNA protein transferase (ATE) contributes to gametophytic development in a moss. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2016; 209:1014-1027. [PMID: 26428055 DOI: 10.1111/nph.13656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2015] [Accepted: 08/14/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The importance of the arginyl-tRNA protein transferase (ATE), the enzyme mediating post-translation arginylation of proteins in the N-end rule degradation (NERD) pathway of protein stability, was analysed in Physcomitrella patens and compared to its known functions in other eukaryotes. We characterize ATE:GUS reporter lines as well as ATE mutants in P. patens to study the impact and function of arginylation on moss development and physiology. ATE protein abundance is spatially and temporally regulated in P. patens by hormones and light and is highly abundant in meristematic cells. Further, the amount of ATE transcript is regulated during abscisic acid signalling and downstream of auxin signalling. Loss-of-function mutants exhibit defects at various levels, most severely in developing gametophores, in chloroplast starch accumulation and senescence. Thus, arginylation is necessary for moss gametophyte development, in contrast to the situation in flowering plants. Our analysis further substantiates the conservation of the N-end rule pathway components in land plants and highlights lineage-specific features. We introduce moss as a model system to characterize the role of the NERD pathway as an additional layer of complexity in eukaryotic development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Schuessele
- Plant Biotechnology, Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Schaenzlestr. 1, 79104, Freiburg, Germany
- Institute of Biology 3, Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Schaenzlestr. 1, 79104, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Sebastian N W Hoernstein
- Plant Biotechnology, Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Schaenzlestr. 1, 79104, Freiburg, Germany
- Institute of Biology 3, Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Schaenzlestr. 1, 79104, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Stefanie J Mueller
- Plant Biotechnology, Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Schaenzlestr. 1, 79104, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Marta Rodriguez-Franco
- Cell Biology, Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Schaenzlestr. 1, 79104, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Timo Lorenz
- Plant Biotechnology, Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Schaenzlestr. 1, 79104, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Daniel Lang
- Plant Biotechnology, Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Schaenzlestr. 1, 79104, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Gabor L Igloi
- Institute of Biology 3, Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Schaenzlestr. 1, 79104, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Ralf Reski
- Plant Biotechnology, Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Schaenzlestr. 1, 79104, Freiburg, Germany
- FRIAS - Freiburg Institute for Advanced Studies, University of Freiburg, 79104, Freiburg, Germany
- BIOSS - Centre for Biological Signalling Studies, University of Freiburg, 79104, Freiburg, Germany
- TIP - Trinational Institute for Plant Research, Upper Rhine Valley, 79104, Freiburg, Germany
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Abstract
Recently developed live-cell markers provide an opportunity to explore the dynamics and localization of proteins in maize, an important crop and model for monocot development. A step-by-step method is outlined for observing and analyzing the process of division in maize cells. The steps include plant growth conditions, sample preparation, time-lapse setup, and calculation of division rates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolyn G Rasmussen
- Department of Botany and Plant Sciences, Center for Plant Cell Biology, University of California, Riverside, 900 University Ave., Riverside, CA, 92521, USA.
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Mueller SJ, Reski R. Mitochondrial Dynamics and the ER: The Plant Perspective. Front Cell Dev Biol 2015; 3:78. [PMID: 26779478 PMCID: PMC4688345 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2015.00078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2015] [Accepted: 11/23/2015] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Whereas contact sites between mitochondria and the ER have been in the focus of animal and fungal research for several years, the importance of this organellar interface and the molecular effectors are largely unknown for plants. This work gives an introduction into known evolutionary differences of molecular effectors of mitochondrial dynamics and interactions between animals, fungi, and plants. Using the model plant Physcomitrella patens, we provide microscopic evidence for the existence of mitochondria-ER interactions in plants and their correlation with mitochondrial constriction and fission. We further investigate a previously identified protein of unknown function (MELL1), and show that it modulates the amount of mitochondrial association to the ER, as well as mitochondrial shape and number.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefanie J. Mueller
- Plant Biotechnology, Faculty of Biology, University of FreiburgFreiburg, Germany
| | - Ralf Reski
- Plant Biotechnology, Faculty of Biology, University of FreiburgFreiburg, Germany
- BIOSS Centre for Biological Signalling Studies, University of FreiburgFreiburg, Germany
- FRIAS Freiburg Institute for Advanced Studies, University of FreiburgFreiburg, Germany
- USIAS University of Strasbourg Institute for Advanced Study, University of StrasbourgStrasbourg, France
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Mittag J, Gabrielyan A, Ludwig-Müller J. Knockout of GH3 genes in the moss Physcomitrella patens leads to increased IAA levels at elevated temperature and in darkness. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY : PPB 2015; 97:339-49. [PMID: 26520677 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2015.10.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2015] [Revised: 10/05/2015] [Accepted: 10/07/2015] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Two proteins of the GRETCHEN HAGEN3 (GH3) family of acyl acid amido synthetases from the moss Physcomitrella patens conjugate indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) to a series of amino acids. The possible function of altered auxin levels in the moss in response to two different growth perturbations, elevated temperatures and darkness, was analyzed using a) the recently described double knockout lines in both P. patens GH3 genes (GH3-doKO) and b) a previously characterized line harboring an auxin-inducible soybean GH3 promoter::reporter fused to β-glucuronidase (G1-GUS). The GUS activity as marker of the auxin response increased at higher temperatures and after cultivation in the darkness for a period of up to four weeks. Generally, the double knockout plants grew more slowly than the wild type (WT). The altered growth conditions influenced the phenotypes of the double knockout lines differently from that of WT moss. Higher temperatures negatively affected GH3-doKO plants compared to WT which was shown by stronger loss of chlorophyll. On the other hand, a positive effect was found on the concentrations of free IAA which increased at 28 °C in the GH3-doKO lines compared to WT plants. A different factor, namely darkness vs. a light/dark cycle caused the adverse phenotype concerning chlorophyll concentrations. Mutant moss plants showed higher chlorophyll concentrations than WT and these correlated with higher free IAA in the plant population that was classified as green. Our data show that growth perturbations result in higher free IAA levels in the GH3-doKO mutants, but in one case - growth in darkness - the mutants could cope better with the condition, whereas at elevated temperatures the mutants were more sensitive than WT. Thus, GH3 function in P. patens WT could lie in the regulation of IAA concentrations under unfavorable environmental conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Mittag
- Institute of Botany, Technische Universität Dresden, 01062 Dresden, Germany
| | | | - Jutta Ludwig-Müller
- Institute of Botany, Technische Universität Dresden, 01062 Dresden, Germany.
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Frank MH, Scanlon MJ. Cell-specific transcriptomic analyses of three-dimensional shoot development in the moss Physcomitrella patens. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2015; 83:743-51. [PMID: 26123849 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.12928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2015] [Revised: 06/17/2015] [Accepted: 06/23/2015] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Haploid moss gametophytes harbor distinct stem cell types, including tip cells that divide in single planes to generate filamentous protonemata, and bud cells that divide in three planes to yield axial gametophore shoots. This transition from filamentous to triplanar growth occurs progressively during the moss life cycle, and is thought to mirror evolution of the first terrestrial plants from Charophycean green algal ancestors. The innovation of morphologically complex plant body plans facilitated colonization of the vertical landscape, and enabled development of complex vegetative and reproductive plant morphologies. Despite its profound evolutionary significance, the molecular programs involved in this transition from filamentous to triplanar meristematic plant growth are poorly understood. In this study, we used single-cell type transcriptomics to identify more than 4000 differentially expressed genes that distinguish uniplanar protonematal tip cells from multiplanar gametophore bud cells in the moss Physcomitrella patens. While the transcriptomes of both tip and bud cells show molecular signatures of proliferative cells, the bud cell transcriptome exhibits a wider variety of genes with significantly increased transcript abundances. Our data suggest that combined expression of genes involved in shoot patterning and asymmetric cell division accompanies the transition from uniplanar to triplanar meristematic growth in moss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margaret H Frank
- Department of Plant Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Michael J Scanlon
- Department of Plant Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
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Conserved regulatory mechanism controls the development of cells with rooting functions in land plants. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2015; 112:E3959-68. [PMID: 26150509 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1416324112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Land plants develop filamentous cells-root hairs, rhizoids, and caulonemata-at the interface with the soil. Members of the group XI basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) transcription factors encoded by LOTUS JAPONICUS ROOTHAIRLESS1-LIKE (LRL) genes positively regulate the development of root hairs in the angiosperms Lotus japonicus, Arabidopsis thaliana, and rice (Oryza sativa). Here we show that auxin promotes rhizoid and caulonema development by positively regulating the expression of PpLRL1 and PpLRL2, the two LRL genes in the Physcomitrella patens genome. Although the group VIII bHLH proteins, AtROOT HAIR DEFECTIVE6 and AtROOT HAIR DEFECTIVE SIX-LIKE1, promote root-hair development by positively regulating the expression of AtLRL3 in A. thaliana, LRL genes promote rhizoid development independently of PpROOT HAIR DEFECTIVE SIX-LIKE1 and PpROOT HAIR DEFECITVE SIX-LIKE2 (PpRSL1 and PpRSL2) gene function in P. patens. Together, these data demonstrate that both LRL and RSL genes are components of an ancient auxin-regulated gene network that controls the development of tip-growing cells with rooting functions among most extant land plants. Although this network has diverged in the moss and the angiosperm lineages, our data demonstrate that the core network acted in the last common ancestor of the mosses and angiosperms that existed sometime before 420 million years ago.
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41
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Qin Y, Dong J. Focusing on the focus: what else beyond the master switches for polar cell growth? MOLECULAR PLANT 2015; 8:582-94. [PMID: 25744359 PMCID: PMC5124495 DOI: 10.1016/j.molp.2014.12.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2014] [Revised: 12/24/2014] [Accepted: 12/29/2014] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Cell polarity, often associated with polarized cell expansion/growth in plants, describes the uneven distribution of cellular components, such as proteins, nucleic acids, signaling molecules, vesicles, cytoskeletal elements, and organelles, which may ultimately modulate cell shape, structure, and function. Pollen tubes and root hairs are model cell systems for studying the molecular mechanisms underlying sustained tip growth. The formation of intercalated epidermal pavement cells requires excitatory and inhibitory pathways to coordinate cell expansion within single cells and between cells in contact. Strictly controlled cell expansion is linked to asymmetric cell division in zygotes and stomatal lineages, which require integrated processes of pre-mitotic cellular polarization and division asymmetry. While small GTPase ROPs are recognized as fundamental signaling switches for cell polarity in various cellular and developmental processes in plants, the broader molecular machinery underpinning polarity establishment required for asymmetric division remains largely unknown. Here, we review the widely used ROP signaling pathways in cell polar growth and the recently discovered feedback loops with auxin signaling and PIN effluxers. We discuss the conserved phosphorylation and phospholipid signaling mechanisms for regulating uneven distribution of proteins, as well as the potential roles of novel proteins and MAPKs in the polarity establishment related to asymmetric cell division in plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Qin
- Center for Genomics and Biotechnology, College of Crop Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, Fujian Province, China
| | - Juan Dong
- Waksman Institute of Microbiology, Rutgers the State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA; The Department of Plant Biology and Pathology, Rutgers the State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA.
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42
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Nakahara J, Takechi K, Myouga F, Moriyama Y, Sato H, Takio S, Takano H. Bending of protonema cells in a plastid glycolate/glycerate transporter knockout line of Physcomitrella patens. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0118804. [PMID: 25793376 PMCID: PMC4368765 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0118804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2014] [Accepted: 01/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Arabidopsis LrgB (synonym PLGG1) is a plastid glycolate/glycerate transporter associated with recycling of 2-phosphoglycolate generated via the oxygenase activity of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (RuBisCO). We isolated two homologous genes (PpLrgB1 and B2) from the moss Physcomitrella patens. Phylogenetic tree analysis showed that PpLrgB1 was monophyletic with LrgB proteins of land plants, whereas PpLrgB2 was divergent from the green plant lineage. Experiments with PpLrgB–GFP fusion proteins suggested that both PpLrgB1 and B2 proteins were located in chloroplasts. We generated PpLrgB single (∆B1 and ∆B2) and double (∆B1/∆B2)-knockout lines using gene targeting of P. patens. The ∆B1 plants showed decreases in growth and photosynthetic activity, and their protonema cells were bent and accumulated glycolate. However, because ∆B2 and ∆B1/∆B2 plants showed no obvious phenotypic change relative to the wild-type or ∆B1 plants, respectively, the function of PpLrgB2 remains unclear. Arabidopsis LrgB could complement the ∆B1 phenotype, suggesting that the function of PpLrgB1 is the same as that of AtLrgB. When ∆B1 was grown under high-CO2 conditions, all novel phenotypes were suppressed. Moreover, protonema cells of wild-type plants exhibited a bending phenotype when cultured on media containing glycolate or glycerate, suggesting that accumulation of photorespiratory metabolites caused P. patens cells to bend.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Nakahara
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Kumamoto University, Kurokami, Kumamoto 860–8555, Japan
| | - Katsuaki Takechi
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Kumamoto University, Kurokami, Kumamoto 860–8555, Japan
| | - Fumiyoshi Myouga
- Gene Discovery Research Group, RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science (CSRS), Yokohama, Kanagawa 230–0045, Japan
| | - Yasuko Moriyama
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Kumamoto University, Kurokami, Kumamoto 860–8555, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Sato
- Faculty of Science, Kumamoto University, Kurokami, Kumamoto 860–8555, Japan
| | - Susumu Takio
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Kumamoto University, Kurokami, Kumamoto 860–8555, Japan
- Center for Marine Environment Studies, Kumamoto University, Kurokami, Kumamoto 860–8555, Japan
| | - Hiroyoshi Takano
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Kumamoto University, Kurokami, Kumamoto 860–8555, Japan
- Institute of Pulsed Power Science, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860–8555, Japan
- * E-mail:
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Buchnik L, Abu-Abied M, Sadot E. Role of plant myosins in motile organelles: is a direct interaction required? JOURNAL OF INTEGRATIVE PLANT BIOLOGY 2015; 57:23-30. [PMID: 25196231 DOI: 10.1111/jipb.12282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2014] [Accepted: 08/31/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Plant organelles are highly motile, with speed values of 3-7 µm/s in cells of land plants and about 20-60 µm/s in characean algal cells. This movement is believed to be important for rapid distribution of materials around the cell, for the plant's ability to respond to environmental biotic and abiotic signals and for proper growth. The main machinery that propels motility of organelles within plant cells is based on the actin cytoskeleton and its motor proteins the myosins. Most plants express multiple members of two main classes: myosin VIII and myosin XI. While myosin VIII has been characterized as a slow motor protein, myosins from class XI were found to be the fastest motor proteins known in all kingdoms. Paradoxically, while it was found that myosins from class XI regulate most organelle movement, it is not quite clear how or even if these motor proteins attach to the organelles whose movement they regulate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Limor Buchnik
- The Institute of Plant Sciences, The Volcani Center, ARO, PO Box 6, Bet-Dagan, 50250, Israel
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44
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Doty KF, Betzelberger AM, Kocot KM, Cook ME. Immunofluorescence localization of the tubulin cytoskeleton during cell division and cell growth in members of the Coleochaetales (Streptophyta). JOURNAL OF PHYCOLOGY 2014; 50:624-39. [PMID: 26988447 DOI: 10.1111/jpy.12194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2014] [Accepted: 04/09/2014] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Study of charophycean green algae, including the Coleochaetales, may shed light on the evolutionary history of characters they share with their land plant relatives. We examined the tubulin cytoskeleton during mitosis, cytokinesis, and growth in members of the Coleochaetales with diverse morphologies to determine if phragmoplasts occurred throughout this order and to identify microtubular patterns associated with cell growth. Species representing three subgroups of Coleochaete and its sister genus Chaetosphaeridium were studied. Cytokinesis involving a phragmoplast was found in the four taxa examined. Differential interference contrast microscopy of living cells confirmed that polar cytokinesis like that described in the model flowering plant Arabidopsis occurred in all species when the forming cell plate traversed a vacuole. Calcofluor labeling of cell walls demonstrated directed growth from particular cell regions of all taxa. Electron microscopy confirmed directed growth in the unusual growth pattern of Chaetosphaeridium. All four species exhibited unordered microtubule patterns associated with diffuse growth in early cell expansion. In subsequent elongating cells, Coleochaete irregularis Pringsheim and Chaetosphaeridium globosum (Nordstedt) Klebahn exhibited tubulin cytoskeleton arrays corresponding to growth patterns associated with tip growth in plants, fungi, and other charophycean algae. Hoop-shaped microtubules frequently associated with diffuse growth of elongating cells in plants were not observed in any of these species. Presence of phragmoplasts in the diverse species studied supports the hypothesis that cytokinesis involving a phragmoplast originated in a common ancestor of the Coleochaetales, and possibly in a common ancestor of Charales, Coleochaetales, Zygnematales, and plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen F Doty
- School of Biological Sciences, Illinois State University, Campus Box 4120, Normal, Illinois, 61790-4120, USA
| | - Amy M Betzelberger
- School of Biological Sciences, Illinois State University, Campus Box 4120, Normal, Illinois, 61790-4120, USA
| | - Kevin M Kocot
- School of Biological Sciences, Illinois State University, Campus Box 4120, Normal, Illinois, 61790-4120, USA
| | - Martha E Cook
- School of Biological Sciences, Illinois State University, Campus Box 4120, Normal, Illinois, 61790-4120, USA
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Wang X, Qi M, Li J, Ji Z, Hu Y, Bao F, Mahalingam R, He Y. The phosphoproteome in regenerating protoplasts from Physcomitrella patens protonemata shows changes paralleling postembryonic development in higher plants. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2014; 65:2093-106. [PMID: 24700621 PMCID: PMC3991745 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/eru082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
The moss Physcomitrella patens is an ideal model plant to study plant developmental processes. To better understand the mechanism of protoplast regeneration, a phosphoproteome analysis was performed. Protoplasts were prepared from protonemata. By 4 d of protoplast regeneration, the first cell divisions had ensued. Through a highly selective titanium dioxide (TiO2)-based phosphopeptide enrichment method and mass spectrometric technology, more than 300 phosphoproteins were identified as protoplast regeneration responsive. Of these, 108 phosphoproteins were present on day 4 but not in fresh protoplasts or those cultured for 2 d. These proteins are catalogued here. They were involved in cell-wall metabolism, transcription, signal transduction, cell growth/division, and cell structure. These protein functions are related to cell morphogenesis, organogenesis, and development adjustment. This study presents a comprehensive analysis of phosphoproteome involved in protoplast regeneration and indicates that the mechanism of plant protoplast regeneration is similar to that of postembryonic development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoqin Wang
- Key Laboratory of Urban Agriculture (North) Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing University of Agriculture, Beijing 102206, China
- College of Life Sciences, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China
| | - Meiyan Qi
- College of Life Sciences, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China
| | - Jingyun Li
- College of Life Sciences, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China
| | - Zhongzhong Ji
- College of Life Sciences, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China
| | - Yong Hu
- College of Life Sciences, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China
| | - Fang Bao
- College of Life Sciences, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China
| | - Ramamurthy Mahalingam
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Oklahoma State University, OK 74078, USA
| | - Yikun He
- College of Life Sciences, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China
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46
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Ito K, Ren J, Fujita T. Conserved function of Rho-related Rop/RAC GTPase signaling in regulation of cell polarity in Physcomitrella patens. Gene 2014; 544:241-7. [PMID: 24769554 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2014.04.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2013] [Revised: 04/04/2014] [Accepted: 04/24/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Cell polarity is fundamentally important to growth and development in higher plants, from pollen tubes to root hairs. Basal land plants (mosses and ferns) also have cell polarity, developing protonemal apical cells that show polar tip growth. Flowering plants have a distinct group of Rho GTPases that regulate polarity in polarized cell growth. Rop/RAC signaling module components have been identified in non-flowering plants, but their roles remain unclear. To understand the importance and evolution of Rop/RAC signaling in polarity regulation in land plants, we examined the functions of PpRop and PpRopGEF in protonemal apical cells of the moss Physcomitrella patens. Inducible overexpression of PpRop2 or PpRopGEF3 caused depolarized growth of tip-growing apical cells. PpRop2 overexpression also caused aberrant cross wall formation. Fluorescent protein-tagged PpRop2 localized to the plasma membrane, including the cross wall membrane, and fluorescent-tagged PpRopGEF3 showed polarized localization to the tip region in apical cells. Thus, our results suggest common functions of PpRop and PpRopGEF in the tip-growing apical cells and the importance of a conserved Rop/RAC signaling module in the control of cell polarity in land plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kanako Ito
- Graduate School of Life Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-0810, Japan
| | - Junling Ren
- Graduate School of Life Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-0810, Japan
| | - Tomomichi Fujita
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-0810, Japan.
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47
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Rosales-Mendoza S, Orellana-Escobedo L, Romero-Maldonado A, Decker EL, Reski R. The potential of Physcomitrella patens as a platform for the production of plant-based vaccines. Expert Rev Vaccines 2014; 13:203-12. [PMID: 24405402 DOI: 10.1586/14760584.2014.872987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The moss Physcomitrella patens has a number of advantages for the production of biopharmaceuticals, including: i) availability of standardized conditions for cultivation in bioreactors; ii) not being part of the food chain; iii) high biosafety; iv) availability of highly efficient transformation methods; v) a haploid, fully sequenced genome providing genetic stability and uniform expression; vi) efficient gene targeting at the nuclear level allows for the generation of mutants with specific post-translational modifications (e.g., glycosylation patterns); and vii) oral formulations are a viable approach as no toxic effects are attributed to ingestion of this moss. In the light of this panorama, this opinion paper analyzes the possibilities of using P. patens for the production of oral vaccines and presents some specific cases where its use may represent significant progress in the field of plant-based vaccine development. The advantages represented by putative adjuvant effects of endogenous secondary metabolites and producing specific glycosylation patterns are highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergio Rosales-Mendoza
- Laboratorio de Biofarmacéuticos Recombinantes, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, Av. Dr. Manuel Nava 6, SLP, 78210, México
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Bibeau JP, Vidali L. Morphological analysis of cell growth mutants in Physcomitrella. Methods Mol Biol 2014; 1080:201-13. [PMID: 24132431 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-62703-643-6_17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
This protocol describes a quantitative analysis of the morphology of small plants from the moss Physcomitrella patens. The protocol can be used for the analysis of growth phenotypes produced by transient RNA interference or for the analysis of stable mutant plants. Information is presented to guide the investigator in the choice of vectors and basic conditions to perform transient RNA interference in moss. Detailed directions and examples for fluorescence image acquisition of small regenerating moss plants are provided. Instructions for the use of an ImageJ-based macro for quantitative morphological analysis of these plants are also provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey P Bibeau
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology, Worcester Polytechnic institute, Worcester, MA, USA
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Domozych DS, Fujimoto C, LaRue T. Polar Expansion Dynamics in the Plant Kingdom: A Diverse and Multifunctional Journey on the Path to Pollen Tubes. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2013; 2:148-73. [PMID: 27137370 PMCID: PMC4844288 DOI: 10.3390/plants2010148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2012] [Revised: 02/24/2013] [Accepted: 03/01/2013] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Polar expansion is a widespread phenomenon in plants spanning all taxonomic groups from the Charophycean Green Algae to pollen tubes in Angiosperms and Gymnosperms. Current data strongly suggests that many common features are shared amongst cells displaying polar growth mechanics including changes to the structural features of localized regions of the cell wall, mobilization of targeted secretion mechanisms, employment of the actin cytoskeleton for directing secretion and in many cases, endocytosis and coordinated interaction of multiple signal transduction mechanisms prompted by external biotic and abiotic cues. The products of polar expansion perform diverse functions including delivery of male gametes to the egg, absorption, anchorage, adhesion and photo-absorption efficacy. A comparative analysis of polar expansion dynamics is provided with special emphasis on those found in early divergent plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- David S Domozych
- Department of Biology and Skidmore Microscopy Imaging Center, Skidmore College, Saratoga Springs, New York, NY 12866, USA.
| | - Chelsea Fujimoto
- Department of Biology and Skidmore Microscopy Imaging Center, Skidmore College, Saratoga Springs, New York, NY 12866, USA.
| | - Therese LaRue
- Department of Biology and Skidmore Microscopy Imaging Center, Skidmore College, Saratoga Springs, New York, NY 12866, USA.
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