Vortioxetine: A review of the pharmacology and clinical profile of the novel antidepressant

Lactate: a prospective target for therapeutic intervention in psychiatric disease

ABSTRACT

Although antipsychotics that act via monoaminergic neurotransmitter modulation have considerable therapeutic effect, they cannot completely relieve clinical symptoms in patients suffering from psychiatric disorders. This may be attributed to the limited range of neurotransmitters that are regulated by psychotropic drugs. Recent findings indicate the need for investigation of psychotropic medications that target less-studied neurotransmitters. Among these candidate neurotransmitters, lactate is developing from being a waste metabolite to a glial-neuronal signaling molecule in recent years. Previous studies have suggested that cerebral lactate levels change considerably in numerous psychiatric illnesses; animal experiments have also shown that the supply of exogenous lactate exerts an antidepressant effect. In this review, we have described how medications targeting newer neurotransmitters offer promise in psychiatric diseases; we have also summarized the advances in the use of lactate (and its corresponding signaling pathways) as a signaling molecule. In addition, we have described the alterations in brain lactate levels in depression, anxiety, bipolar disorder, and schizophrenia and have indicated the challenges that need to be overcome before brain lactate can be used as a therapeutic target in psychopharmacology.

Photobiomodulation improves depression symptoms: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

Background

Depression is a common mental illness that is widely recognized by its lack of pleasure, fatigue, low mood, and, in severe cases, even suicidal tendencies. Photobiomodulation (PBM) is a non-invasive neuromodulation technique that could treat patients with mood disorders such as depression.

Methods

A systematic search of ten databases, including randomized controlled trials (RCTs) for depression, was conducted from the time of library construction to September 25, 2023. The primary outcome was depression. The secondary outcome was sleep. Meta-analysis was performed using RevMan (version 5.4) and Stata (version 14.0). Subgroup analyses were performed to identify sources of heterogeneity. The certainty of the evidence was assessed using the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE).

Results

Three thousand two hundred and sixty-five studies were retrieved from the database and screened for inclusion in eleven trials. The forest plot results demonstrated that PBM alleviated depression (SMD = -0.55, 95% CI [-0.75, -0.35], I2 = 46%). But it is not statistically significant for patients' sleep outcomes (SMD = -0.82, 95% CI [-2.41, 0.77], I2 = 0%, p > 0.05). Subgroup analysis showed that s-PBM was superior to t-PBM in relieving symptoms of depression. The best improvement for t-PBM was achieved using a wavelength of 823 nm, fluence of 10-100 J/cm2, irradiance of 50-100 mW/cm2, irradiance time of 30 min, treatment frequency < 3/week, and number of treatments >15 times. The best improvement for s-PBM was achieved using a wavelength of 808 nm, fluence ≤1 J/cm2, irradiance of 50-100 mW/cm2, irradiance time ≤ 5 min, treatment frequency ≥ 3/week, number of treatments >15 times. All results had evidence quality that was either moderate or very low, and there was no bias in publication.

Conclusion

We conclude that PBM is effective in reducing depression symptoms in patients. However, the current number of studies is small, and further studies are needed to extend the current analysis results.

Systematic Review Registration

https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/PROSPERO/, CRD42023444677.

Effects of Vortioxetine on Cognition and Fatigue in Patients with Multiple Sclerosis and Depression: A Case Series Study

INTRODUCTION

Vortioxetine is a multimodal antidepressant drug that has been reported to have a positive impact on cognition, social function, and fatigue. Nevertheless, it has not been widely studied. Our objective was to explore the effects of vortioxetine on these and other parameters in patients with multiple sclerosis (MS) and depression.

PATIENTS AND METHODOLOGY

This observational case series study included patients with MS and depression who received treatment with vortioxetine for at least 6 months. The patient history of depression and depressive symptoms was assessed. A neuropsychiatric evaluation was carried out using different scales, both before and after treatment.

RESULTS

Of the 25 patients who enrolled in the study, 17 completed the treatment. Significant improvements were observed in health status (EQ-5D; p = 0.002), mood (Beck's Depression Inventory, BDI-II; p = 0.006), anxiety (State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, STAI-State; p = 0.021, and STAI-Trait; p = 0.011), and in the general health test (Short Form Health Survey, SF-36) for the vitality (p = 0.028) and mental health (p = 0.025) domains of the patients who completed the treatment. However, no statistically significant differences were observed in the cognitive tests related to attention, information processing speed, or fatigue.

CONCLUSION

In this population, vortioxetine treatment was effective in reducing the symptoms of depression and improving anxiety, vitality, and mental health. In contrast, it did not produce any improvement in cognition or fatigue but an increase in sample size would be necessary to confirm these results.

Real-world clinical outcomes and treatment patterns in patients with MDD treated with vortioxetine: a retrospective study

BACKGROUND

This study included evaluation of the effectiveness of vortioxetine, a treatment for adults with major depressive disorder (MDD), using patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs) in a real-world setting.

METHODS

This retrospective chart review analyzed the care experiences of adult patients with a diagnosis of MDD from Parkview Physicians Group - Mind-Body Medicine, Midwestern United States. Patients with a prescription for vortioxetine, an initial baseline visit, and ≥ 2 follow-up visits within 16 weeks from September 2014 to December 2018 were included. The primary outcome measure was effectiveness of vortioxetine on depression severity as assessed by change in Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) scores ~ 12 weeks after initiation of vortioxetine. Secondary outcomes included changes in depression-related symptoms (i.e., sexual dysfunction, sleep disturbance, cognitive function, work/social function), clinical characteristics, response, remission, and medication persistence. Clinical narrative notes were also analyzed to examine sleep disturbance, sexual dysfunction, appetite, absenteeism, and presenteeism. All outcomes were examined at index (start of vortioxetine) and at ~ 12 weeks, and mean differences were analyzed using pairwise t tests.

RESULTS

A total of 1242 patients with MDD met inclusion criteria, and 63.9% of these patients had ≥ 3 psychiatric diagnoses and 65.9% were taking ≥ 3 medications. PHQ-9 mean scores decreased significantly from baseline to week 12 (14.15 ± 5.8 to 9.62 ± 6.03, respectively; p < 0.001). At week 12, the response and remission rates in all patients were 31.0% and 23.1%, respectively, and 67% continued vortioxetine treatment. Overall, results also showed significant improvements by week 12 in anxiety (p < 0.001), sexual dysfunction (p < 0.01), sleep disturbance (p < 0.01), cognitive function (p < 0.001), work/social functioning (p = 0.021), and appetite (p < 0.001). A significant decrease in presenteeism was observed at week 12 (p < 0.001); however, no significant change was observed in absenteeism (p = 0.466).

CONCLUSIONS

Using PROMs, our study results suggest that adults with MDD prescribed vortioxetine showed improvement in depressive symptoms in the context of a real-world clinical practice setting. These patients had multiple comorbid psychiatric and physical diagnoses and multiple previous antidepressant treatments had failed.

Lethal vortioxetine poisoning? A forensic investigation

Vortioxetine is an antidepressant recently licensed in the US and EU for the treatment of major depressive disorder. No fatalities from vortioxetine overdose have been reported, yet. Two cases of attempted suicide are described in the literature, although no toxicological analyzes were conducted. Vortioxetine concentrations found in blood and organs in a case of a probable acute lethal intoxication are reported here. A 65-year-old woman was found on the floor behind her bed with no vital signs. The woman was recently on vortioxetine 10 mg/day for major depression, anxiety, and psychotic attacks. Vortioxetine was quantified in blood, brain, liver, kidney, and lung samples by LC-MS/MS. Vortioxetine concentrations were: 1.197 ng/ml in the blood, 804 ng/g in the brain, 8.992 ng/g in the lung, 1.389 ng/g in the liver, 292 in the kidney. No other substance was found. In the case reported here, the blood concentration was approximately 35-135 times higher than the antemortem therapeutic value. Histological examination showed signs of a probable sudden cardiac death following to arrhythmia, with no evidence of myocardial infarction. The present case indicate that blood concentrations close to 1,000 ng/mL could lead to death, involving probably to a cardiac toxicity.

Minocycline treatment improves cognitive and functional plasticity in a preclinical mouse model of major depressive disorder

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a chronic, recurring, and potentially life-threatening illness, which affects over 300 million people worldwide. MDD affects not only the emotional and social domains but also cognition. However, the currently available treatments targeting cognitive deficits in MDD are limited. Minocycline, an antibiotic with anti-inflammatory properties recently identified as a potential antidepressant, has been shown to attenuate learning and memory deficits in animal models of cognitive impairment. Here, we explored whether minocycline recovers the deficits in cognition in a mouse model of depression. C57BL6/J adult male mice were exposed to two weeks of chronic unpredictable mild stress to induce a depressive-like phenotype. Immediately afterward, mice received either vehicle or minocycline for three weeks in standard housing conditions. We measured anhedonia as a depressive-like response, and place learning to assess cognitive abilities. We also recorded long-term potentiation (LTP) as an index of hippocampal functional plasticity and ran immunohistochemical assays to assess microglial proportion and morphology. After one week of treatment, cognitive performance in the place learning test was significantly improved by minocycline, as treated mice displayed a higher number of correct responses when learning novel spatial configurations. Accordingly, minocycline-treated mice displayed higher LTP compared to controls. However, after three weeks of treatment, no difference between treated and control animals was found for behavior, neural plasticity, and microglial properties, suggesting that minocycline has a fast but short effect on cognition, without lasting effects on microglia. These findings together support the usefulness of minocycline as a potential treatment for cognitive impairment associated with MDD.

Safety and effectiveness of vortioxetine for major depressive disorder: Real-world evidence from a population-based study in South Korea

Background

A post-marketing surveillance study was conducted to assess the real-world safety and effectiveness of vortioxetine for the treatment of major depressive disorder (MDD) in South Korea.

Methods

Adult patients aged 19-94 years receiving vortioxetine for MDD at 72 hospitals and clinics in South Korea between 19^th August 2014 and 18^th August 2020 were included. Patients were followed for up to 24±2 weeks, at up to three visits. Adverse events (AEs) and effectiveness, assessed by both clinician and patient-reported measures, were analyzed.

Results

A total of 3,263 patients (mean age: 51.28 years) were included in the safety set; 1,095 were aged ≥65 years. The majority of the safety set (61.97%) were female. The overall rate of any AEs and serious AEs were 17.13 and 1.56%, respectively. The majority of AEs were mild (88.32%). The rates of AEs did not differ statistically by age (≥65 years: 16.89% [185/1,095] versus <65 years: 17.25% [374/2,168)], p=0.7989), sex (male: 15.95% [198/1,241] versus female: 17.85% [361/2,022], p=0.1623), or liver impairment (with liver impairment: 20.90% [14/67] versus without liver impairment: 17.05% [545/3,196], p=0.4087). Effectiveness was assessed in 1,918 patients. By 24±2 weeks, there were significant clinical improvements from baseline, assessed by change in Montgomery-Asberg Depression Rating Scale total score (mean±standard deviation [SD]: -10.49±9.42 points, p <0.0001), the proportion of patients with improved symptoms using the Clinical Global Impression - Improvement scores (79.29%), and in both patient-reported measures, with a significant improvement in the Korean Version of the Perceived Deficits Questionnaire-Depression (mean±SD: -6.06±13.23, p <0.0001) and Digit Symbol Substitution Test (mean±SD: 4.83±9.81, p <0.0001) total scores from baseline. Similar to the safety profiles, the proportions of patients with improved symptoms compared with baseline using the Clinical Global Impression - Improvement scores did not differ by age (≥65 years: 82.09% versus <65 years: 78.32%, p=0.0511), sex (male: 77.45% versus female: 81.01%, p=0.0587), or liver impairment (with liver impairment: 67.57% versus without liver impairment: 79.85%, p=0.0663).

Conclusion

Vortioxetine appears to be well-tolerated and effective for treating MDD patients in the real-world setting in South Korea, irrespective of age, sex, and liver impairment, reflecting the known profile of vortioxetine based on studies worldwide.

Apathy, anhedonia and cognitive dysfunction: common symptoms of depression and neurological disorders

Depression is one of the most common mental disorders in neurological practice. Among other symptoms of depression, a symptom complex represented by apathy, anhedonia, and cognitive impairment plays an important role. This review presents the clinical characteristics of the symptoms described above and discusses modern neurochemical and neuroimaging concepts of their pathogenesis. The problem of pathogenetically substantiated therapy of depression with a predominance of apathy, anhedonia and cognitive impairment is discussed. Fundamental and clinical arguments are presented in favor of the high efficacy of vortioxetine in depression with a predominance of apathy, anhedonia, and cognitive impairment. 

Vortioxetine Induced Hypomania: A Case Presentation and Review of the Literature

Antidepressant-induced hypomania/mania is a complex issue that can be seen in mood disorders but is not clarified. There are case reports in the literature regarding vortioxetine-induced mania and hypomania; however, there is insufficient data. Here, we aim to present a case of vortioxetine-induced hypomania in a major depressive disorder patient who previously used various antidepressants but did not experience hypomania or mania. Our case is expected to contribute to the literature.

Development of the Validated Stability-Indicating Method for the Determination of Vortioxetine in Bulk and Pharmaceutical Formulation by HPLC-DAD, Stress Degradation Kinetics Studies and Detection of Degradation Products by LC-ESI-QTOF-MS

Vortioxetine (VOR) is a new antidepressant drug used to treat major depressive disorder. In this work, a novel, simple, rapid, accurate, precise, selective, stability-indicating, and fully validated high-performance liquid chromatography method with diode array detection (HPLC-DAD) was developed to determine VOR in bulk and pharmaceutical formulations. A Polar-RP column was used, with a mobile phase consisting of acetonitrile (ACN), methanol (MeOH), acetate buffer pH 3.5, and addition of diethylamine (DEA) in the isocratic elution mode. Assessing the stability of the VOR is fundamental to guarantee the efficacy, safety, and quality of drug products. In this study, the VOR active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) and tablets were subjected to a detailed study of forced degradation, using several degrading agents (acid, alkaline, water, heat, light, and oxidation agents). The developed HPLC-DAD method allows the collection of all the essential data to determine degradation kinetics. It was found that the decomposition of vortioxetine is fragile towards oxidative conditions and photolysis, yielding the first-order and second-order kinetic reaction in the above stress conditions, respectively. The degradation products (DPs) were identified by the high-resolution liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization-quadrupole-time of flight-mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-QTOF-MS) method. The HPLC-DAD method was successfully applied for the quantification of VOR in tablets. Additionally, in silico toxicity prediction of the DPs was performed.

Vortioxetine as an analgesic in preclinical inflammatory pain models: Mechanism of action

Vortioxetine is a novel atypical antidepressant with multimodal activity that has recently demonstrated efficacy against neuropathic pain. There is no published data about its analgesic properties in models characterized by peripheral inflammation and consequent pain pathway sensitization, nor data on its mechanism of antinociceptive action. This study aimed to investigate vortioxetine's antinociceptive/antihyperalgesic effects in trigeminal, visceral, and somatic inflammatory pain models, and provide evidence on its mechanism of action in the modulation of trigeminal nociception. Vortioxetine's effects on the nociceptive behavior in orofacial formalin test (OFT) and acetic acid-writhing test in mice and on mechanical hyperalgesia in carrageenan-induced paw inflammation in rats were examined following peroral single administration. The involvement of serotonergic/adrenergic/cholinergic/cannabinoid/adenosine receptors was evaluated in OFT by intraperitoneally treating mice with an appropriate antagonist immediately after vortioxetine application. We used antagonists of 5-HT_1B/1D serotonergic (GR 127935), α₁ -adrenergic (prazosin), α₂ -adrenergic (yohimbine), β₁ -adrenergic (metoprolol), muscarinic (atropine), α₇ nicotinic (methyllycaconitine), CB₁ /CB₂ cannabinoid (AM251 and AM630), and adenosine A₁ (DPCPX) receptors. Vortioxetine dose-dependently reduced pain behavior in OFT and acetic acid writhing test, as well as inflammatory hyperalgesia in paw pressure test. All examined antagonists except prazosin dose-dependently inhibited vortioxetine's antinociceptive effects. In conclusion, vortioxetine exerted analgesic efficacy in trigeminal, visceral, and somatic inflammatory pain. The effect is at least in part mediated by 5-HT_1B/1D serotonergic, α₂ /β₁ -adrenergic, muscarinic and nicotinic cholinergic, CB₁ /CB₂ cannabinoid, and adenosine A₁ receptors. These findings contribute to better understanding of the analgesic effect of vortioxetine and suggest its potential usefulness for inflammatory pain treatment.

5-HT Receptors and the Development of New Antidepressants

Serotonin modulates several physiological and cognitive pathways throughout the human body that affect emotions, memory, sleep, and thermal regulation. The complex nature of the serotonergic system and interactions with other neurochemical systems indicate that the development of depression may be mediated by various pathomechanisms, the common denominator of which is undoubtedly the disturbed transmission in central 5-HT synapses. Therefore, the deliberate pharmacological modulation of serotonergic transmission in the brain seems to be one of the most appropriate strategies for the search for new antidepressants. As discussed in this review, the serotonergic system offers great potential for the development of new antidepressant therapies based on the combination of SERT inhibition with different pharmacological activity towards the 5-HT system. The aim of this article is to summarize the search for new antidepressants in recent years, focusing primarily on the possibility of benefiting from interactions with various 5-HT receptors in the pharmacotherapy of depression.

Chronic stress induces NPD-like behavior in APPPS1 and WT mice with subtle differences in gene expression

Neuropsychiatric disturbances (NPDs) are considered hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Nevertheless, treatment of these symptoms has proven difficult and development of safe and effective treatment options is hampered by the limited understanding of the underlying pathophysiology. Thus, robust preclinical models are needed to increase knowledge of NPDs in AD and develop testable hypotheses and novel treatment options. Abnormal activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is implicated in many psychiatric symptoms and might contribute to both AD and NPDs development and progression. We aimed to establish a mechanistic preclinical model of NPD-like behavior in the APPPS1 mouse model of AD and wildtype (WT) littermates. In APPPS1 and WT mice, we found that chronic stress increased anxiety-like behavior and altered diurnal locomotor activity suggestive of sleep disturbances. Also, chronic stress activated the HPA axis, which, in WT mice, remained heightened for additional 3 weeks. Chronic stress caused irregular expression of circadian regulatory clock genes (BMAL1, PER2, CRY1 and CRY2) in both APPPS1 and WT mice. Interestingly, APPPS1 and WT mice responded differently to chronic stress in terms of expression of serotonergic markers (5-HT_1A receptor and MAOA) and inflammatory genes (IL-6, STAT3 and ADMA17). These findings indicate that, although the behavioral response to chronic stress might be similar, the neurobiochemical response was different in APPPS1 mice, which is an important insight in the efforts to develop safe and effective treatments options for NPDs in AD patients. Further work is needed to substantiate these findings.

Withdrawal Symptoms Following Discontinuation of Vortioxetine-Retrospective Chart Review

The efficacy of vortioxetine has been proven in many studies, but data concerning discontinuation symptoms (DS) after vortioxetine withdrawal is scarce. The aim of our study is to systematically evaluate the prevalence, determinants, and clinical features of vortioxetine DS in a retrospective chart review. Data were obtained from medical records of 263 adult patients with depressive disorders who discontinued former vortioxetine treatment. DS were observed in eight (3%) patients after 71-375 days (median 272) of treatment. DS emerged after median three days following vortioxetine withdrawal and lasted for median seven days. The clinical presentation of DS involved: emotional lability (100% of patients), irritability (75%), sudden worsening of mood (75%), nervousness (37.5%), and agitation (37.5%). Median DESS score was four (range of four to six). DS were significantly more prevalent after accidental vs. planned discontinuation (adjusted p = 0.011) and were less frequent after switching to a different antidepressant vs. ceasing pharmacotherapy (adjusted p = 0.0165). DS appeared more often if patients discontinued therapy without medical consultation (adjusted p = 0.033). The occurrence of DS was not associated with the dose and way of drug discontinuation (sudden vs. gradual). In sum, our results show that clinicians should be aware that vortioxetine withdrawal is associated with the possibility of DS.

A Case of Major Depression with Burning Mouth Syndrome and Tinnitus Successfully Treated with Vortioxetine

We reported a case involving a patient diagnosed with major depression with associated burning mouth syndrome (BMS) and tinnitus who was successfully treated with vortioxetine. The case was 57-year-old Japanese woman diagnosed with major depression according to DSM-5. She experienced increased levels of stress when performing daily duties. Her dominant symptoms were depressive mood, anxiety, restlessness, insomnia, loss of appetite, difficulty of concentration, general fatigue, BMS, and tinnitus. She complained of pain as well as tongue and oral mucosa discomfort. She also experienced tinnitus, which she described as sounding like the buzz of cicadas. To treat symptoms, 20 mg/day duloxetine was initially administered, which was gradually increased to 40 mg/day. Depressive mood, restlessness, loss of appetite, and general fatigue were moderately ameliorated with treatment; however, symptoms such as anxiety, insomnia, and loss of concentration persisted. Vortioxetine (10 mg/day) was added to duloxetine and clonazepam therapy. Within 2 weeks, duloxetine and clonazepam treatments were gradually tapered, and the dosage of vortioxetine prescribed was increased to 20 mg/day. Her BMS completely disappeared, and her glossodynia relieved.

Serotonergic Neurotransmission System Modulator, Vortioxetine, and Dopaminergic D2/D3 Receptor Agonist, Ropinirole, Attenuate Fibromyalgia-Like Symptoms in Mice

Fibromyalgia is a disease characterized by lowered pain threshold, mood disorders, and decreased muscular strength. It results from a complex dysfunction of the nervous system and due to unknown etiology, its diagnosis, treatment, and prevention are a serious challenge for contemporary medicine. Impaired serotonergic and dopaminergic neurotransmission are regarded as key factors contributing to fibromyalgia. The present research assessed the effect of serotonergic and dopaminergic system modulators (vortioxetine and ropinirole, respectively) on the pain threshold, depressive-like behavior, anxiety, and motor functions of mice with fibromyalgia-like symptoms induced by subcutaneous reserpine (0.25 mg/kg). By depleting serotonin and dopamine in the mouse brain, reserpine induced symptoms of human fibromyalgia. Intraperitoneal administration of vortioxetine and ropinirole at the dose of 10 mg/kg alleviated tactile allodynia. At 5 and 10 mg/kg ropinirole showed antidepressant-like properties, while vortioxetine had anxiolytic-like properties. None of these drugs influenced muscle strength but reserpine reduced locomotor activity of mice. Concluding, in the mouse model of fibromyalgia vortioxetine and ropinirole markedly reduced pain. These drugs affected emotional processes of mice in a distinct manner. Hence, these two repurposed drugs should be considered as potential drug candidates for fibromyalgia. The selection of a specific drug should depend on patient’s key symptoms.

GPCR oligomerization as a target for antidepressants: Focus on GPR39

At present most of the evidence for the relevance of oligomerization for the pharmacology of depression comes from in vitro studies which identified oligomers, and from neuropsychopharmacological studies of receptors which participate in oligomerization. For example, behavioural and biochemical studies in knockout animals suggest that GPR39 may mediate the antidepressant action of monoaminergic antidepressants. We have recently found long-lasting antidepressant-like effects of GPR39 agonist, thus suggesting GPR39 as a target for the development of novel antidepressant drugs. In vitro studies have shown that GPR39 oligomerizes with other GPCRs. Oligomerization of GPR39 should thus be considered in relation to the development of new antidepressants targeting this receptor as well as antidepressants targeting other receptors that may form complexes with GPR39. Here, we summarize recent data suggestive of the importance of oligomerization for the pharmacology of depression and discuss approaches for validation of this phenomenon.

Major depression with musical obsession treated with vortioxetine: a case report

BACKGROUND

Musical obsession has been reported as the "stuck song syndrome" and can be accompanied by obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD). Musical obsession is the phenomenon where a particular set of known musical notes are perceived repeatedly. We present a case of major depression with musical obsession. In this case, vortioxetine improved both depressive symptoms and musical obsession.

CASE PRESENTATION

A female, 34-year-old, high school teacher presented with a depressed mood, anergia, difficulty in concentration, poor motivation, restlessness, anxiety, insomnia, and loss of appetite. She was diagnosed with major depression by her family physician and prescribed escitalopram (20 mg/day). Her depressive state partially responded to escitalopram. When she had been depressed, she also experienced musical obsessions as repetitive commercial tunes or instrumental notes inside her head that were not under conscious voluntary control and lasting several hours, causing a high level of distress in her daily life. After switching from escitalopram to vortioxetine (20 mg/day), her depressive symptoms and musical obsession symptoms were ameliorated.

CONCLUSIONS

This case report endorses the utility of vortioxetine for major depression with musical obsession, and further studies should be conducted to establish the optimal treatment.

Vortioxetine as a new frontier in the treatment of chronic neuropathic pain: a review and update

Chronic neuropathic pain (CNP) is a disabling medical condition that impairs the health-related quality-of-life of affected patients. A high prevalence of anxiety, depression, sleep disturbance and cognitive impairment has frequently been reported in association with CNP, making the management of this disease complex and often multidisciplinary. Dual-acting agents such as selective serotonin and noradrenalin reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) are considered particularly useful in the modulation of pain and in treatment of the mood disorders frequently associated with CNP. Recent evidence suggests that the top-down inhibitory control of pain involves the engagement and enhancement of descending endogenous opioidergic, cannabinoid and serotonergic systems, with the effect of serotonin being particularly related to the receptor subtypes that are preferentially activated; indeed serotonin induces analgesia via activation of 5-HT7 receptors and hyperalgesia via activation of 5-HT3 receptors. Vortioxetine (VO) is a novel multimodal serotonergic antidepressant with a unique mechanism of action. It has been demonstrated recently in experimental and clinical studies to have efficacy on pain hypersensitivity and on mood disorders. This drug inhibits the serotonin transporter with a high affinity, antagonises the 5-HT3, 5-HT1D and 5HT7 serotonin receptors, and activates the 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B receptors. In clinical studies, VO has proved effective at a dose of 10-20 mg/daily in short- and long-term treatment of patients with chronic orofacial pain, demonstrating a higher rate of clinical response and remission, a better acceptability, safety rate and tolerability, and a lower latency of action compared with other antidepressants. In the light of these recent findings, VO may be considered as a new pharmacological treatment also in relation to various types of CNP, particularly in elderly patients with concomitant mood disorders and cognitive impairment. The purpose of this review is to provide an up-to-date overview of the pharmacology and clinical applications of VO and to highlight its potential therapeutic properties and advantages in the management of CNP.

Vortioxetine reduces pain hypersensitivity and associated depression-like behavior in mice with oxaliplatin-induced neuropathy

Chronic pain and depression commonly occur together so dual-acting agents might be particularly useful. The population of patients with chemotherapy-induced neuropathy is increasing in parallel with the increase of population of cancer survivors and there is a compelling need for satisfactory treatment of symptoms of neuropathy and concomitant depression. We examined the effects of vortioxetine, a novel antidepressant with unique mechanism of action, on pain hypersensitivity and depression-like behavior in oxaliplatin-induced neuropathy model in mice (OIPN). Vortioxetine (1-10 mg/kg, p.o.) significantly and dose-dependently reduced mechanical allodynia in von Frey test and cold allodynia in acetone test in OIPN mice, in both repeated prophylactic and acute therapeutic treatment regimens. It also reduced depression-like behavior in the forced swimming test in OIPN mice, in both treatment paradigms. Its antiallodynic and antidepressive-like effects were comparable to those exerted by duloxetine (1-15 mg/kg, p.o.). The antiallodynic and antidepressive-like effects of repeatedly administered vortioxetine might be related to the increased content of 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) and noradrenaline (NA), detected in the brainstem of treated OIPN mice. These results indicate that vortioxetine could be potentially useful in prevention and treatment of chemotherapy-induced neuropathy, for the relief of pain and concomitant depressive symptoms. It should be further tested to this regard in clinical settings.

Panic Disorder Induced by the Coronavirus Disease Pandemic in a Patient with Organic Mood Disorder Successfully Treated with Vortioxetine

We present a case of panic disorder induced by the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic in a patient with an organic mood disorder. The patient was a 62-year-old woman with mild mood swings and reduced motivation and volition caused by a traumatic brain injury after a traffic accident. She was maintained on carbamazepine (600 mg/day). When the COVID-19 outbreak occurred in Japan, she developed concerns regarding the illness and complained of multiple episodes of panic attacks. Further, her depressive symptoms worsened. Thus, vortioxetine was added to the ongoing CBZ treatment. Four weeks after initiating vortioxetine treatment, the symptoms of panic disorder and depressive state were ameliorated. The present case suggests that vortioxetine augmentation can improve symptoms of depressive state and panic disorder induced by the COVID-19 pandemic.

Vortioxetine versus other antidepressants in the treatment of burning mouth syndrome: An open-label randomized trial

OBJECTIVES

This randomized open-label trial compared the efficacy and tolerability of vortioxetine (15 mg/daily) with different antidepressants in the treatment of patients with burning mouth syndrome (BMS).

METHODS

One and hundred fifty BMS patients were randomized into five groups and treated with either vortioxetine, paroxetine (20 mg/daily), sertraline (50 mg/daily), escitalopram (10 mg/daily) or duloxetine (60 mg/daily). The Visual Analogue Scale (VAS), Total Pain Rating Index (T-PRI), Hamilton Rating Scales for Depression (HAM-D) and Anxiety (HAM-A), and Clinical Global Impression Improvement (CGI-I) and Efficacy scales (CGI-E) were performed at baseline and after 2, 4, 6, and 12 months of treatment. Any adverse events (AEs) were tabulated for each group. Descriptive statistics, including the Kruskal-Wallis non-parametric test and the Friedman non-parametric test for median comparisons between different times, were used.

RESULTS

All the antidepressants (AD) were associated with a significant decrease in the VAS, T-PRI, HAM-A, HAM-D, CGI-I, and CGI-E scores in the long-term (p < .001). However, the response rate of the vortioxetine group showed a significant reduction after six months. The medians, after 6 months, were as follows: VAS 0.0; T-PRI 2.0; HAM-A 7.0; HAM-D 7.0; CGI-I 1.0; and CGI-E 1.0 with a lower incidence of AEs (p < .019).

CONCLUSION

Vortioxetine was efficacious with a shorter latency of action and fewer AEs compared with other ADs.

Pharmacological treatment of acute-phase anorexia nervosa: Evidence from randomized controlled trials

BACKGROUND

Anorexia nervosa (AN) is the psychiatric disorder with the highest mortality rate, with a standard mortality ratio of 5.86. Despite the large use of psychotropic drugs in the clinical setting, Food and Drug Administration has not approved any psychoactive treatment for AN.

AIMS

The aim of this study was to perform an updated systematic review and meta-analysis of published randomized controlled trials (RCTs) investigating psychopharmacological treatment in acute-phase AN.

METHODS

The present paper follows the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) statement. An extensive literature search was performed. All RCTs enrolling patients with acute-phase AN, comparing at least one psychotropic drug with another drug, placebo, treatment-as-usual or no treatment were included. The main outcome was the effect of psychoactive drugs on body mass index (BMI); data on psychopathological outcomes were also collected when available.

RESULTS

A total of 19 RCTs met all specified criteria. Of these, 11 were excluded from quantitative analyses. Of the eight studies included in the meta-analyses, five reported data on BMI, showing no significant difference between olanzapine and placebo for weight recovery. No significant result was found for AN psychopathology, depressive and anxious symptoms for any of the molecules studied.

CONCLUSIONS

RCTs published in this field display methodological biases, low sample sizes and short follow-up periods. Further research efforts are needed in this field as no evidence has been demonstrated for the use of any psychotropic drug in acute-phase AN neither for weight recovery, nor for comorbid psychiatric symptoms.

Analysis of Density Changes of Selected Brain Receptors After a 14-Day Supply of Chromium(III) and Evaluation of Chromium(III) Affinity to Selected Receptors and Transporters

Chromium(III) is one of the most controversial biometals. Although, it is no longer on the list of minerals necessary for the proper functioning of the human body, and its pharmacological effect is still under discussion. One of the purposes of Cr(III) administration is to use it in patients with mood disorders and it is strictly related to its pharmacological, not dietary effect. This is because its high doses are necessary to obtain the results and additionally, no deficiencies in human population have been noted. In this study, the affinity of chromium(III) to selected receptors and transporters in the rat brain was evaluated, and the effect of the 14-day administration of this metal was assessed on the density of selected receptors. All analyses were performed in vitro using radioligand binding assays, and the results indicated lack of affinity to β₁ and α₁ receptors and serotonin transporter (SERT), furthermore very weak affinity to the 5-HT_1A receptor (30% inhibition at 10^-4 and 10^-5 M). Analysis of the α₁ and β₁ adrenergic receptor density indicated lack of any adaptive effects after 14 days of Cr(III) administration through intraperitoneal injections (doses 6 and 12 mg/kg). The antidepressant activity of chromium(III) indicated in clinical trials concerned patients with atypical, seasonal, or dystonic symptoms. This effect, as it seems based on the presented results, does not depend on direct affinity to serotonin receptors and transporter nor is the result of adaptive changes in the adrenoreceptor system.

Vortioxetine as adjunctive therapy to risperidone for treatment of patients with chronic schizophrenia: A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES

Vortioxetine, a novel antidepressant, may be an interesting candidate for adjunctive therapy of schizophrenia. Our primary objective was to investigate the effect of vortioxetine on negative symptoms, with the assessment of positive, general psychopathology and total symptoms as our secondary goal.

METHODS

This was an eight-week randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group clinical trial, in which 78 inpatients with chronic schizophrenia were stabilised with risperidone (4-6 mg/day) for two months before being assigned to adjunctive vortioxetine (10 mg b.i.d.) or placebo. The patients were assessed using the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS), Extrapyramidal Symptom Rating Scale and Hamilton Depression Rating Scale during the study course. All participants had a PANSS negative symptoms subscale score of ⩾16 at baseline. Sixty-eight patients completed the trial.

RESULTS

Vortioxetine improved the negative symptoms score as the primary outcome and total PANSS score as a secondary outcome significantly better than placebo from baseline to end point at week 8, accompanied by significant time × treatment interactions and effect sizes (negative symptoms: mean difference (95% confidence interval (CI)) = -1.82 (-2.73 to -0.92); total scores: mean difference (95% CI) = -2.09 (-3.16 to -1.01). No significant difference was detected for changes in positive symptoms score or PANSS general psychopathology score as the other secondary outcomes from baseline to end point between the two treatment arms. The incidence of adverse events was comparable between groups.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first study to provide evidence for the therapeutic effect of vortioxetine on negative symptoms as an adjunctive to treatment with antipsychotics in patients with schizophrenia.

Adjunctive vortioxetine for SSRI-resistant major depressive disorder: a "real-world" chart review study

Objective:

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are the cornerstone of treatment of major depressive disorder (MDD). However, non-response is common, often necessitating combination strategies. The present study assessed the efficacy of vortioxetine as an add-on therapy in patients with SSRI-resistant MDD.

Methods:

The charts of 36 adult outpatients with DSM-IV-TR MDD who had not achieved a response after at least 8 weeks of treatment with an SSRI were reviewed retrospectively. Subjects were treated with vortioxetine (5-20 mg/day) for 8 weeks added to the current SSRI. The main outcome measures were change from baseline in total Hamilton Scale for Depression (HAM-D) score and the rate of response (a 50% or greater reduction in HAM-D score and a Clinical Global Impression ‐ Improvement module [CGI-I] score of 1 or 2 at endpoint). HAM-D scores ≤ 7 were considered as remission. Additional outcome measures included the Snaith-Hamilton Pleasure Scale (SHAPS) and the Scale for Suicide Ideation (SSI).

Results:

32 patients completed the 8 weeks of treatment. At 8 weeks, a significant reduction in HAM-D score was observed (p ≤ 0.001), with response obtained by 41.7% and remission by 33.3% of patients. Significant reductions in SHAPS and SSI were also observed (p ≤ 0.001 for both scales).

Conclusions:

Adjunctive vortioxetine may be useful and well-tolerated in stage I treatment-resistant depression. However, the limitations of this study (such as small sample size, absence of randomization and control group, retrospective design, etc.) must be considered.

Research Progress on Classical Traditional Chinese Medicine Jieyu Pills in the Treatment of Depression

Depression is a common clinical psychological disease, which is called "yu zheng" in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). TCM has a long history in the treatment of depression (yu zheng), which has unique advantages. Jieyu pill (JYP), a classical TCM formula, has been widely used for treating depression because of its clear clinical efficacy, low side effects, and high compliance. In this review, we systematically introduce recent clinical and animal experimental studies on JYP and depression, and review the pharmacological mechanism and active ingredients of JYP, as well as its clinical application in depression therapy. This systematic review provides a deep understanding of TCM prescriptions, pharmacological mechanisms, and disease-medicine interactions, and lays the foundation for developing new treatments for depression.

The THINC-it Tool for Cognitive Assessment and Measurement in Major Depressive Disorder: Sensitivity to Change

BACKGROUND

Herein, we sought to determine the sensitivity to change in cognitive function, as measured by the THINC-it tool, in a sample of adults with major depressive disorder (MDD) receiving standardized antidepressant therapy.

METHODS

Adults meeting the DSM-5 criteria for MDD with at least moderate depressive symptom severity [i.e., Montgomery Åsberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS) total score ≥ 20] were treated with open-label vortioxetine (10-20 mg/day, flexibly-dosed) for 8 weeks. The previously validated THINC-it tool was the primary dependent measure. The THINC-it tool was validated against the paper and pencil version of the Digit Symbol Substitution Test (DSST) and the Trails Making Test B (TMTB).

RESULTS

After 8 weeks of treatment, adults with MDD exhibited improvement in cognitive function relative to healthy controls (e.g., processing speed) (p = 0.031). A subdomain measure of working memory (i.e., symbol check; SC) exhibited significant improvement at Weeks 2 and 8 in latency (p = 0.032), SC accuracy (p = 0.046), and objective z-score (p = 0.001) independent of depressive symptoms. A linear regression analysis determined that the THINC-it tool measures of processing speed, as well as executive function were significantly associated with changes observed on the pencil and paper version the Digit Symbol Substitution Test (DSST) (p = 0.002) and in Trails Making Test B (TMTB) (p = 0.003), respectively.

CONCLUSION

The THINC-it tool demonstrates sensitivity to change in adults with MDD and is highly correlated with improvements on pencil and paper versions of DSST and TMTB.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov, identifier NCT03053362.

Mitochondria: A Connecting Link in the Major Depressive Disorder Jigsaw

Background

Depression is a widespread phenomenon with varying degrees of pathology in different patients. Various hypotheses have been proposed for the cause and continuance of depression. Some of these include, but not limited to, the monoamine hypothesis, the neuroendocrine hypothesis, and the more recent epigenetic and inflammatory hypotheses.

Objective

In this article, we review all the above hypotheses with a focus on the role of mitochondria as the connecting link. Oxidative stress, respiratory activity, mitochondrial dynamics and metabolism are some of the mitochondria-dependent factors which are affected during depression. We also propose exogenous ATP as a contributing factor to depression.

Result

Literature review shows that pro-inflammatory markers are elevated in depressive individuals. The cause for elevated levels of cytokines in depression is not completely understood. We propose exogenous ATP activates purinergic receptors which in turn increase the levels of various pro-inflammatory factors in the pathophysiology of depression.

Conclusion

Mitochondria are integral to the function of neurons and undergo dysfunction in major depressive disorder patients. This dysfunction is reflected in all the various hypotheses that have been proposed for depression. Among the newer targets identified, which also involve mitochondria, includes the role of exogenous ATP. The diversity of purinergic receptors, and their differential expression among various individuals in the population, due to genetic and environmental (prenatal) influences, may influence the susceptibility and severity of depression. Identifying specific receptors involved and using patient-specific purinergic receptor antagonist may be an appropriate therapeutic course in the future.

Vortioxetine effects on quality of life of irritable bowel syndrome patients: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial

WHAT IS KNOWN AND OBJECTIVE

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a functional gastrointestinal disease causing a substantial productivity loss with no definite treatment. Our study investigates the effects of vortioxetine vs placebo in enhancing the IBS patients' quality of life.

METHODS

In a double-blinded, placebo-controlled, randomized trial, adults with IBS, according to the ROME IV criteria, were randomized to placebo and vortioxetine for 6 weeks. Participants were visited every two weeks to fill IBS quality of life, hospital anxiety and depression scale, and adverse effect questionnaires.

RESULTS

Eighty patients were randomized, and seventy-two finished the trial. Baseline characteristics of groups were similar. Both placebo and vortioxetine significantly increased the quality of life during course of the study (both P-values < .001), whereas vortioxetine demonstrated a greater increase (P-value < .001). According to the analysis of covariances, this enhancement was irrespective of depression or anxiety score changes (P-value = .002). Adverse effect profile was similar between the groups and can increase IBS patients' quality of life superior to placebo. Vortioxetine effects in our study were observed irrespective of the depression and anxiety levels.

Synthesis of new 5,6,7,8-tetrahydropyrido[1,2-c]pyrimidine derivatives with rigidized tryptamine moiety as potential SSRI and 5-HT1A receptor ligands

Extended studies in the 4-aryl-pyrido[1,2-c]pyrimidine group resulted in 27 new compounds (10.1-10.27), 5,6,7,8-tetrahydropyrido[1,2-c]pyrimidine derivatives. In vitro tests (RBA) were carried out for 10.1-10.27 compounds in order to determine their affinity to 5-HT_1A receptor and SERT protein. 10.1-10.3, 10.6, 10.7, 10.16 and 10.27 compounds had high binding ability to both molecular targets (5-HT_1A K_i = 8-87 nM; SERT K_i = 8-52 nM). For these compounds (10.1-10.3, 10.6, 10.7, 10.16, 10.27) further in vitro, in vivo and metabolic stability tests were performed. In vitro studies in the extended receptor profile (D₂, 5-HT_2A, 5-HT₆ and 5-HT₇) showed their selectivity towards 5-HT_1A receptor and SERT protein. In vivo tests revealed that compounds 10.7 and 10.16 had the properties of presynaptic antagonists of the 5-HT_1A receptor. The redesign of the 2H-pyrido[1,2-c]pyrimidine residue present in the terminal part towards 5,6,7,8-tetrahydropyrido[1,2-c]pyrimidine resulted in the improved metabolic stability and enhanced affinity to both molecular targets (5-HT_1A-R and SERT) compared to the precursors.

Serotonin-induced hyperactivity in SSRI-resistant major depressive disorder patient-derived neurons

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are the most prescribed antidepressants. They regulate serotonergic neurotransmission, but it remains unclear how altered serotonergic neurotransmission may contribute to the SSRI resistance observed in approximately 30% of major depressive disorder (MDD) patients. Patient stratification based on pharmacological responsiveness and the use of patient-derived neurons may make possible the discovery of disease-relevant neural phenotypes. In our study from a large cohort of well-characterized MDD patients, we have generated induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) from SSRI-remitters and SSRI-nonremitters. We studied serotonergic neurotransmission in patient forebrain neurons in vitro and observed that nonremitter patient-derived neurons displayed serotonin-induced hyperactivity downstream of upregulated excitatory serotonergic receptors, in contrast to what is seen in healthy and remitter patient-derived neurons. Our data suggest that postsynaptic forebrain hyperactivity downstream of SSRI treatment may play a role in SSRI resistance in MDD.

Molecular aspects of depression: A review from neurobiology to treatment

Major depressive disorder (MDD), also known as unipolar depression, is one of the leading causes of disability and disease worldwide. The signs and symptoms are low self‑esteem, anhedonia, feeling of worthlessness, sense of rejection and guilt, suicidal thoughts, among others. This review focuses on studies with molecular-based approaches involving MDD to obtain an integrated, more detailed and comprehensive view of the brain changes produced by this disorder and its treatment and how the Central Nervous System (CNS) produces neuroplasticity to orchestrate adaptive defensive behaviors. This article integrates affective neuroscience, psychopharmacology, neuroanatomy and molecular biology data. In addition, there are two problems with current MDD treatments, namely: 1) Low rates of responsiveness to antidepressants and too slow onset of therapeutic effect; 2) Increased stress vulnerability and autonomy, which reduces the responses of currently available treatments. In the present review, we encourage the prospection of new bioactive agents for the development of treatments with post-transduction mechanisms, neurogenesis and pharmacogenetics inducers that bring greater benefits, with reduced risks and maximized access to patients, stimulating the field of research on mood disorders in order to use the potential of preclinical studies. For this purpose, improved animal models that incorporate the molecular and anatomical tools currently available can be applied. Besides, we encourage the study of drugs that do not present "classical application" as antidepressants, (e.g., the dissociative anesthetic ketamine and dextromethorphan) and drugs that have dual action mechanisms since they represent potential targets for novel drug development more useful for the treatment of MDD.

Vortioxetine for Cognitive Enhancement in Major Depression: From Animal Models to Clinical Research

Objectives: Vortioxetine has already shown its efficacy in the acute and long-term treatment of major depressive disorder (MDD) and its potential interest in the prevention of relapse. The aim of this study was to review the current status of knowledge regarding its cognitive effects. Methods: We conducted a review of key data obtained from preclinical behavioral models and clinical trials in MDD focusing on vortioxetine-induced cognitive changes. Results: In animals, acute and chronic administration of vortioxetine improves performance on objective measures that cover a broad range of cognitive domains. In human, vortioxetine appears to be a useful treatment option in MDD patients with cognitive dysfunction. Conclusion: Vortioxetine constitutes a promising treatment for treatment of cognitive impairment in MDD, but its place in the therapeutic armamentarium still needs to be determined.

Effects of 5-HT7 receptor antagonists on behaviors of mice that detect drugs used in the treatment of anxiety, depression, or schizophrenia

5-HT₇ receptors have been suggested to play a role in the regulation of psychiatric disorders. The experimental literature however is not fully consistent on this possibility. Two selective 5-HT₇ receptor antagonists, DR-4004 and SB-269970, were evaluated in mouse models used to detect drugs used to treat anxiety, depression, or schizophrenia. A 5-HT-induced hypothermia assay was used to define the doses of DR-4004 and SB-269970 predicted to impact 5-HT₇ receptors in the brain in vivo. 5-HT produced hypothermia in wildtype mice by either i.p. or i.c.v. routes but did not in 5-HT₇ receptor knockout mice. 5-HT-induced hypothermia was not attenuated by drugs selectively blocking alpha1 or 5-HT_1A receptors. Doses of DR-4004 and SB-269970 that blocked 5-HT-induced hypothermia, did not display significant anxiolytic-like (elevated plus maze; vogel conflict) or antidepressant-like efficacy (tail-suspension test) in mouse models. These compounds did demonstrate some antipsychotic-like properties in the PCP-induced hyperactivity assay and anxiolytic/anti-stress effects in the stress-induced cGMP assay. Negative findings were substantiated by positive control drugs that were active in each assay system. We conclude that 5-HT-induced hypothermia can be used to estimate blockade of central 5-HT₇ receptors. Effects of DR-4004 and SB-269970 in animal models are generally consistent with the experimental literature that the evidence is mixed or not robust regarding the potential efficacy of 5-HT₇ receptor antagonism in the treatment of anxiety, depression, or schizophrenia.

Shortened Spadin Analogs Display Better TREK-1 Inhibition, In Vivo Stability and Antidepressant Activity

Depression is a devastating mental disorder that affects 20% of the population worldwide. Despite their proven efficacy, antidepressants present a delayed onset of action and serious adverse effects. Seven years ago, we described spadin (PE 12-28) as a promising endogenous peptide with antidepressant activity. Spadin specifically blocks the TREK-1 channel. Previously, we showed in vivo that, spadin activity disappeared beyond 7 h after administration. In order to improve in vivo spadin stability and bioavailability, we screened spadin analogs and derivatives. From the study of spadin blood degradation products, we designed a 7 amino-acid peptide, PE 22-28. In vitro studies on hTREK-1/HEK cells by using patch-clamp technique, showed that PE 22-28 displayed a better specificity and affinity for TREK-1 channel compared to spadin, IC₅₀ of 0.12 nM vs. 40–60 nM for spadin. In the same conditions, we also pointed out that different modifications of its N or C-terminal ends maintained or abolished TREK-1 channel activity without affecting PE 22-28 affinity. In vivo, the antidepressant properties of PE 22-28 and its derivatives were demonstrated in behavioral models of depression, such as the forced swimming test. Mice treated with spadin-analogs showed a significant reduction of the immobility time. Moreover, in the novelty suppressed feeding test after a 4-day sub-chronic treatment PE 22-28 reduced significantly the latency to eat the food pellet. PE 22-28 and its analogs were able to induce neurogenesis after only a 4-day treatment with a prominent effect of the G/A-PE 22-28. On mouse cortical neurons, PE 22-28 and its derivatives enhanced synaptogenesis measured by the increase of PSD-95 expression level. Finally, the action duration of PE 22-28 and its analogs was largely improved in comparison with that of spadin, up to 23 h instead of 7 h. Taken together, our results demonstrated that PE 22-28 and its derivatives represent other promising molecules that could be an alternative to spadin in the treatment of depression.

Effects of Antidepressants on Sleep

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The aim of this review article was to summarize recent publications on effects of antidepressants on sleep and to show that these effects not only depend on the kind of antidepressant drugs but are also related to the dose, the time of drug administration, and the duration of the treatment.

RECENT FINDINGS

Complaints of disrupted sleep are very common in patients suffering from depression, and they are listed among diagnostic criteria for this disorder. Moreover, midnocturnal insomnia is the most frequent residual symptom of depression. Thus, all antidepressants should normalize sleep. However, at least in short-term treatment, many antidepressants with so-called activating effects (e.g. fluoxetine, venlafaxine) may disrupt sleep, while others with sedative properties (e.g., doxepin, mirtazapine, trazodone) rapidly improve sleep, but may cause problems in long-term treatment due to oversedation.For sleep-promoting action, the best effects can frequently be achieved with a very low dose, administered early enough before bedtime and importantly, always as a part of more complex interventions based on the cognitive-behavioral protocol to treat insomnia (CBT-I). For successful treatment of depression, it is necessary to understand the effects of antidepressants on sleep. Each physician should also be aware that some antidepressants may worsen or induce primary sleep disorders like restless legs syndrome, sleep bruxism, REM sleep behavior disorder, nightmares, and sleep apnea, which may result from an antidepressant-induced weight gain.