Atrazine induces apoptosis of SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells via the regulation of Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and caspase-3-dependent pathway

Linking pesticide exposure to neurodegenerative diseases: An in vitro investigation with human neuroblastoma cells

Although many organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) have been banned or restricted because of their persistence and linkage to neurodegenerative diseases, there is evidence of continued human exposure. In contrast, registered herbicides are reported to have a moderate to low level of toxicity; however, there is little information regarding their toxicity to humans or their combined effects with OCPs. This study aimed to characterize the mechanism of toxicity of banned OCP insecticides (aldrin, dieldrin, heptachlor, and lindane) and registered herbicides (trifluralin, triallate, and clopyralid) detected at a legacy contaminated pesticide manufacturing and packing site using SH-SY5Y cells. Cell viability, LDH release, production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and caspase 3/7 activity were evaluated following 24 h of exposure to the biocides. In addition, RNASeq was conducted at sublethal concentrations to investigate potential mechanisms involved in cellular toxicity. Our findings suggested that aldrin and heptachlor were the most toxic, while dieldrin, lindane, trifluralin, and triallate exhibited moderate toxicity, and clopyralid was not toxic to SH-SY5Y cells. While aldrin and heptachlor induced their toxicity through damage to the cell membrane, the toxicity of dieldrin was partially attributed to necrosis and apoptosis. Moreover, toxic effects of lindane, trifluralin, and triallate, at least partially, were associated with ROS generation. Gene expression profiles suggested that decreased cell viability induced by most of the tested biocides was related to inhibited cell proliferation. The dysregulation of genes encoding for proteins with anti-apoptotic properties also supported the absence of caspase activation. Identified enriched terms showed that OCP toxicity in SH-SY5Y cells was mediated through pathways associated with the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases. In conclusion, this study provides a basis for elucidating the molecular mechanisms of pesticide-induced neurotoxicity. Moreover, it introduced SH-SY5Y cells as a relevant in vitro model for investigating the neurotoxicity of pesticides in humans.

Exposure to atrazine stimulates progesterone secretion and induces oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis in the ovary of pseudopregnant rats

Atrazine (ATR) is one of the most commonly used herbicides worldwide. As an endocrine disruptor, it causes ovarian dysfunction, but the mechanism is unclear. We hypothesized that ATR could affect ovarian steroidogenesis, oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis. In the current study, rats aged 28 days were treated with PMSG and HCG to obtain amounts of corpora lutea. Then, rats were injected with ATR (50 mg/kg/day) or saline (0.9%) for 7 days. Sera were collected to detect biochemical indices and progesterone (P4) level, ovaries were collected for antioxidant status, HE, qPCR, and WB analysis. Results showed that ATR exposure affected growth performance as well as serum TP, GLB, and ALB levels, increased serum P4 level and ovarian mRNA and protein levels of StAR, CYP11A1, and HSD3B. ATR treatment increased ovarian mRNA and protein levels of CREB but not PKA expression. ATR treatment increased ovarian mRNA abundances of Nrf-2 and Nqo1, MDA level, and decreased SOD, GST, and T-AOC levels. ATR exposure increased the mRNA abundances of pro-inflammatory cytokines including Tnf-α, Il-1β, Il-6, Il-18, and Inos. ATR exposure increased the mRNA and protein level of Caspase 3 and the ratio of BAX/BCL-2. In conclusion, NRF-2/NQO1 signaling pathway and CREB might be involved in the regulation of ATR in luteal steroidogenesis, oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis in rat ovary.

Effects of atrazine and curcumin exposure on TCMK-1 cells: Oxidative damage, pyroptosis and cell cycle arrest

Atrazine (ATR), a commonly used herbicide, is highly bioaccumulative and toxic, posing a threat to a wide range of organisms. Curcumin has strong antioxidant properties. However, it is unclear whether curcumin counteracts cellular pyroptosis as well as cell cycle arrest induced by ATR exposure. Therefore, we conducted a study using TCMK-1 cells and established cell models by adding 139 μmol/L ATR and 20 μmol/L curcumin. The results showed that ATR exposure produced excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS), reduced activities of enzymes such as GSH-PX, SOD and Total Antioxidant Capacity, markedly increased the content of H2O2, disrupted the antioxidant system, activated Caspase-1, and the expression levels of the pyroptosis-related genes NLRP3, GSDMD, ASC, Caspase-1, IL-1β and IL-18 were increased. The simultaneous excess of ROS led to DNA damage, activation of P53 led to elevated expression levels of P53 and P21, as a consequence, the expression levels of cyclinE, CDK2 and CDK4 were reduced. These results suggest that Cur can modulate ATR exposure-induced pyroptosis as well as cell cycle arrest in TCMK-1 cells by governing oxidative stress.

Protective Effects of Heat-Killed Ruminococcus albus against β-Amyloid-Induced Apoptosis on SH-SY5Y Cells

A high level of β-amyloid (Aβ) in the brains of patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD) generates reactive oxygen species that induce neuronal death and DNA damage. The interaction between the gut microbiota and brain health has attracted attention in recent years. Heat-killed Ruminococcus albus (hkRA) reportedly protects neurons against damage induced by oxidative stress. However, whether hkRA can inhibit Aβ-induced apoptosis and thus alleviate AD remains unclear. Hence, we aimed to evaluate the protective effects of hkRA against Aβ-induced apoptosis on the human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cell. HkRA treatment (108 cells/ml) significantly decreased the Aβ-induced cytotoxicity and DNA damage in the SH-SY5Y cells. It also showed a significant increase of the bax/bcl-2 ratio in the Aβ-treated SH-SY5Y cells. Moreover, hkRA treatment stimulated the expression of antioxidation-related genes HO-1, Nrf2, and PKC-δ and increased the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). Meanwhile, it significantly decreased the activity of caspase-3 and protein expression of cleaved caspase-3 in the Aβ-treated SH-SY5Y cells. Additionally, the protein levels of mitochondrial and cytosolic cytochrome c increased and decreased, respectively, in the cells. These results suggest that hkRA protects human neuroblastoma cells from Aβ-induced apoptosis and oxidative stress. Thus, hkRA may be developed into a health-promoting paraprobiotic (the inactivated microbial cells of probiotics) for patients with AD.

Association analysis of indels in the VISFATIN gene with five cattle breeds and their growth traits

VISFATIN is an adipose cytokine that has been proved to correlate with growth and development traits. In a previous study from our lab, two insertion/deletions (indels; including a 35-bp insertion at its intron 4 and a 6-bp deletion in intron 5) were identified within the VISFATIN gene. To validate these indels and evaluate their association with growth traits in Chinese cattle, a total of 413 samples from four Chinese indigenous breeds and 217 samples from Chinese breeds were detected. Three genotypes (WW, WI and II) at intron 4 were detected based on the 35-bp insertion (allele I) or deletion (allele W) and showed moderate polymorphism in all samples. Two genotypes (WW and WD) at intron 5 were detected based on the 6-bp deletion (allele D) or insertion (allele W) in Xianan (XN) cattle and Jinnan (JN) cattle population but showed poor polymorphisms. Association analysis illustrated that the indel at intron 4 is significantly associated with chest girth, rump length and body weight in Ji'an (JA) cattle and the indel at intron 5 can cause a significant difference in rump length in JN cattle. To our knowledge, it is the first time it has been shown that indels within the VISFATIN gene are associated with growth traits in the two Chinese indigenous cattle breeds. These findings suggest that the VISFATIN gene can be used as a molecular marker for JN and JA cattle breeding.

Effects of Atrazine exposure on human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal cells assessed by combinatorial assay matrix

Introduction

Mesenchymal Stromal/Stem cells (MSCs) are an essential component of the regenerative and immunoregulatory stem cell compartment of the human body and thus of major importance in human physiology. The MSCs elicit their beneficial properties through a multitude of complementary mechanisms, which makes it challenging to assess their phenotype and function in environmental toxicity screening. We here employed the novel combinatorial assays matrix approach/technology to profile the MSC response to the herbicide Atrazine, which is a common environmental xenobiotic, that is in widespread agricultural use in the US and other countries, but banned in the EU. Our here presented approach is representative for screening the impact of environmental xenobiotics and toxins on MSCs as an essential representative component of human physiology and well-being.

Methods

We here employed the combinatorial assay matrix approach, including a panel of well standardized assays, such as flow cytometry, multiplex secretome analysis, and metabolic assays, to define the phenotype and functionality of human-donor-derived primary MSCs exposed to the representative xenobiotic Atrazine. This assay matrix approach is now also endorsed for characterization of cell therapies by leading regulatory agencies, such as FDA and EMA.

Results

Our results show that the exposure to Atrazine modulates the metabolic activity, size, and granularity of MSCs in a dose and time dependent manner. Intriguingly, Atrazine exposure leads to a broad modulation of the MSCs secretome (both upregulation and downmodulation of certain factors) with the identification of Interleukin-8 as the topmost upregulated representative secretory molecule. Interestingly, Atrazine attenuates IFNγ-induced upregulation of MHC-class-II, but not MHC-class-I, and early phosphorylation signals on MSCs. Furthermore, Atrazine exposure attenuates IFNγ responsive secretome of MSCs. Mechanistic knockdown analysis identified that the Atrazine-induced effector molecule Interleukin-8 affects only certain but not all the related angiogenic secretome of MSCs.

Discussion

The here described Combinatorial Assay Matrix Technology identified that Atrazine affects both the innate/resting and cytokine-induced/stimulated assay matrix functionality of human MSCs, as identified through the modulation of selective, but not all effector molecules, thus vouching for the great usefulness of this approach to study the impact of xenobiotics on this important human cellular subset involved in the regenerative healing responses in humans.

Mitigating effect of L-carnitine against atrazine-induced hepatotoxicity: histopathological and biochemical analyses in albino rats

Atrazine (ATR) is an extensively used herbicide that is often found in drinking water and waterways. After metabolization and excretion in the liver, ATR residues or its metabolites were found in tissues causing harmful effects mainly to the endocrine system and liver. This study aimed to elucidate the toxic impact of ATR on the liver and possible ameliorative effects of L-carnitine (LC). It utilized 30 adult male albino rats divided into three equal groups; the control group received 0.5 cc distilled water orally for 14 days, an ATR-treated group received ATR in a dose of 400 mg/kg BW dissolved in distilled water by oral gavage daily for 14 days, and a protected group (ATR + LC) received 400 mg/kg BW of ATR dissolved in distilled water, plus 100 mg/kg LC dissolved in distilled water by oral gavage daily for 14 days. At the end of the experiment, the liver tissue was prepared for histological and biochemical analyses and showed significant elevation of liver enzymes and oxidative parameters, altered expression of apoptotic and antiapoptotic genes, and hepatic degenerative changes in the ATR-treated group. In conclusion, atrazine induces oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis in the liver of rats, and these toxic effects can be alleviated by L-carnitine.

Dietary myricetin assuages atrazine-mediated hypothalamic-pituitary-testicular axis dysfunction in rats

Atrazine (ATZ) exposure is associated with reproductive dysfunction in both animals and humans. Myricetin, a flavonoid compound, is well documented for its numerous pharmacological activities. However, the impact of myricetin on the atrazine-mediated dysfunctional hypothalamic-pituitary-testicular axis is not known. This study investigated the role of myricetin on the atrazine-induced alterations in the male reproductive axis in rats orally gavaged with ATZ alone (50 mg/kg) or co-treated with ATZ + myricetin (MYR) at 5, 10, and 20 mg/kg for 30 consecutive days. Myricetin assuaged ATZ-induced reductions in intra-testicular testosterone, serum follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, and testosterone, coupled with decreases in alkaline phosphatase, acid phosphatase, lactate dehydrogenase, and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase activities. Also, MYR treatment improved epididymal sperm count and motility and decreased sperm defects in ATZ-treated rats. Testicular sperm number, daily sperm production, and sperm viability remained unchanged in all treatment groups. Administration of MYR abated ATZ-mediated depletion in antioxidant status, an increase in myeloperoxidase activity, nitric oxide, hydrogen peroxide, malondialdehyde levels, and reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, as well as the histological lesions in the hypothalamus, epididymis, and testes of treated animals. All in all, MYR mitigated atrazine-mediated functional changes in the reproductive axis via anti-inflammatory and antioxidant mechanisms in atrazine-exposed rats. Dietary intake of MYR could be a worthy chemoprotective approach against reproductive dysfunction related to ATZ exposure.

Mitochondrial dysfunction due to in vitro exposure to atrazine and its metabolite in striatum

Atrazine (2-chloro-4-ethylamino-6-isopropylamino-s-triazine) has been described as a potential toxic for dopaminergic metabolism both in vivo and in vitro. Its main metabolite diamino-chloro triazine (DACT) has been shown to achieve higher levels in brain tissue than atrazine. The aim of this study was to evaluate the in vitro effects of atrazine and DACT on striatal mitochondrial function, active oxygen species generation, and nitric oxide (NO) content. Incubation of mitochondria with atrazine (10 µM) was not able to modify oxygen consumption. However, a 50% increase in malate-glutamate state 4 respiratory rates was observed after DACT treatment (100 µM) without changes in respiratory state 3. Atrazine was able to inhibit complex I-III activity by 30% and DACT induced a tendency to decrease by 17% in the striatum. Regarding reactive oxygen species (ROS), DACT increased H₂ O₂ production by 43%. Also, superoxide anion levels were higher (14%) after atrazine exposure than in control mitochondria. Incubation of striatal mitochondria with atrazine and DACT induced membrane depolarization by 15% and 19%, respectively. Also, atrazine increased NO content by 10% but no significant changes were observed after exposure of mitochondria to DACT. Glutathione peroxidase activity was inhibited (56%) by DACT and atrazine inhibited superoxide dismutase activity by 60%. Also, cardiolipin oxidation (15%) was observed after atrazine treatment. Summing up, the obtained results suggest that in vitro atrazine and DACT induce ROS production affecting striatal mitochondrial function. The atrazine effects would be attributed to a direct effect on the mitochondrial respiratory chain and superoxide dismutase activity while DACT appears to disturb glutathione-related enzyme system.

The SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cell line, a relevant in vitro cell model for investigating neurotoxicology in human: focus on organic pollutants

Investigation of the toxicity triggered by chemicals on the human brain has traditionally relied on approaches using rodent in vivo models and in vitro cell models including primary neuronal cultures and cell lines from rodents. The issues of species differences between humans and rodents, the animal ethical concerns and the time and cost required for neurotoxicity studies on in vivo animal models, do limit the use of animal-based models in neurotoxicology. In this context, human cell models appear relevant in elucidating cellular and molecular impacts of neurotoxicants and facilitating prioritization of in vivo testing. The SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cell line (ATCC® CRL-2266^TM) is one of the most used cell lines in neurosciences, either undifferentiated or differentiated into neuron-like cells. This review presents the characteristics of the SH-SY5Y cell line and proposes the results of a systematic review of literature on the use of this in vitro cell model for neurotoxicity research by focusing on organic environmental pollutants including pesticides, 2, 3, 7, 8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD), flame retardants, PFASs, parabens, bisphenols, phthalates, and PAHs. Organic environmental pollutants are widely present in the environment and increasingly known to cause clinical neurotoxic effects during fetal & child development and adulthood. Their effects on cultured SH-SY5Y cells include autophagy, cell death (apoptosis, pyroptosis, necroptosis, or necrosis), increased oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, disruption of neurotransmitter homeostasis, and alteration of neuritic length. Finally, the inherent advantages and limitations of the SH-SY5Y cell model are discussed in the context of chemical testing.

Do commonly used herbicides (atrazine and glyphosate) have the potential to impair the contractions, prostaglandin releasing and conducting of oxytocin signal at the bovine cervix in vitro?

Glyphosate (Gly) and atrazine (Atr) are among the most commonly used herbicides in global agriculture. It was previously shown that both Atr and Gly impair the ovarian and uterine secretion of regulators of myometrial motility (oxytocin (OT) or prostaglandins (PGs)) in cows, and Atr can also decrease the force of contractions in strips from the uterine horn. Hence, the aim of this study was to compare the effects of Atr and Gly on the motor and secretory function of the bovine cervix in vitro as well as receptivity and signal transduction in cervical cell cultures. Cervical strips or cells obtained from cows before ovulation were treated with environmental doses of Atr or Gly (0.1-10 ng/ml) since these herbicides exerted no cytotoxic effect at a dose of 100 ng/ml. Only Atr increased the force of cervical contractions, while both Atr and Gly decreased the secretion of prostaglandins (PGs) without disturbing their synthesis. Moreover, Atr decreased the mRNA expression and protein level of oxytocin receptor (OTR), while Gly increased OTR protein levels. Both Atr and Gly decreased the contents of gap junction proteins (GAPs), Atr decreased the contents of second messengers (diacylglycerol - DAG, inositol-tris-phosphate - IP3), and Gly decreased the level of myosin light chain kinase (MLCK) but increased DAG levels. Atr directly enhanced the cervical strips contractions. Both herbicides disturbed cellular signalling and inhibited PGs secretion. It suggest that Atr and Gly have the potential to impair the activity of cervical cells in vitro, which might be followed by failure of maintenance with gestation.

Histopathological, Immunohistochemical, And Molecular Alterations In Brain Tissue And Submandibular Salivary Gland Of Atrazine-Induced Toxicity In Male Rats

Atrazine (ATZ) is herbicide that has been widely used for different crops. This extensive use has resulted in severe deleterious effects in different species. In this work, we investigated the potentially harmful effect of atrazine herbicide on the brain and submandibular salivary gland. Our investigation was carried out on 20 adult male albino rats that were equally divided into two groups. The first group received distilled water as control, while the second group received ATZ at 200 mg/kg body weight/ day via stomach gavage for 30 successive days of the experiment; the oral LD50 for ATZ is 3090 mg/kg. Our findings revealed the ability of ATZ to cause damage to the cerebrum, hippocampus, and submandibular salivary gland. This damage resulted from the induced oxidative stress, which was indicated by a significant elevation in malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration, DNA fragmentation, tumor necrotic factor-alpha (TNF-α) expression, with a significant decrease in reduced glutathione (GSH) level and reduction of B cell lymphoma 2 (BCL2), dopamine receptor D1 (Drd1), cAMP-responsive element-binding protein 1 (Creb1) genes expression after ATZ exposure. Moreover, degeneration of cells, cytoplasmic vacuolation, congestion of blood vessels, a strong immune reaction to caspase 3, and negligible immune expression of a glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) were also noticed in the ATZ-treated group. We concluded that ATZ induces oxidative stress and has a toxic and apoptotic effects on the cerebrum, hippocampus, and salivary gland of adult male albino rats.

UV and temperature effects on chloroacetanilide and triazine herbicides degradation and cytotoxicity

The purpose of this study was to explore the stability and toxicity of the herbicides and their degradation byproduct after exposure to different environmental factors. Triazines (atrazine, propazine, simazine) and chloroacetanilides (acetochlor, alachlor, metolachlor) which are commonly used herbicides were evaluated for cytotoxicity in different UV (254 nm and 365 nm) and temperature (4 °C, 23 °C, and 40 °C) conditions as well as degradation rates. Atrazine with the highest LD₅₀ (4.23 μg mL^-1) was less toxic than the other tested triazine herbicides Chloroacetanilides tested were more toxic than tested triazines, with LD₅₀ 0.08-1.42 μg mL^-1 vs 1.44-4.23 μg mL^-1, respectively. Alachlor with LD₅₀ 0.08 μg mL^-1 showed the strongest toxic response as compared with other tested herbicides. Temperatures only did not alter cytotoxicity of the tested herbicides, except for acetochlor and alachlor showing about 45 % more cell death after exposure to 40 °C for 2 h. At all 3 tested temperatures, 2 h of UV treatments did not affect cytotoxic effects of the tested herbicides, except for acetochlor and alachlor. At 4 °C, acetochlor toxicity was attenuated about 63 % after UV 365 nm exposure; but alachlor toxicity was enhanced after either UV 254 or 365 nm exposure for about 40 % and 24 %, respectively. At 23 °C, acetochlor toxicity was enhanced about 35 % after UV 254 nm exposure, but attenuated about 48 % after UV 365 nm exposure. Alachlor toxicity was enhanced about 34 % after UV 254 nm and 23 °C exposure. In combination of UV 254 nm and 40 °C, acetochlor toxicity was lowered by 63 % and alachlor toxicity was no change as compared with 4 °C, no UV group. After co-treatment with UV 365 nm and 40 °C both acetochlor and alachlor toxicity was enhanced 55 % and 80 %, respectively. Through degradation analysis by LC-MS/MS, alachlor showed the most dramatic degradation (only 0.58 %-10.58 % remaining) after heat and UV treatments.

Evaluation of atrazine neurodevelopment toxicity in vitro-application of hESC-based neural differentiation model

Atrazine is one of the widely used herbicides in the world and most of the current researches on atrazine neurodevelopment toxicity have focused on rodents or zebrafish models in vivo, resulting in relatively high cost, time consumption, and lower translational value to identify its hazard for the developing brain. Major international initiatives have pushed forward to convert the traditional animal-based developmental toxicity tests to in vitro assays using human cells to detect and predict chemical health hazards. In this study, we presented a human neural differentiation model based on human embryonic stem cells (hESC) that can be used to test toxicity at different stages of neural differentiation in vitro. hESC were differentiated into neural stem cells (NSC) and then terminally differentiated towards mixed neurons and glial cells for 21 days. Cell survival, proliferation, cell cycle, apoptosis, and gene expression levels were examined. Our results demonstrated that atrazine inhibited the proliferation of hESC and NSC, and showed different toxic sensitivity on these two kinds of cells. Also, atrazine blocked the NSC cell cycle G1 phase via down-regulating CCND1, CDK2, and CDK4, with no obvious effect on apoptosis. In addition, atrazine curbed EB spontaneous differentiation and NSC-induced neurons and glia cells differentiation. Atrazine altered genes expression levels of PAX6, TUBB3, NCAM1, GFAP, TH, NR4A1, and GRIA1. From the data we obtained, we recognized that the dopaminergic system was not the only target of atrazine neurotoxicity, glutamatergic neurons and astrocytes were also adversely affected.

Atrazine impairs testicular function in BalB/c mice by affecting Leydig cells

Several studies have reported the effects of atrazine on the gonads of many experimental models. However, the short-term effects of in vivo exposure to atrazine on the testes of mice are not well clarified. Here we reported that adult BalB/c mice exposed to atrazine (50 mg kg^-1 body weight) by gavage for three consecutive days have reduced numbers of 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase positive Leydig cells (LCs), associated with increased in situ cell death fluorescence and caspase-3 immuno-expression in the testes. Consequently, immunostaining for cell cycle gene regulators showed increased expressions of p45, accompanied with increased expressions of cyclin D2 and E2. Histological observations of the gonads showed reduced number of germ cells in particular areas, sloughed seminiferous epithelium, presence of giant apoptotic cells close to the seminiferous tubule lumen and in the epididymal lumen along with low numbers of Leydig cells in the testicular interstitial areas. Similarly, LCs isolated from the testes of BalB/c mice that were exposed to atrazine (0.5, 25, 50 mg kg^-1 body weight) in the same manner as in the first experiment presented dose-dependent increased caspase-3 activity, decreased cell viability, intratesticular and serum testosterone concentrations and LCs testosterone secretion. In summary, atrazine appears to directly decrease the number of testosterone secreting LCs in mice through apoptosis.

Pterocarpus mildbraedii leaf extract ebbs propanil-induced oxidative and apoptotic damage in the liver of rats

Phytochemicals derived from plant sources are well recognized as sources of pharmacologically potent drugs in the treatment of several oxidative stress-related ailments. Dichloromethane/methanol (1:1) leaf extract of Pterocarpus mildbraedii was evaluated for its possible protection against oxidative stress and apoptosis in the liver of male Wistar rats exposed to propanil (PRP). In the experimental design, olive oil served as the vehicle, and rats were grouped into control (2 mL/kg olive oil), PRP (200 mg/kg/day), Pterocarpus mildbraedii extract (200 mg/kg/day), and Pterocarpus mildbraedii extract (200 mg/kg/day)+PRP (200 mg/kg/day), and treated daily, p.o., for seven days. Oxidative stress parameters, B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2), Bcl 2-associated X protein (Bax), p53, caspases (9/3), and terminal transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) assays were observed in all groups. Propanil significantly elevated superoxide dismutase and lipid peroxidation levels, while concomitantly depleting GSH and p53 levels. Further, PRP enhanced the expressions of caspase-9, caspase-3, Bax, and TUNEL-positive cells in the liver of rats. However, these observed alterations were reversed following treatment with Pterocarpus mildbraedii extract. Our studies suggest that Pterocarpus mildbraedii extract protected against PRP toxicity by reducing oxidative stress and attenuating critical endpoints in the intrinsic apoptotic pathway.

Prometryn induces apoptotic cell death through cell cycle arrest and oxidative DNA damage

Prometryn is a slightly to moderately toxic herbicide belonging to the triazine family of herbicides, which are widely used in agriculture to control the growth of various weeds. Although many studies have shown that triazine herbicides have carcinogenic potential in humans, the cytotoxic effects of prometryn on human cells, and the mechanisms underlying these effects, are not yet fully understood. The lung is one of the most important organs where there is accumulation of environmental pollutants. The aim of this study was to determine the cytotoxic effects of prometryn on normal lung cells using the human bronchial epithelial cell line BEAS-2B. We found that treatment with high concentrations of prometryn arrested BEAS-2B cell growth in the S phase, while at low concentrations the cell cycle was not affected. Furthermore, we observed changes in the expression levels of cyclin-dependent kinase 2 (CDK2) and cyclin A that were consistent with the induction of cell cycle arrest in BEAS-2B cells exposed to prometryn. We also observed the increased formation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) in BEAS-2B cells, suggesting that this cell line is sensitive to prometryn. Finally, prometryn induced DNA double-strand breaks in BEAS-2B cells. In conclusion, prometryn affected key molecules involved in cell cycle regulation, induced oxidative stress, and induced DNA damage in BEAS-2B cells, which may shed light on the mechanism by which prometryn promotes lung cancer development.

Solubility Enhancement of Atrazine by Complexation with Cyclosophoraose Isolated from Rhizobium leguminosarum biovar trifolii TA-1

Rhizobium leguminosarum biovar trifolii TA-1, a kind of soil bacteria, produces cyclosophoraoses (Cys). Cyclosophoraoses contain various ring sizes with degrees of polymerization ranging from 17 to 23. Atrazine is a hardly-soluble herbicide that contaminates soil and drinking water, and remains in soil for a long time. To remove this insoluble contaminant from aqueous solutions, we have enhanced the solubility of atrazine by complexation with Cys. The complex formation of Cys and atrazine was confirmed using ¹H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), rotating frame nuclear overhauser spectroscopy (ROESY), and molecular modeling studies. The aqueous solubility of atrazine was enhanced 3.69-fold according to the added concentrations (20 mM) of Cys, compared to the 1.78-fold enhancements by β-cyclodextrin (β-CD). Cyclosophoraoses as an excellent solubility enhancer with long glucose chains that can effectively capture insoluble materials showed a potential application of microbial polysaccharides in the removal of hazardous hardly-soluble materials from aqueous solutions in the fields of biological and environmental industry.

Apurinic/apyrimidinic endonuclease/redox factor 1 (APE1) alleviates myocardial hypoxia-reoxygenation injury by inhibiting oxidative stress and ameliorating mitochondrial dysfunction

Oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction are considered to be activators of apoptosis and serve a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of myocardial ischemia-reperfusion (MI/R) injury. Apurinic/apyrimidinic endonuclease/redox factor 1 (APE1) is a multifunctional protein that processes the cellular response to DNA damage and oxidative stress. Little is known about the role of APE1 in the pathogenesis of MI/R injury. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of APE1 on hypoxia-reoxygenation (H/R)-induced H9c2 cardiomyocyte injury and the underlying mechanism responsible. It was demonstrated that H/R decreased cell viability and increased lactic dehydrogenase (LDH) release, as well as reducing APE1 expression in H9c2 cells. However, APE1 overexpression induced by transfection with APE1-expressing lentivirus significantly increased H9c2 cell viability, decreased LDH release, decreased apoptosis and reduced caspase-3 activity in H/R-treated H9c2 cells. APE1 overexpression ameliorated the H/R-induced increases in reactive oxygen species and NAPDH oxidase expression, as well as the decreases in superoxide dismutase activity and glutathione expression. Furthermore, APE1 overexpression increased mitochondrial membrane potential and ATP production, stabilized electron transport chain activity (as illustrated by increased NADH-ubiquinone oxidoreductase, succinate dehydrogenase, coenzyme Q-cytochrome c oxidoreductase and cytochrome c oxidase activities) and decreased the ratio of B-cell lymphoma 2-associated X protein/B-cell lymphoma 2 in H/R, improving mitochondrial dysfunction. In conclusion, the results of the present study suggest that APE1 alleviates H/R-induced injury in H9c2 cells by attenuating oxidative stress and ameliorating mitochondrial dysfunction. APE1 may therefore be used as an effective treatment for MI/R injury.

Atrazine hinders PMA-induced neutrophil extracellular traps in carp via the promotion of apoptosis and inhibition of ROS burst, autophagy and glycolysis

Atrazine (ATR), a selective herbicide, is consistently used worldwide and has been confirmed to be harmful to the health of aquatic organisms. The release of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) is one of the newly discovered antimicrobial mechanisms. Although several immune functions have been analyzed under ATR exposure, the effect of ATR on NETs remains mainly unexplored. In the present study, we treated carp neutrophils using 5 μg/ml ATR and 5 μg/ml ATR combined with 100 nM rapamycin to elucidate the underlying mechanisms and to clarify the effect of ATR on phorbol myristate acetate (PMA)-induced NETs. The results of the morphological observation and quantitative analysis of extracellular DNA and myeloperoxidase (MPO) showed that NETs formation were significantly inhibited by ATR exposure. Moreover, we found that in the NETs process, ATR downregulated the expression of the anti-apoptosis gene B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2), increased the expression of the pro-apoptosis factors Bcl-2-Associated X (BAX), cysteinyl aspartate specific proteinases (Caspase3, 9), and anti-autophagy factor mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), decreased the expression of autophagy-related protein light chain 3B (LC3B) and glucose transport proteins (GLUT1, 4), disturbed the activities of phosphofructokinase (PFK), pyruvate kinase (PKM), and hexokinase (HK) and limited reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, indicating that the reduced NETs release was a consequence of increased apoptosis and diminished ROS burst, autophagy and down-regulated glycolysis under ATR treatment. Meanwhile, rapamycin restored the inhibited autophagy and glycolysis and thus resisted the ATR-suppressed NETs. The present study perfects the mechanism theory of ATR immunotoxicity to fish and has a certain value for human health risk assessment.

Lycopene Triggers Nrf2-AMPK Cross Talk to Alleviate Atrazine-Induced Nephrotoxicity in Mice

Atrazine (ATR), an environmental persistent and bioaccumulative herbicide, has been associated with environmental nephrosis. Lycopene (LYC) exhibits important properties of nephroprotection, but there are limited data on the specific underlying mechanism. The primary objective of this study was to explore the therapeutic effect of LYC on ATR-induced nephrotoxicity in mice. The mice were divided randomly into 6 groups and treated as follows: control group (C), 5 mg/kg LYC group (L), 50 mg/kg ATR group (A1), 200 mg/kg ATR group (A2), 50 mg/kg ATR plus 5 mg/kg LYC group (A1+L), and 200 mg/kg ATR plus 5 mg/kg LYC group (A2+L) by oral gavage administration for 21 days. We found that pretreatment with LYC significantly suppressed the ATR-induced renal tubular epithelial cell swelling. Furthermore, LYC mitigated ATR-induced dysregulation of oxidative stress markers by reducing MDA, H₂O₂ levels, and increasing SOD, GPx, CAT concentration, and Nrf2 activation. Moreover, LYC activated the autophagic flux by a detectable change in autophagy-related genes (Beclin-1 and ATGs) and proteins (p62/SQSTM) and by the formation of autophagic vacuole (AV) and LC3 aggregation, in parallel with AMPK activation (pAMPK/AMPK). Herein, ATR-up-regulated nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) expression and Nrf2-regulated redox genes, including quinoneoxidoreductase-1 (NQO1) and heme oxidase-1 (HO1), whereas LYC down-regulated those of the above genes. In addition, LYC suppressed ATR-induced activation of autophagy (increased LC3II/LC3I, ATGs, Beclin1, and p62, in parallel with increased AMPK activation). Collectively, our findings identified a cross talk between AMPK-activated autophagy and the Nrf2 signaling pathway in LYC-mediated nephroprotection against ATR-induced toxicity in mice kidney.

Atrazine-xenobiotic nuclear receptor interactions induce cardiac inflammation and endoplasmic reticulum stress in quail (Coturnix coturnix coturnix)

Atrazine (ATR) is one of the most extensively used herbicide that eventually leaches into groundwater and surface water from agricultural areas. Exposure to ATR does harm to the health of human and animals, especially the heart. However, ATR exposure caused cardiotoxicity in bird remains unclear. To evaluate ATR-exerted potential cardiotoxicity in heart, quail were exposed with 0, 50, 250, and 500 mg/kg BW/day ATR by gavage treatment for 45 days. Cardiac histopathological alternation was observed in ATR-induced quail. ATR exposure increased the Cytochrome P450s and Cytochrome b5 contents, Cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzyme system (APND, ERND, AH, and NCR) activities and the expression of CYP isoforms (CYP1B1, CYP2C18, CYP2D6, CYP3A4, CYP3A7, and CYP4B1) in quail heart. The expression of nuclear xenobiotic receptors (NXRs) was also influenced in the heart by ATR exposure. ATR exposure significantly caused the up-regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6, NF-κB, and IL-8), down-regulation of anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-10) expression levels and increased NO content and iNOS activity. The present research provides new insights into the mechanism that ATR-induced cardiotoxicity through up-regulating the expression levels of GRP78 and XBP-1s, triggering ER stress, activating the expression of IRE1α/TRAF2/NF-κB signaling pathway related factors (IRE1α, TRAF2, IKK, and NF-κB) and inducing an inflammatory response in quail hearts. In conclusion, ATR exposure could induce cardiac inflammatory injury via activating NXRs responses, disrupting CYP homeostasis and CYP isoforms transcription, altering NO metabolism and triggering ER stress and inflammatory response by activating IRE1α/TRAF2/NF-κB signaling pathway.

Celecoxib, a cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor, offers chemoprevention against reproductive and neurobehavioural abnormalities induced by atrazine in male Wistar rats

The cyclooxygenase-2/prostanoid pathway (COX-2) serves as a potential therapeutic target in various pathological conditions. Thus, the modulatory effect of celecoxib (CXB), a COX-2 inhibitor, in atrazine-induced toxicity was investigated. Five groups (n = 6 rats per group) of adult male Wistar rats received corn oil (2 ml/kg), atrazine (ATZ, 300 mg/kg) and CXB (5.7 mg/kg) respectively and their combinations via the oral route. Results obtained showed reduced (p < 0.05) sperm motility (25.8%) and counts (27.6%), testosterone (29.9%), luteinizing (33%) and follicle stimulating hormones (78.7%) plus elevated total cholesterol (112.3%), triglyceride (115.7%), malondialdehyde levels respectively in ATZ-treated rats. Similarly, ATZ administration causes reduced locomotion (33.6%), spontaneous motor activity (46.6%) and catalepsy effects (157.3%) respectively. However, CXB divided doses moderately reverse reproductive abnormalities, modulate neurobehavioural deficits and slightly preserved COX-2 elevation following ATZ intoxication. Furthermore, histopathology of testis shows improvement in treated rats. Overall, our data suggest chemopreventive actions via pharmacological inhibition of COX-2 activity during ATZ toxicity.

Synergistic effects between hydroxyl radicals and hydrated electrons on strengthening decomposition of an s-triazine compound: A combined experimental and theoretical study

The decomposition of an environmentally recalcitrant s-triazine compound, prometry (PMT), was carried out by experimental and theoretical approaches to study the combined effects of hydroxyl radicals (OH) and hydrated electrons (e_aq^-). With the participation of strongly oxidative radicals OH and reductive radicals e_aq^- induced by electron beam (EB), PMT obtained a good decomposition performance, which was obviously better than those methods simply using OH as the single active species. The evolution of cyanuric acid (CA) during the EB and UV irradiation processes elucidate that former method could efficiently decompose such chemically stable intermediate. The experiments of radical scavengers further suggest that OH was the predominant radical during PMT degradation, while e_aq^- was beneficial to further decomposition and mineralization. Combined with the results of density functional theory (DFT) calculations, the strengthened synergistic effects between OH and e_aq^- were proven. The calculations illustrated OH could attack the carbon-branch-chains of s-trazine ring and form OH-adducts rather than nitrogen oxides. Moreover, the presence of e_aq^- could not only greatly change the geometry of the s-triazine ring, but also help cleaving alkyl chain on ring, thus facilitate the complete mineralization.

A novel mechanism underlies atrazine toxicity in quails (Coturnix Coturnix coturnix): triggering ionic disorder via disruption of ATPases

The widely used atrazine has been reported to exhibit extensive ecological hazards. Due to the biological accumulation, atrazine elicits widespread toxic effects on different organisms. However, true proof for the mechanism of atrazine-induced toxicity is lacking. To determine the potential mechanism by which atrazine exerted toxic effects, quails were treated with atrazine (0, 50, 250 and 500 mg/kg) by gavage administration for 45 days. Atrazine significantly increased the histological alterations and serum creatine kinase, lactate dehydrogenase and choline esterase levels. A marked disorder in ionic (Na+, K+, Ca2+ and Mg2+)contents and the decrease of ATPases (Na+-K+-ATPase, Ca2+-ATPase, Mg2+-ATPase and Ca2+-Mg2+-ATPase) activities were observed in the heart and liver of atrazine-exposed quails. Of note, it was also observed that atrazine suppressed the transcription of Na+, K+ transfer associated genes (Na+-K+-ATPase subunits) and Ca2+ transfer associated genes (Ca2+-ATPase subunits, solute carriers) in heart and liver. In conclusion, atrazine induced cardiac and hepatic damage via causing the ionic disorder, triggering the transcription of the ion transporters and leading the histopathological and functional alternations in the heart and liver of quails. This study demonstrated atrazine significantly induced the ionic disorder via decreasing the ATPases activities and disturbing the transcription of the ion transporters.

Effects of co-exposure to atrazine and ethanol on the oxidative damage of kidney and liver in Wistar rats

Both ethanol (EtoH) and atrazine (ATZ) have hepatic and nephro-toxic effects in rats. In the present study, the toxicity of EtoH (5 g kg-1) on the kidney and liver in the absence or in the presence of different doses of ATZ (50, 100, 300 mg kg-1) was evaluated after 21 days in rats. Results showed that the mixture effects on catalase and superoxide dismutase activities were more severe in both tissues compared to EtoH alone, especially as the dose of ATZ was increased. Hepatic malondialdehyde level (an index of lipid peroxidation) was increased from 20.32% in the EtoH +50 mg kg-1 ATZ-treated rats to 34% in the EtoH +300 mg kg-1 ATZ-treated rats compared to the EtoH values. Renal malondialdehyde values remain as high as 81% in the EtoH-treated rats and the different combine exposure groups. Furthermore, as the dose of ATZ in the mixture was increased, serum uric acid level increased compared to the EtoH values. When the EtoH +300 mg kg-1 ATZ-animals were pretreated with curcumin (an antioxidant), the histopathological changes and peroxidative damages in both tissues were blocked. The exposure of EtoH-treated rats to ATZ enhanced renal and hepatic peroxidative damages in rats.

The inhibition of myometrial contractions by chlorinated herbicides (atrazine and linuron), and their disruptive effect on the secretory functions of uterine and ovarian cells in cow, in vitro

The effect of atrazine and linuron, the popular and widely used chlorinated herbicides, on both myometrial contractions and secretory functions of bovine uterus and ovaries in vitro, was investigated. The pesticides inhibited (P<0.05) the basal and oxytocin (OT)-stimulated myometrial strips contractions, as well as the effect of OT on secretion of prostaglandins (PGs: PGF2α and PGE2) from endometrium. But only linuron inhibits the effect of OT on myometrial contractions. Neither of herbicides affected PGs secretion from myometrium and PGF2α from endometrium. Only the lowest dose of both tested compounds decreased PGE2 secretion from endometrium. The pesticides increased (P<0.05) the OT secretion from granulosa. However, only linuron stimulated (P<0.05) the OT secretion from the luteal cells, and it increased (P<0.05) the expression of mRNA for the OT precursor. Both compounds stimulated (P<0.05) the secretion of testosterone and atrazine increased (P<0.05) also the secretion of estradiol from the granulosa cells. While atrazine and linuron reduced (P<0.05) the progesterone secretion from the luteal cells. The data show that atrazine and linuron altered the secretory functions of ovarian cells and inhibited the myometrial contractions in vitro.

Atrazine triggers hepatic oxidative stress and apoptosis in quails (Coturnix C. coturnix) via blocking Nrf2-mediated defense response

The bioaccumulation and environmental persistence of atrazine (ATZ) poses a severe hazard to animal ecosystem. Quail has strong sensitivity to environmental pollutant, thus it is one of the most important ecological pollution indicator. However, true proof for the effects of ATZ exposure on the liver of quails is lacking. To evaluate the liver injury and the role of Nrf2-mediated defense responses during ATZ exposure, male quails were treated with ATZ (0, 50, 250 and 500mg/kg) by oral gavage for 45 days. Histopathological and ultrastructural changes, oxidative stress indices, apoptosis-related factors and Nrf2 pathway were detected. ATZ caused irreparable mitochondrial damage and destroyed morphophysiological integrity of the quail liver. Lower level ATZ (<250mg/kg) activated Nrf2 signaling pathway to protect liver against oxidative stress and apoptosis via enhancing antioxidative activity. Higher level ATZ (>500mg/kg) induced oxidative stress and apoptosis through decrease of non-enzymatic antioxidant, antioxidant enzymes and anti-apoptosis factors and increase of apoptosis factors expressions. Taken together, our results suggested that ATZ-induced hepatotoxicity in quails was associated with blocking Nrf2-mediated defense response.

Effects of visfatin on the apoptosis of intestinal mucosal cells in immunological stressed rats

This study was undertaken to determine if visfatin is involved in the inflammation or apoptosis introduced by LPS in rats. Forty 8-week old Wistar rats were divided into four groups (n=10 in each group) and injected with saline, visfatin, LPS and visfatin+LPS co-stimulated via caudal vein. The duodenum, jejunum and ileum were harvested from all the rats. Compared to the saline treated group, visfatin significantly increased the number of TUNEL-positive apoptotic cells and the expression of caspase-3 protein in intestinal mucosa. Similarly, ELISA and western blot analysis also showed the up-regulation of pro-caspase-3 and cleaved caspase-3 expression in the visfatin group compared to the control group. In contrast to LPS, visfatin down-regulated the expression of cleaved-caspase-3 in the visfatin+LPS co-stimulated group, resulting in a significant decrease in apoptosis in intestinal mucosal cells. We observed more pro-caspase-3 positive cells in the visfatin+LPS co-stimulated group. The results indicate that, in the presence of LPS, visfatin plays an important role in the regulation of cell apoptosis and inflammation.

Bauhinia championii Flavone Attenuates Hypoxia-Reoxygenation Induced Apoptosis in H9c2 Cardiomyocytes by Improving Mitochondrial Dysfunction

This study aimed to determine the effects of Bauhinia championii flavone (BCF) on hypoxia-reoxygenation (H/R) induced apoptosis in H9c2 cardiomyocytes and to explore potential mechanisms. The H/R model in H9c2 cardiomyocytes was established by 6 h of hypoxia and 12 h of reoxygenation. Cell viability was detected by CCK-8 assay. Apoptotic rate was measured by Annexin V/PI staining. Levels of mitochondria-associated ROS, mitochondrial transmembrane potential (∆Ψm) and mitochondrial permeability transition pores (MPTP) opening were assessed by fluorescent probes. ATP production was measured by ATP assay kit. The release of cytochrome c, translocation of Bax, and related proteins were measured by western blotting. Our results showed that pretreatment with BCF significantly improved cell viability and attenuated the cardiomyocyte apoptosis caused by H/R. Furthermore, BCF increased ATP production and inhibited ROS-generating mitochondria, depolarization of ΔΨm, and MPTP opening. Moreover, BCF pretreatment decreased Bax mitochondrial translocation, cytochrome c release, and activation of caspase-3, as well as increased the expression of p-PI3K, p-Akt, and the ratio of Bcl-2 to Bax. Interestingly, a specific inhibitor of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, LY294002, partly reversed the anti-apoptotic effect of BCF. These observations indicated that BCF pretreatment attenuates H/R-induced myocardial apoptosis strength by improving mitochondrial dysfunction via PI3K/Akt signaling pathway.

Phytanic Acid-Induced Neurotoxicological Manifestations and Apoptosis Ameliorated by Mitochondria-Mediated Actions of Melatonin

Phytanic acid, a saturated branched chain fatty acid and a major constituent of human diet, is predominantly found in dairy products, meat, and fish. It is a degradation product from the phytol side chain of chlorophyll. Degradation of PA is known to occur mainly in peroxisomes via α-oxidation and in mitochondria via β-oxidation. Due to its β-methyl group present at the 3-position of the carbon atoms, PA cannot be β-oxidized. Although alteration in the metabolism of PA may play an important role in neurodegeneration, the exact mechanism behind it remains to be evaluated. In this study, we have described the potential of PA to induce neurotoxicity as an in vitro model (neuronal cell line, SH-SY5Y cells). Cells were pretreated with melatonin (10 μM) for 1 h followed by with and without PA (100 μM) for 24 h. In the present study, our data has confirmed that PA markedly increased both intracellular reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen species levels. Our results have shown that PA treatment did not induce cell death by cleavage of caspase-3/PARP-1 mediated by mitochondria through intrinsic pathways; however, PA induced nitric oxide-dependent apoptosis in SH-SY5Y cells. Additionally, melatonin pretreatment reduced the cell death in SH-SY5Y cells. Melatonin also effectively exerted an antiapoptotic and anti-inflammatory action by regulating Bax, Bcl-2, p-NFκB, and iNOS expressions in SH-SY5Y cells. These results suggested that melatonin acted as an antioxidative and antiapoptotic agent by modulating ROS, apoptotic proteins, and inflammatory responses under BCFA-induced neurotoxic conditions. The protective effects of melatonin depend on direct scavenging activity of free radicals and indirect antioxidant effects. Further deciphering of the cellular and molecular mechanism associated with neuroprotection by melatonin is warranted in BCFA-induced neurotoxicity.

Lycopene ameliorates atrazine-induced oxidative damage in adrenal cortex of male rats by activation of the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway

Atrazine (ATZ) is one of the most commonly used herbicides contaminating plants, soil and water resources. Several strategies have been used to counteract ATZ toxicity. Here, we tested the hypothesis that lycopene could ameliorate ATZ-induced toxicity in the adrenal cortex. For this purpose, 35 adult male albino rats were randomized into five equal groups: untreated control, vehicle control (received 0.5 mL corn oil/day), lycopene (treated with lycopene dissolved in 0.5 mL corn oil, 10 mg/kg b.w./day), ATZ (received ATZ dissolved in 0.5 mL corn oil 300 mg/kg b.w./day), and ATZ + lycopene (treated with ATZ and lycopene at the same previously mentioned doses). All treatments were given by oral gavage for 4 weeks. We found that ATZ exposure significantly increased relative adrenal weight, plasma ACTH levels, and adrenal oxidative stress as manifested by elevated malondialdehyde levels, decreased reduced glutathione content and depressed antioxidant enzyme activities in adrenal cortex tissues with respect to control groups. Furthermore, the transcription of adrenal cortex nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), nuclear factor kappa B, and caspase-3 genes was increased significantly compared with the control groups. This was accompanied with DNA fragmentation and structural and ultrastructural changes in zona glomerulosa and zona fasiculata of the adrenal cortex. Notably, all these changes were partially ameliorated in rats treated concomitantly with ATZ and lycopene. Our results showed that lycopene exerts protective effects against ATZ-induced toxicity in rat adrenal cortex. These effects may be attributed to the antioxidative property of lycopene and its ability to activate the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway.

18α-Glycyrrhetinic Acid Induces Apoptosis of HL-60 Human Leukemia Cells through Caspases- and Mitochondria-Dependent Signaling Pathways

In this study we investigate the molecular mechanisms of caspases and mitochondria in the extrinsic and intrinsic signal apoptosis pathways in human leukemia HL-60 cells after in vitro exposure to 18α-glycyrrhetinic acid (18α-GA). Cells were exposed to 18α-GA at various concentrations for various time periods and were harvested for flow cytometry total viable cell and apoptotic cell death measurements. Cells treated with 18α-GA significantly inhibited cell proliferation and induced cell apoptosis in a dose-dependent manner, with an IC₅₀ value of 100 μM at 48 h. The cell growth inhibition resulted in induction of apoptosis and decreased the mitochondria membrane potential (ΔΨ_m) and increased caspase-8, -9 and -3 activities. Furthermore, cytochrome c and AIF were released from mitochondria, as shown by western blotting and confirmed by confocal laser microscopy. Western blotting showed that 18α-GA increased the levels of pro-apoptotic proteins such as Bax and Bid and decreased the anti-apoptotic proteins such as Bcl-2 and Bcl-xl, furthermore, results also showed that 18α-GA increased Fas and Fas-L which are associated with surface death receptor in HL-60 cells. Based on those observations, the present study supports the hypothesis that 18α-GA-induced apoptosis in HL-60 cells involves the activation of the both extrinsic and intrinsic apoptotic pathways.

Activity of several kinds of drugs against Neospora caninum

Neosporosis caused by Neospora caninum is a serious disease in cattle and dogs worldwide. It is the major cause of abortion and neonatal mortality in cattle. In this study, we evaluated the anti-N. caninum activity of Chinese medicine extracts (curcumin, artemether), herbicides (atrazine, glyphosate), anticoccidiosis drugs (toltrazuril and ponazuril), cyclophosphamide, diminazene aceturate and praziquantel in vitro using parasite growth, replication and host cell invasion assays in human foreskin fibroblast cultures. Curcumin, artemether, atrazine, toltrazuril and ponazuril exhibited inhibitory activity with 50% growth inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 1.1±0.4, 1.0±0.05, 11.2±2.7, 30.3±2.0 and 33.3±4.1μg/ml, respectively, in the growth inhibition assay. They were also active against protozoa replication, but only curcumin was effective against host cell invasion. Glyphosate, cyclophosphamide, diminazene aceturate and praziquantel were ineffective. In an in vivo infection model, curcumin showed no activity against N. caninum infection. We showed that curcumin, artemether, atrazine, toltrazuril, and ponazuril exhibited anti-N. caninum activity in vitro, providing important information for further studies on anti-N. caninum drugs.

Apoptosis of human pancreatic carcinoma cell-1 cells induced by Yin Chen Hao Decoction

AIM: To evaluate human pancreatic carcinoma cell line (PANC-1) cells apoptosis and Bcl-2 and Bax expression induced by Yin Chen Hao Decoction (YCHD).

METHODS: The cell growth inhibitory rate was determined by MTT assay. Apoptosis of PANC-1 cells before and after treatment with YCHD was determined by TUNEL staining. Expression of the apoptosis-associated genes, Bcl-2 and Bax, was detected by immunohistochemical staining and reverse transcription -PCR.

RESULTS: YCHD inhibited the growth of PANC-1 cells. Following treatment with YCHD for 24-96 h, the apoptotic rate of PANC-1 cells increased with time. In addition, the positive rate of Bcl-2 protein expression decreased in a time-dependent manner, whereas the positive rate of Bax protein expression increased in a time-dependent manner. Following treatment of with YCHD for 24-96h, expression of BAX mRNA increased gradually and BCL-2 mRNA reduced gradually with time.

CONCLUSION: YCHD induces apoptosis of PANC-1 cells mediated in part via up-regulation of BAX and down-regulation of BCL-2.

Neurotoxicity effects of atrazine-induced SH-SY5Y human dopaminergic neuroblastoma cells via microglial activation

Atrazine (2-chloro-4-ethytlamino-6-isopropylamine-1,3,5-triazine; ATR) is a broad-spectrum herbicide with a wide range of applications worldwide.