The pharmacology and therapeutic relevance of endocannabinoid derived cyclo-oxygenase (COX)-2 products

Therapeutic Potential of Cannabinoids in Glaucoma

Glaucoma is a leading cause of irreversible blindness worldwide. To date, intraocular pressure (IOP) is the only modifiable risk factor in glaucoma treatment, but even in treated patients, the disease can progress. Cannabinoids, which have been known to lower IOP since the 1970s, have been shown to have beneficial effects in glaucoma patients beyond their IOP-lowering properties. In addition to the classical cannabinoid receptors CB1 and CB2, knowledge of non-classical cannabinoid receptors and the endocannabinoid system has increased in recent years. In particular, the CB2 receptor has been shown to mediate anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, and neuroprotective properties, which may represent a promising therapeutic target for neuroprotection in glaucoma patients. Due to their vasodilatory effects, cannabinoids improve blood flow to the optic nerve head, which may suggest a vasoprotective potential and counteract the altered blood flow observed in glaucoma patients. The aim of this review was to assess the available evidence on the effects and therapeutic potential of cannabinoids in glaucoma patients. The pharmacological mechanisms underlying the effects of cannabinoids on IOP, neuroprotection, and ocular hemodynamics have been discussed.

Endocannabinoid System and Exogenous Cannabinoids in Depression and Anxiety: A Review

Background: There is a growing liberalization of cannabis-based preparations for medical and recreational use. In multiple instances, anxiety and depression are cited as either a primary or a secondary reason for the use of cannabinoids. Aim: The purpose of this review is to explore the association between depression or anxiety and the dysregulation of the endogenous endocannabinoid system (ECS), as well as the use of phytocannabinoids and synthetic cannabinoids in the remediation of depression/anxiety symptoms. After a brief description of the constituents of cannabis, cannabinoid receptors and the endocannabinoid system, the most important evidence is presented for the involvement of cannabinoids in depression and anxiety both in human and from animal models of depression and anxiety. Finally, evidence is presented for the clinical use of cannabinoids to treat depression and anxiety. Conclusions: Although the common belief that cannabinoids, including cannabis, its main studied components-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD)-or other synthetic derivatives have been suggested to have a therapeutic role for certain mental health conditions, all recent systematic reviews that we report have concluded that the evidence that cannabinoids improve depressive and anxiety disorders is weak, of very-low-quality, and offers no guidance on the use of cannabinoids for mental health conditions within a regulatory framework. There is an urgent need for high-quality studies examining the effects of cannabinoids on mental disorders in general and depression/anxiety in particular, as well as the consequences of long-term use of these preparations due to possible risks such as addiction and even reversal of improvement.

Role of the Endocannabinoidome in Human and Mouse Atherosclerosis

The Endocannabinoid (eCB) system and its role in many physiological and pathological conditions is well described and accepted, and includes cardiovascular disorders. However, the eCB system has been expanded to an "-ome"; the endocannabinoidome (eCBome) that includes endocannabinoid-related mediators, their protein targets and metabolic enzymes, many of which significantly impact upon cardiometabolic health. These recent discoveries are here summarized with a special focus on their potential involvement in atherosclerosis. We described the role of classical components of the eCB system (eCBs, CB1 and CB2 receptors) and eCB-related lipids, their regulatory enzymes and molecular targets in atherosclerosis. Furthermore, since increasing evidence points to significant cross-talk between the eCBome and the gut microbiome and the gut microbiome and atherosclerosis, we explore the possibility that a gut microbiome - eCBome axis has potential implications in atherosclerosis.

Sensitization of nociceptors by prostaglandin E2-glycerol contributes to hyperalgesia in mice with sickle cell disease

Pain is a characteristic feature of sickle cell disease (SCD), 1 of the most common inherited diseases. Patients may experience acute painful crises as well as chronic pain. In the Berkley transgenic murine model of SCD, HbSS-BERK mice express only human hemoglobin S. These mice share many features of SCD patients, including persistent inflammation and hyperalgesia. Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) is elevated in skin, dorsal root ganglia (DRG), and spinal cord in HbSS-BERK mice. In addition to arachidonic acid, COX-2 oxidizes the endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) to produce prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂)-glycerol (PGE₂-G); PGE₂-G is known to produce hyperalgesia. We tested the hypotheses that PGE₂-G is increased in DRGs of HbSS-BERK mice and sensitizes nociceptors (sensory neurons that respond to noxious stimuli), and that blocking its synthesis would decrease hyperalgesia in HbSS-BERK mice. Systemic administration of R-flurbiprofen preferentially reduced production of PGE₂-G over that of PGE₂ in DRGs, decreased mechanical and thermal hyperalgesia, and decreased sensitization of nociceptors in HbSS-BERK mice. The same dose of R-flurbiprofen had no behavioral effect in HbAA-BERK mice (the transgenic control), but local injection of PGE₂-G into the hind paw of HbAA-BERK mice produced sensitization of nociceptors and hyperalgesia. Coadministration of a P2Y6 receptor antagonist blocked the effect of PGE₂-G, indicating that this receptor is a mediator of pain in SCD. The ability of R-flurbiprofen to block the synthesis of PGE₂-G and to normalize levels of 2-AG suggests that R-flurbiprofen may be beneficial to treat pain in SCD, thereby reducing the use of opioids to relieve pain.

Bimatoprost in Dermatology

Bimatoprost is a prostamide analogue used for treatment of glaucoma in ophthalmology. Surprisingly, the side effects such as increased pigmentation of eyelids and hypertrichosis in patients being treated with prostaglandin analogues for glaucoma have opened new areas of application in various dermatological disorders such as alopecia mainly affecting eyelashes, eyebrows, and vitiligo.

Endocannabinoid Analytical Methodologies: Techniques That Drive Discoveries That Drive Techniques

Identification of the two major endogenous cannabinoid ligands, known as endocannabinoids, N-arachidonoyl-ethanolamine (anandamide, AEA) and 2-arachidonoyl-glycerol (2-AG), opened the way for the identification and isolation of other lipid congeners, all derivatives of fatty acids and related to the Endocannabinoid System. The nomenclature of this anandamide-type class of lipids is evolving as new species are discovered all the time. However, they each fall under the larger umbrella of lipids that are a conjugation of a fatty acid with an amine through and amide bond, which we will refer to as lipoamines. Specific subspecies of lipoamines that have been discovered are the N-acyl-ethanolamides (including AEA), N-acyl-dopamines, N-acyl-serotonins, N-acyl-GABA, N-acyl-taurines, and a growing number of N-acyl amino acids. Emerging data from multiple labs also show that monoacylglycerols (including 2-AG), COX-2 metabolites, and fatty acid esters of hydroxyl fatty acids are interconnected with these lipoamines at both the biosynthetic and metabolic levels. Understanding the molecular relatedness of these lipids is important for studying how they act as signaling molecules; however, a first step in this process hinges on advances in being able to accurately measure them.

Prostaglandin E2 glyceryl ester is an endogenous agonist of the nucleotide receptor P2Y6

Cyclooxygenase-2 catalyses the biosynthesis of prostaglandins from arachidonic acid but also the biosynthesis of prostaglandin glycerol esters (PG-Gs) from 2-arachidonoylglycerol. Previous studies identified PG-Gs as signalling molecules involved in inflammation. Thus, the glyceryl ester of prostaglandin E₂, PGE₂-G, mobilizes Ca²⁺ and activates protein kinase C and ERK, suggesting the involvement of a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR). To identify the endogenous receptor for PGE₂-G, we performed a subtractive screening approach where mRNA from PGE₂-G response-positive and -negative cell lines was subjected to transcriptome-wide RNA sequencing analysis. We found several GPCRs that are only expressed in the PGE₂-G responder cell lines. Using a set of functional readouts in heterologous and endogenous expression systems, we identified the UDP receptor P2Y₆ as the specific target of PGE₂-G. We show that PGE₂-G and UDP are both agonists at P2Y₆, but they activate the receptor with extremely different EC₅₀ values of ~1 pM and ~50 nM, respectively. The identification of the PGE₂-G/P2Y₆ pair uncovers the signalling mode of PG-Gs as previously under-appreciated products of cyclooxygenase-2.

Prostanoid Receptor Antagonist Effects on Intraocular Pressure, Supported by Ocular Biodisposition Experiments

PURPOSE

Since all prostanoid receptors affect intraocular pressure (IOP) and endogenous prostanoids are found in ocular tissues, the pressor effects of prostanoid antagonists were comprehensively evaluated. The absence of effects of most of these antagonists was not entirely anticipated. To ensure no false-negative results, ocular biodisposition studies were conducted.

METHODS

Monkeys with laser-induced ocular hypertension were used to study antagonist effects on IOP. Ocular biodisposition of each antagonist was assessed in rabbits, with LC/MS/MS analyses of tissue extracts and blood.

RESULTS

EP₁, EP₂, EP₃, EP₄, FP, IP, and TP prostanoid receptor antagonists did not affect IOP, even at a high 1% dose. These studies were followed by ocular biodisposition studies. Striking differences in ocular tissue bioavailability were observed, which were independent of solubility. Only the EP₁ antagonist SC-51322 failed to penetrate sufficiently to be bioavailable in the aqueous humor and ciliary body/iris. This obliged testing an alternative EP₁ antagonist, namely ONO-8713, to reliably conclude that an EP₁ antagonist does not alter IOP.

CONCLUSIONS

These antagonist studies provided no evidence for individual endogenous prostanoids exerting a meaningful role in regulating IOP. They do reaffirm the critical importance of studying ocular bioavailability for confirming negative data. Large differences among the antagonists in anterior segment and even ocular surface tissue biodisposition were observed in rabbits. It appears from these monkey studies, supported by rabbit ocular bioavailability data, that an absence of drug effect in the eye cannot be adequately substantiated without determination of ocular pharmacokinetics.

Endocannabinoid system: Role in depression, reward and pain control (Review)

Depression and pain co-exist in almost 80% of patients and are associated with impaired health-related quality of life, often contributing to high mortality. However, the majority of patients who suffer from the comorbid depression and pain are not responsive to pharmacological treatments that address either pain or depression, making this comorbidity disorder a heavy burden on patients and society. In ancient times, this depression-pain comorbidity was treated using extracts of the Cannabis sativa plant, known now as marijuana and the mode of action of Δ9‑tetrahydrocannabinol, the active cannabinoid ingredient of marijuana, has only recently become known, with the identification of cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1) and CB2. Subsequent investigations led to the identification of endocannabinoids, anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol, which exert cannabinomimetic effects through the CB1 and CB2 receptors, which are located on presynaptic membranes in the central nervous system and in peripheral tissues, respectively. These endocannabinoids are produced from membrane lipids and are lipohilic molecules that are synthesized on demand and are eliminated rapidly after their usage by hydrolyzing enzymes. Clinical studies revealed altered endocannabinoid signaling in patients with chronic pain. Considerable evidence suggested the involvement of the endocannabinoid system in eliciting potent effects on neurotransmission, neuroendocrine, and inflammatory processes, which are known to be deranged in depression and chronic pain. Several synthetic cannabinomimetic drugs are being developed to treat pain and depression. However, the precise mode of action of endocannabinoids on different targets in the body and whether their effects on pain and depression follow the same or different pathways, remains to be determined.

Endocannabinoids, through opioids and prostaglandins, contribute to fever induced by key pyrogenic mediators

This study aims to explore the contribution of endocannabinoids on the cascade of mediators involved in LPS-induced fever and to verify the participation of prostaglandins and endogenous opioids in fever induced by anandamide (AEA). Body temperature (Tc) of male Wistar rats was recorded over 6h, using a thermistor probe. Cerebrospinal fluid concentration of PGE2 and β-endorphin were measured by ELISA after the administration of AEA. Intracerebroventricular administration of the CB1 receptor antagonist AM251 (5μg, i.c.v.), reduced the fever induced by IL-1β (3ng, i.c.v.), TNF-α (250ng, i.c.v.), IL-6 (300ng, i.c.v.), corticotrophin release factor (CRH; 2.5μg, i.c.v.) and endothelin (ET)-1 (1pmol, i.c.v.), but not the fever induced by PGE2 (250ng, i.c.v.) or PGF2α (250ng, i.c.v.). Systemic administration of indomethacin (2mgkg(-1), i.p.) or celecoxib (5mgkg(-1), p.o.) reduced the fever induced by AEA (1μg, i.c.v.), while naloxone (1mgkg(-1), s.c.) abolished it. The increases of PGE2 and β-endorphin concentration in the CSF induced by AEA were abolished by the pretreatment of rats with AM251. These results suggest that endocannabinoids are intrinsically involved in the pyretic activity of cytokines (IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6), CRH and ET-1 but not the PGE2 or PGF2α induced fevers. However, anandamide via CB1 receptor activation induces fever that is dependent on the synthesis of prostaglandin and opioids.

Task-specific enhancement of hippocampus-dependent learning in mice deficient in monoacylglycerol lipase, the major hydrolyzing enzyme of the endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoylglycerol

Growing evidence indicates that the endocannabinoid system is important for the acquisition and/or extinction of learning and memory. However, it is unclear which endocannabinoid(s) play(s) a crucial role in these cognitive functions, especially memory extinction. To elucidate the physiological role of 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), a major endocannabinoid, in behavioral and cognitive functions, we conducted a comprehensive behavioral test battery in knockout (KO) mice deficient in monoacylglycerol lipase (MGL), the major hydrolyzing enzyme of 2-AG. We found age-dependent increases in spontaneous physical activity (SPA) in MGL KO mice. Next, we tested the MGL KO mice using 5 hippocampus-dependent learning paradigms (i.e., Morris water maze (MWM), contextual fear conditioning, novel object recognition test, trace eyeblink conditioning, and water-finding test). In the MWM, MGL KO mice showed normal acquisition of reference memory, but exhibited significantly faster extinction of the learned behavior. Moreover, they showed faster memory acquisition on the reversal-learning task of the MWM. In contrast, in the contextual fear conditioning, MGL KO mice tended to show slower memory extinction. In the novel object recognition and water-finding tests, MGL KO mice exhibited enhanced memory acquisition. Trace eyeblink conditioning was not altered in MGL KO mice throughout the acquisition and extinction phases. These results indicate that 2-AG signaling is important for hippocampus-dependent learning and memory, but its contribution is highly task-dependent.

Management of hypotrichosis of the eyelashes: focus on bimatoprost

Prominent eyelashes are generally recognized as enhancing beauty and are often desired by women. Until recently, the options available to augment the prominence of eyelashes were limited to makeup, over-the-counter products, artificial eyelashes, and eyelash transplantation. Originally approved for the treatment of ocular hypertension, the prostamide, bimatoprost, is now approved for the treatment of hypotrichosis of the eyelashes. Bimatoprost ophthalmic solution 0.03%, applied once daily to the skin of the upper eyelid margin using sterile single-use-per-eye applicators, increases eyelash growth, including length, thickness, and darkness. The effectiveness of bimatoprost for eyelash growth has been demonstrated by clinician ratings, digital image analysis, and patient-reported measures of satisfaction. The effects of bimatoprost treatment on eyelash length, thickness, and darkness are believed to result from longer anagen duration, increased hair bulb thickness, and increased melanogenesis, respectively. Dermally applied bimatoprost appears to be associated with a lower incidence of adverse events than administration of the medication as an eyedrop. This more favorable safety and tolerability profile is likely mediated by decreased exposure of ocular tissues to bimatoprost when applied dermally. Taken together, available data suggest that cutaneous application of bimatoprost ophthalmic solution 0.03% safely and effectively enhances upper eyelash growth.

4'-O-methylhonokiol increases levels of 2-arachidonoyl glycerol in mouse brain via selective inhibition of its COX-2-mediated oxygenation

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

4'-O-methylhonokiol (MH) is a natural product showing anti-inflammatory, anti-osteoclastogenic, and neuroprotective effects. MH was reported to modulate cannabinoid CB2 receptors as an inverse agonist for cAMP production and an agonist for intracellular [Ca2+]. It was recently shown that MH inhibits cAMP formation via CB2 receptors. In this study, the exact modulation of MH on CB2 receptor activity was elucidated and its endocannabinoid substrate-specific inhibition (SSI) of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and CNS bioavailability are described for the first time.

METHODS

CB2 receptor modulation ([35S]GTPγS, cAMP, and β-arrestin) by MH was measured in hCB2-transfected CHO-K1 cells and native conditions (HL60 cells and mouse spleen). The COX-2 SSI was investigated in RAW264.7 cells and in Swiss albino mice by targeted metabolomics using LC-MS/MS.

RESULTS

MH is a CB2 receptor agonist and a potent COX-2 SSI. It induced partial agonism in both the [35S]GTPγS binding and β-arrestin recruitment assays while being a full agonist in the cAMP pathway. MH selectively inhibited PGE2 glycerol ester formation (over PGE2) in RAW264.7 cells and significantly increased the levels of 2-AG in mouse brain in a dose-dependent manner (3 to 20 mg kg(-1)) without affecting other metabolites. After 7 h from intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection, MH was quantified in significant amounts in the brain (corresponding to 200 to 300 nM).

CONCLUSIONS

LC-MS/MS quantification shows that MH is bioavailable to the brain and under condition of inflammation exerts significant indirect effects on 2-AG levels. The biphenyl scaffold might serve as valuable source of dual CB2 receptor modulators and COX-2 SSIs as demonstrated by additional MH analogs that show similar effects. The combination of CB2 agonism and COX-2 SSI offers a yet unexplored polypharmacology with expected synergistic effects in neuroinflammatory diseases, thus providing a rationale for the diverse neuroprotective effects reported for MH in animal models.

Regulation of inflammation by cannabinoids, the endocannabinoids 2-arachidonoyl-glycerol and arachidonoyl-ethanolamide, and their metabolites

2-Arachidonoyl-glycerol (2-AG) and arachidonyl-ethanolamide (AEA) are endocannabinoids that have been implicated in many physiologic disorders, including obesity, metabolic syndromes, hepatic diseases, pain, neurologic disorders, and inflammation. Their immunomodulatory effects are numerous and are not always mediated by cannabinoid receptors, reflecting the presence of an arachidonic acid (AA) molecule in their structure, the latter being the precursor of numerous bioactive lipids that are pro- or anti-inflammatory. 2-AG and AEA can thus serve as a source of AA but can also be metabolized by most eicosanoid biosynthetic enzymes, yielding additional lipids. In this regard, enhancing endocannabinoid levels by using endocannabinoid hydrolysis inhibitors is likely to augment the levels of these lipids that could regulate inflammatory cell functions. This review summarizes the metabolic pathways involved in the biosynthesis and metabolism of AEA and 2-AG, as well as the biologic effects of the 2-AG and AEA lipidomes in the regulation of inflammation.

Endocannabinoid signalling and the deteriorating brain

Ageing is characterized by the progressive impairment of physiological functions and increased risk of developing debilitating disorders, including chronic inflammation and neurodegenerative diseases. These disorders have common molecular mechanisms that can be targeted therapeutically. In the wake of the approval of the first cannabinoid-based drug for the symptomatic treatment of multiple sclerosis, we examine how endocannabinoid (eCB) signalling controls--and is affected by--normal ageing and neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative disorders. We propose a conceptual framework linking eCB signalling to the control of the cellular and molecular hallmarks of these processes, and categorize the key components of endocannabinoid signalling that may serve as targets for novel therapeutics.

Endocannabinoids, related compounds and their metabolic routes

Endocannabinoids are lipid mediators able to bind to and activate cannabinoid receptors, the primary molecular targets responsible for the pharmacological effects of the Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol. These bioactive lipids belong mainly to two classes of compounds: N-acylethanolamines and acylesters, being N-arachidonoylethanolamine (AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), respectively, their main representatives. During the last twenty years, an ever growing number of fatty acid derivatives (endocannabinoids and endocannabinoid-like compounds) have been discovered and their activities biological is the subject of intense investigations. Here, the most recent advances, from a therapeutic point of view, on endocannabinoids, related compounds, and their metabolic routes will be reviewed.

N-Acyl amines of docosahexaenoic acid and other n-3 polyunsatured fatty acids - from fishy endocannabinoids to potential leads

N-3 Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 LC-PUFAs), in particular α-linolenic acid (18:3n-3), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA; 20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; 22:6n-3) are receiving much attention because of their presumed beneficial health effects. To explain these, a variety of mechanisms have been proposed, but their interactions with the endocannabinoid system have received relatively little attention so far. However, it has already been shown some time ago that consumption of n-3 LC-PUFAs not only affects the synthesis of prototypic endocannabinoids like anandamide but also stimulates the formation of specific n-3 LC-PUFA-derived conjugates with ethanolamine, dopamine, serotonin or other amines. Some of these fatty amides show overlapping biological activities with those of typical endocannabinoids, whereas others possess distinct and sometimes largely unknown receptor affinities and other properties. The ethanolamine and dopamine conjugates of DHA have been the most investigated thus far. These mediators may provide promising new leads to the field of inflammatory and neurological disorders and for other pharmacological applications, including their use as carrier molecules for neurotransmitters to target the brain. Furthermore, combinations of n-3 LC-PUFA-derived fatty acid amides, their precursors and FAAH inhibitors offer possibilities to optimise their effects in health and disease.

Functionalization of β-caryophyllene generates novel polypharmacology in the endocannabinoid system

The widespread dietary plant sesquiterpene hydrocarbon β-caryophyllene (1) is a CB2 cannabinoid receptor-specific agonist showing anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects in vivo. Structural insights into the pharmacophore of this hydrocarbon, which lacks functional groups other than double bonds, are missing. A structure-activity study provided evidence for the existence of a well-defined sesquiterpene hydrocarbon binding site in CB2 receptors, highlighting its exquisite sensitivity to modifications of the strained endocyclic double bond of 1. While most changes on this element were detrimental for activity, ring-opening cross metathesis of 1 with ethyl acrylate followed by amide functionalization generated a series of new monocyclic amides (11a, 11b, 11c) that not only retained the CB2 receptor functional agonism of 1 but also reversibly inhibited fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), the major endocannabinoid degrading enzyme, without affecting monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) and α,β hydrolases 6 and 12. Intriguingly, further modification of this monocyclic scaffold generated the FAAH- and endocannabinoid substrate-specific cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) dual inhibitors 11e and 11f, which are probes with a novel pharmacological profile. Our study shows that by removing the conformational constraints induced by the medium-sized ring and by introducing functional groups in the sesquiterpene hydrocarbon 1, a new scaffold with pronounced polypharmacological features within the endocannabinoid system could be generated. The structural and functional repertoire of cannabimimetics and their yet poorly understood intrinsic promiscuity may be exploited to generate novel probes and ultimately more effective drugs.

Increased angiotensin II contraction of the uterine artery at early gestation in a transgenic model of hypertensive pregnancy is reduced by inhibition of endocannabinoid hydrolysis

Increased vascular sensitivity to angiotensin II (Ang II) is a marker of a hypertensive human pregnancy. Recent evidence of interactions between the renin-angiotensin system and the endocannabinoid system suggests that anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol may modulate Ang II contraction. We hypothesized that these interactions may contribute to the enhanced vascular responses in hypertensive pregnancy. We studied Ang II contraction in isolated uterine artery (UA) at early gestation in a rat model that mimics many features of preeclampsia, the transgenic human angiotensinogen×human renin (TgA), and control Sprague-Dawley rats. We determined the role of the cannabinoid receptor 1 by blockade with SR171416A, and the contribution of anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol degradation to Ang II contraction by inhibiting their hydrolyzing enzyme fatty acid amide hydrolase (with URB597) or monoacylglycerol lipase (with JZL184), respectively. TgA UA showed increased maximal contraction and sensitivity to Ang II that was inhibited by indomethacin. Fatty acid amide hydrolase blockade decreased Ang IIMAX in Sprague-Dawley UA, and decreased both Ang IIMAX and sensitivity in TgA UA. Monoacylglycerol lipase blockade had no effect on Sprague-Dawley UA and decreased Ang IIMAX and sensitivity in TgA UA. Blockade of the cannabinoid receptor 1 in TgA UA had no effect. Immunolocalization of fatty acid amide hydrolase and monoacylglycerol lipase showed a similar pattern between groups; fatty acid amide hydrolase predominantly localized in endothelium and monoacylglycerol lipase in smooth muscle cells. We demonstrated an increased Ang II contraction in TgA UA before initiation of the hypertensive phenotype. Anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol reduced Ang II contraction in a cannabinoid receptor 1-independent manner. These renin-angiotensin system-endocannabinoid system interactions may contribute to the enhanced vascular reactivity in early stages of hypertensive pregnancy.

Prostamide F(2) α receptor antagonism combined with inhibition of FAAH may block the pro-inflammatory mediators formed following selective FAAH inhibition

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Prostamides are lipid mediators formed by COX-2-catalysed oxidation of the endocannabinoid anandamide and eliciting effects often opposed to those caused by anandamide. Prostamides may be formed when hydrolysis of anandamide by fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) is physiologically, pathologically or pharmacologically decreased. Thus, therapeutic benefits of FAAH inhibitors might be attenuated by concomitant production of prostamide F2 α . This loss of benefit might be minimized by compounds designed to selectively antagonize prostamide receptors and also inhibiting FAAH.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Inhibition of FAAH by a series of selective antagonists of prostamide receptors, including AGN 204396, AGN 211335 and AGN 211336, was assessed using rat, mouse and human FAAH in vitro, together with affinity for human recombinant CB1 and CB2 receptors. Effects in vivo were measured in a model of formalin-induced inflammatory pain in mice.

KEY RESULTS

The prostamide F2 α receptor antagonists were active against mouse and rat FAAH in the low μM range and behaved as non-competitive and plasma membrane-permeant inhibitors. AGN 211335, the most potent inhibitor of rat FAAH (IC50  = 1.2 μM), raised exogenous anandamide levels in intact cells and also bound to cannabinoid CB1 receptors. Both AGN 211335 and AGN 211336 (0.25-1 mg·kg(-1) , i.p.) inhibited the formalin-induced nociceptive response in mice.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Synthetic compounds with indirect agonist activity at cannabinoid receptors and antagonist activity at prostamide receptors can be developed. Such compounds could be used as alternatives to selective FAAH inhibitors to prevent the possibility of prostamide F2 α -induced inflammation and pain.

LINKED ARTICLES

This article is part of a themed section on Cannabinoids 2013. To view the other articles in this section visit http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/bph.2014.171.issue-6.

Effects of prostaglandin analogues on aqueous humor outflow pathways

Elevated intraocular pressure (IOP) is the most prevalent risk factor for glaucoma. All treatments, whether surgical or pharmaceutical, are aimed at lowering IOP. Prostaglandin analogues are a first line therapy for glaucoma due to their ability to reduce IOP, once-daily dosing, efficacy, and minimal side-effect profile. Whereas prostaglandin analogues have been known to alter aqueous humor outflow through the unconventional (uveoscleral) pathway, more recent evidence suggests their action also occurs through the conventional (trabecular) pathway. Understanding how prostaglandin analogues successfully lower IOP is important, as this information may lead to the discovery of new molecular targets for future therapeutic intervention. This review explores the current understanding of prostaglandin analogue biology as it pertains to IOP reduction and improved aqueous humor outflow facility.

The Concise Guide to PHARMACOLOGY 2013/14: G protein-coupled receptors

The Concise Guide to PHARMACOLOGY 2013/14 provides concise overviews of the key properties of over 2000 human drug targets with their pharmacology, plus links to an open access knowledgebase of drug targets and their ligands (www.guidetopharmacology.org), which provides more detailed views of target and ligand properties. The full contents can be found at http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.12444/full. G protein-coupled receptors are one of the seven major pharmacological targets into which the Guide is divided, with the others being G protein-coupled receptors, ligand-gated ion channels, ion channels, catalytic receptors, nuclear hormone receptors, transporters and enzymes. These are presented with nomenclature guidance and summary information on the best available pharmacological tools, alongside key references and suggestions for further reading. A new landscape format has easy to use tables comparing related targets. It is a condensed version of material contemporary to late 2013, which is presented in greater detail and constantly updated on the website www.guidetopharmacology.org, superseding data presented in previous Guides to Receptors and Channels. It is produced in conjunction with NC-IUPHAR and provides the official IUPHAR classification and nomenclature for human drug targets, where appropriate. It consolidates information previously curated and displayed separately in IUPHAR-DB and the Guide to Receptors and Channels, providing a permanent, citable, point-in-time record that will survive database updates.

The inhibition of 2-arachidonoyl-glycerol (2-AG) biosynthesis, rather than enhancing striatal damage, protects striatal neurons from malonate-induced death: a potential role of cyclooxygenase-2-dependent metabolism of 2-AG

The cannabinoid CB2 receptor, which is activated by the endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoyl-glycerol (2-AG), protects striatal neurons from apoptotic death caused by the local administration of malonate, a rat model of Huntington's disease (HD). In the present study, we investigated whether endocannabinoids provide tonic neuroprotection in this HD model, by examining the effect of O-3841, an inhibitor of diacylglycerol lipases, the enzymes that catalyse 2-AG biosynthesis, and JZL184 or OMDM169, two inhibitors of 2-AG inactivation by monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL). The inhibitors were injected in rats with the striatum lesioned with malonate, and several biochemical and morphological parameters were measured in this brain area. Similar experiments were also conducted in vitro in cultured M-213 cells, which have the phenotypic characteristics of striatal neurons. O-3841 produced a significant reduction in the striatal levels of 2-AG in animals lesioned with malonate. However, surprisingly, the inhibitor attenuated malonate-induced GABA and BDNF deficiencies and the reduction in Nissl staining, as well as the increase in GFAP immunostaining. In contrast, JZL184 exacerbated malonate-induced striatal damage. Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) was induced in the striatum 24 h after the lesion simultaneously with other pro-inflammatory responses. The COX-2-derived 2-AG metabolite, prostaglandin E2 glyceryl ester (PGE2-G), exacerbated neurotoxicity, and this effect was antagonized by the blockade of PGE2-G action with AGN220675. In M-213 cells exposed to malonate, in which COX-2 was also upregulated, JZL184 worsened neurotoxicity, and this effect was attenuated by the COX-2 inhibitor celecoxib or AGN220675. OMDM169 also worsened neurotoxicity and produced measurable levels of PGE2-G. In conclusion, the inhibition of 2-AG biosynthesis is neuroprotective in rats lesioned with malonate, possibly through the counteraction of the formation of pro-neuroinflammatory PGE2-G, formed from COX-2-mediated oxygenation of 2-AG. Accordingly, MAGL inhibition or the administration of PGE2-G aggravates the malonate toxicity.

Exploring the molecular determinants of substrate-selective inhibition of cyclooxygenase-2 by lumiracoxib

Lumiracoxib is a substrate-selective inhibitor of endocannabinoid oxygenation by cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). We assayed a series of lumiracoxib derivatives to identify the structural determinants of substrate-selective inhibition. The hydrogen-bonding potential of the substituents at the ortho positions of the aniline ring dictated the potency and substrate selectivity of the inhibitors. The presence of a 5'-methyl group on the phenylacetic acid ring increased the potency of molecules with a single ortho substituent. Des-fluorolumiracoxib (2) was the most potent and selective inhibitor of endocannabinoid oxygenation. The positioning of critical substituents in the binding site was identified from a 2.35Å crystal structure of lumiracoxib bound to COX-2.

More surprises lying ahead. The endocannabinoids keep us guessing

The objective of this review is to point out some important facts that we don't know about endogenous cannabinoids - lipid-derived signaling molecules that activate CB1 cannabinoid receptors and play key roles in motivation, emotion and energy balance. The first endocannabinoid substance to be discovered, anandamide, was isolated from brain tissue in 1992. Research has shown that this molecule is a bona fide brain neurotransmitter involved in the regulation of stress responses and pain, but the molecular mechanisms that govern its formation and the neural pathways in which it is employed are still unknown. There is a general consensus that enzyme-mediated cleavage, catalyzed by fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), terminates the biological actions of anandamide, but there are many reasons to believe that other as-yet-unidentified proteins are also involved in this process. We have made significant headway in understanding the second arrived in the endocannabinoid family, 2-arachidonoyl-sn-glycerol (2-AG), which was discovered three years after anandamide. Researchers have established some of the key molecular players involved in 2-AG formation and deactivation, localized them to specific synaptic components, and showed that their assembly into a multi-molecular protein complex (termed the '2-AG signalosome') allows 2-AG to act as a retrograde messenger at excitatory synapses of the brain. Basic questions that remain to be answered pertain to the exact molecular composition of the 2-AG signalosome, its regulation by neural activity and its potential role in the actions of drugs of abuse such as Δ(9)-THC and cocaine. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled 'NIDA 40th Anniversary Issue'.

Recent progress in prostaglandin F2α ethanolamide (prostamide F2α) research and therapeutics

Prostamide (prostaglandin ethanolamide) research emerged from two distinct lines of research: 1) the unique pharmacology of the antiglaucoma drug bimatoprost and 2) the discovery that endocannabinoid anandamide was converted by COX-2 to a series of electrochemically neutral prostaglandin (PG) ethanolamides. Bimatoprost pharmacology was found to be virtually identical to that of prostamide F2α. The earliest studies relied on comparison of agonist potencies compared with PGF2α and synthetic prostaglandin F2α (FP) receptor agonists. The subsequent discovery of selective and potent prostamide receptor antagonists (AGN 211334-6, as shown in Fig. 3) was critical for distinguishing between prostamide and FP receptor-mediated effects. The prostamide F2α receptor was then modeled by cotransfecting the wild-type FP receptor with an mRNA splicing variant (altFP4).Bimatoprost is now used therapeutically for treating both glaucoma and eyelash hypotrichosis. Bimatoprost also stimulates hair growth in isolated human scalp hair follicles. A strong effect is also seen in mouse pelage hair, where bimatoprost essentially halves the onset of hair regrowth and the time to achieve full hair regrowth in shaved mice. Beyond glaucoma and hair growth, bimatoprost has potential for reducing fat deposition. Studies to date suggest that preadipocytes are the cellular target for bimatoprost. The discovery of the enzyme prostamide/PGF synthase was invaluable in elucidating the anatomic distribution of prostamide F2α. High expression in the central nervous system provided the impetus for later studies that described prostamide F2α as a nociceptive mediator in the spinal cord. At the translational level, bimatoprost has already provided therapeutics in two distinct areas and the use of both prostamide agonists and antagonists may provide other useful medicaments.

Anandamide-derived prostamide F2α negatively regulates adipogenesis

Lipid mediators variedly affect adipocyte differentiation. Anandamide stimulates adipogenesis via CB1 receptors and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ. Anandamide may be converted by PTGS2 (COX2) and prostaglandin F synthases, such as prostamide/prostaglandin F synthase, to prostaglandin F2α ethanolamide (PGF2αEA), of which bimatoprost is a potent synthetic analog. PGF2αEA/bimatoprost act via prostaglandin F2αFP receptor/FP alt4 splicing variant heterodimers. We investigated whether prostamide signaling occurs in preadipocytes and controls adipogenesis. Exposure of mouse 3T3-L1 or human preadipocytes to PGF2αEA/bimatoprost during early differentiation inhibits adipogenesis. PGF2αEA is produced from anandamide in preadipocytes and much less so in differentiating adipocytes, which express much less PTGS2, FP, and its alt4 splicing variant. Selective antagonism of PGF2αEA receptors counteracts prostamide effects on adipogenesis, as does inhibition of ERK1/2 phosphorylation. Selective inhibition of PGF2αEA versus prostaglandin F2α biosynthesis accelerates adipogenesis. PGF2αEA levels are reduced in the white adipose tissue of high fat diet-fed mice where there is a high requirement for new adipocytes. Prostamides also inhibit zebrafish larval adipogenesis in vivo. We propose that prostamide signaling in preadipocytes is a novel anandamide-derived antiadipogenic mechanism.

The modern pharmacology of paracetamol: therapeutic actions, mechanism of action, metabolism, toxicity and recent pharmacological findings

Paracetamol is used worldwide for its analgesic and antipyretic actions. It has a spectrum of action similar to that of NSAIDs and resembles particularly the COX-2 selective inhibitors. Paracetamol is, on average, a weaker analgesic than NSAIDs or COX-2 selective inhibitors but is often preferred because of its better tolerance. Despite the similarities to NSAIDs, the mode of action of paracetamol has been uncertain, but it is now generally accepted that it inhibits COX-1 and COX-2 through metabolism by the peroxidase function of these isoenzymes. This results in inhibition of phenoxyl radical formation from a critical tyrosine residue essential for the cyclooxygenase activity of COX-1 and COX-2 and prostaglandin (PG) synthesis. Paracetamol shows selectivity for inhibition of the synthesis of PGs and related factors when low levels of arachidonic acid and peroxides are available but conversely, it has little activity at substantial levels of arachidonic acid and peroxides. The result is that paracetamol does not suppress the severe inflammation of rheumatoid arthritis and acute gout but does inhibit the lesser inflammation resulting from extraction of teeth and is also active in a variety of inflammatory tests in experimental animals. Paracetamol often appears to have COX-2 selectivity. The apparent COX-2 selectivity of action of paracetamol is shown by its poor anti-platelet activity and good gastrointestinal tolerance. Unlike both non-selective NSAIDs and selective COX-2 inhibitors, paracetamol inhibits other peroxidase enzymes including myeloperoxidase. Inhibition of myeloperoxidase involves paracetamol oxidation and concomitant decreased formation of halogenating oxidants (e.g. hypochlorous acid, hypobromous acid) that may be associated with multiple inflammatory pathologies including atherosclerosis and rheumatic diseases. Paracetamol may, therefore, slow the development of these diseases. Paracetamol, NSAIDs and selective COX-2 inhibitors all have central and peripheral effects. As is the case with the NSAIDs, including the selective COX-2 inhibitors, the analgesic effects of paracetamol are reduced by inhibitors of many endogenous neurotransmitter systems including serotonergic, opioid and cannabinoid systems. There is considerable debate about the hepatotoxicity of therapeutic doses of paracetamol. Much of the toxicity may result from overuse of combinations of paracetamol with opioids which are widely used, particularly in USA.

Full inhibition of spinal FAAH leads to TRPV1-mediated analgesic effects in neuropathic rats and possible lipoxygenase-mediated remodeling of anandamide metabolism

Neuropathic pain elevates spinal anandamide (AEA) levels in a way further increased when URB597, an inhibitor of AEA hydrolysis by fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), is injected intrathecally. Spinal AEA reduces neuropathic pain by acting at both cannabinoid CB1 receptors and transient receptor potential vanilloid-1 (TRPV1) channels. Yet, intrathecal URB597 is only partially effective at counteracting neuropathic pain. We investigated the effect of high doses of intrathecal URB597 on allodynia and hyperalgesia in rats with chronic constriction injury (CCI) of the sciatic nerve. Among those tested, the 200 µg/rat dose of URB597 was the only one that elevated the levels of the FAAH non-endocannabinoid and anti-inflammatory substrates, oleoylethanolamide (OEA) and palmitoylethanolamide (PEA), and of the endocannabinoid FAAH substrate, 2-arachidonoylglycerol, and fully inhibited thermal and tactile nociception, although in a manner blocked almost uniquely by TRPV1 antagonism. Surprisingly, this dose of URB597 decreased spinal AEA levels. RT-qPCR and western blot analyses demonstrated altered spinal expression of lipoxygenases (LOX), and baicalein, an inhibitor of 12/15-LOX, significantly reduced URB597 analgesic effects, suggesting the occurrence of alternative pathways of AEA metabolism. Using immunofluorescence techniques, FAAH, 15-LOX and TRPV1 were found to co-localize in dorsal spinal horn neurons of CCI rats. Finally, 15-hydroxy-AEA, a 15-LOX derivative of AEA, potently and efficaciously activated the rat recombinant TRPV1 channel. We suggest that intrathecally injected URB597 at full analgesic efficacy unmasks a secondary route of AEA metabolism via 15-LOX with possible formation of 15-hydroxy-AEA, which, together with OEA and PEA, may contribute at producing TRPV1-mediated analgesia in CCI rats.

Chemical probes of endocannabinoid metabolism

The endocannabinoid signaling system regulates diverse physiologic processes and has attracted considerable attention as a potential pharmaceutical target for treating diseases, such as pain, anxiety/depression, and metabolic disorders. The principal ligands of the endocannabinoid system are the lipid transmitters N-arachidonoylethanolamine (anandamide) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), which activate the two major cannabinoid receptors, CB1 and CB2. Anandamide and 2-AG signaling pathways in the nervous system are terminated by enzymatic hydrolysis mediated primarily by the serine hydrolases fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) and monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL), respectively. In this review, we will discuss the development of FAAH and MAGL inhibitors and their pharmacological application to investigate the function of anandamide and 2-AG signaling pathways in preclinical models of neurobehavioral processes, such as pain, anxiety, and addiction. We will place emphasis on how these studies are beginning to discern the different roles played by anandamide and 2-AG in the nervous system and the resulting implications for advancing endocannabinoid hydrolase inhibitors as next-generation therapeutics.

The biodisposition and hypertrichotic effects of bimatoprost in mouse skin

Studies on bimatoprost were performed with two objectives: (i) to determine whether bimatoprost possesses hair growth-stimulating properties beyond eyelash hypertrichosis and (ii) to investigate the biodisposition of bimatoprost in skin for the first time. Bimatoprost, at the dose used clinically for eyelash growth (0.03%) and given once daily for 14 days, increased pelage hair growth in C57/black 6 mice. This occurred as a much earlier onset of new hair growth in shaved mice and the time taken to achieve complete hair regrowth, according to photographic documentation and visual assessment. Bimatoprost biodisposition in the skin was determined at three concentrations: 0.01%, 0.03% and 0.06%. Dose-dependent C_max values were obtained (3.41, 6.74, 12.3 μg/g tissue), and cutaneous bimatoprost was well maintained for 24 h following a single dose. Bimatoprost was recovered from the skin only as the intact molecule, with no detectable levels of metabolites. Thus, bimatoprost produces hypertrichosis as the intact molecule.

The contractile effect of anandamide in the guinea-pig small intestine is mediated by prostanoids but not TRPV1 receptors or capsaicin-sensitive nerves

Although exogenous and endogenous cannabinoid receptor agonists have well-documented inhibitory effects on gastrointestinal motility, a TRPV1 receptor-mediated excitatory action of anandamide (arachidonoyl ethanolamide, AEA) in the guinea-pig ileum strip has also been described. We used in vitro capsaicin desensitization for assessing the possible participation of sensory neurons in the contractile effect of anandamide on the guinea-pig whole ileum, as well as autonomic drugs and a cyclooxygenase inhibitor for characterizing this response. Isolated organ experiments were used with isotonic recording. Contractions induced by anandamide (1 or 10 μM) were strongly inhibited by tetrodotoxin, indomethacin or atropine plus a tachykinin NK(1) receptor antagonist, but weakly to moderately reduced by atropine alone and partly diminished by the fatty acid amide hydrolase inhibitor URB 597. Neither capsaicin pre-treatment nor the TRPV1 receptor antagonist BCTC, the ganglionic blocking drug hexamethonium or cannabinoid (CB1 or CB2 ) receptor antagonists, influenced the effect of anandamide. It is concluded that the capsaicin-insensitive, neuronal excitatory effect of anandamide in the intestine is most probably mediated by cyclooxygenase products. Such a mechanism may also play a role at other sites in the mammalian body.

Type 2 diabetes associated changes in the plasma non-esterified fatty acids, oxylipins and endocannabinoids

Type 2 diabetes has profound effects on metabolism that can be detected in plasma. While increases in circulating non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) are well-described in diabetes, effects on signaling lipids have received little attention. Oxylipins and endocannabinoids are classes of bioactive fatty acid metabolites with many structural members that influence insulin signaling, adipose function and inflammation through autocrine, paracrine and endocrine mechanisms. To link diabetes-associated changes in plasma NEFA and signaling lipids, we quantitatively targeted >150 plasma lipidome components in age- and body mass index-matched, overweight to obese, non-diabetic (n = 12) and type 2 diabetic (n = 43) African-American women. Diabetes related NEFA patterns indicated ∼60% increase in steroyl-CoA desaturase activity and ∼40% decrease in very long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid chain shortening, patterns previously associated with the development of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Further, epoxides and ketones of eighteen carbon polyunsaturated fatty acids were elevated >80% in diabetes and strongly correlated with changes in NEFA, consistent with their liberation during adipose lipolysis. Endocannabinoid behavior differed by class with diabetes increasing an array of N-acylethanolamides which were positively correlated with pro-inflammatory 5-lipooxygenase-derived metabolites, while monoacylglycerols were negatively correlated with body mass. These results clearly show that diabetes not only results in an increase in plasma NEFA, but shifts the plasma lipidomic profiles in ways that reflect the biochemical and physiological changes of this pathological state which are independent of obesity associated changes.

The prostamide-related glaucoma therapy, bimatoprost, offers a novel approach for treating scalp alopecias

Balding causes widespread psychological distress but is poorly controlled. The commonest treatment, minoxidil, was originally an antihypertensive drug that promoted unwanted hair. We hypothesized that another serendipitous discovery, increased eyelash growth side-effects of prostamide F(2α)-related eyedrops for glaucoma, may be relevant for scalp alopecias. Eyelash hairs and follicles are highly specialized and remain unaffected by androgens that inhibit scalp follicles and stimulate many others. Therefore, we investigated whether non-eyelash follicles could respond to bimatoprost, a prostamide F(2α) analog recently licensed for eyelash hypotrichosis. Bimatoprost, at pharmacologically selective concentrations, increased hair synthesis in scalp follicle organ culture and advanced mouse pelage hair regrowth in vivo compared to vehicle alone. A prostamide receptor antagonist blocked isolated follicle growth, confirming a direct, receptor-mediated mechanism within follicles; RT-PCR analysis identified 3 relevant receptor genes in scalp follicles in vivo. Receptors were located in the key follicle regulator, the dermal papilla, by analyzing individual follicular structures and immunohistochemistry. Thus, bimatoprost stimulates human scalp follicles in culture and rodent pelage follicles in vivo, mirroring eyelash behavior, and scalp follicles contain bimatoprost-sensitive prostamide receptors in vivo. This highlights a new follicular signaling system and confirms that bimatoprost offers a novel, low-risk therapeutic approach for scalp alopecias.

Substrate-Selective Inhibition of Cyclooxygenase-2: Development and Evaluation of Achiral Profen Probes

Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) oxygenates arachidonic acid and the endocannabinoids 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) and arachidonoylethanolamide (AEA). We recently reported that (R)-profens selectively inhibit endocannabinoid oxygenation but not arachidonic acid oxygenation. In this work, we synthesized achiral derivatives of five profen scaffolds and evaluated them for substrate-selective inhibition using in vitro and cellular assays. The size of the substituents dictated the inhibitory strength of the analogs, with smaller substituents enabling greater potency but less selectivity. Inhibitors based on the flurbiprofen scaffold possessed the greatest potency and selectivity, with desmethylflurbiprofen (3a) exhibiting an IC(50) of 0.11 μM for inhibition of 2-AG oxygenation. The crystal structure of desmethylflurbiprofen complexed to mCOX-2 demonstrated a similar binding mode to other profens. Desmethylflurbiprofen exhibited a half-life in mice comparable to that of ibuprofen. The data presented suggest that achiral profens can act as lead molecules toward in vivo probes of substrate-selective COX-2 inhibition.

"Redundancy" of endocannabinoid inactivation: new challenges and opportunities for pain control

Redundancy of metabolic pathways and molecular targets is a typical feature of all lipid mediators, and endocannabinoids, which were originally defined as endogenous agonists at cannabinoid CB(1) and CB(2) receptors, are no exception. In particular, the two most studied endocannabinoids, anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol, are inactivated through alternative biochemical routes, including hydrolysis and oxidation, and more than one enzyme might be used even for the same type of inactivating reaction. These enzymes also recognize as substrates other concurrent lipid mediators, whereas, in turn, endocannabinoids might interact with noncannabinoid receptors with subcellular distribution and ultimate biological actions either similar to or completely different from those of cannabinoid receptors. Even splicing variants of endocannabinoid hydrolyzing enzymes, such as FAAH-1, might play distinct roles in endocannabinoid inactivation. Finally, the products of endocannabinoid catabolism may have their own targets, with biological roles different from those of cannabinoid receptors. These peculiarities of endocannabinoid signaling have complicated the use of inhibitors of its inactivation mechanisms as a safer and more efficacious alternative to the direct targeting of cannabinoid receptors for the treatment of several pathological conditions, including pain. However, new strategies, including the rediscovery of "dirty drugs", and the use of certain natural products (including non-THC cannabis constituents), are emerging that might allow us to make a virtue of necessity and exploit endocannabinoid redundancy to develop new analgesics.

Cyclooxygenase-2 prostaglandins mediate anandamide-inhibitory action on nitric oxide synthase activity in the receptive rat uterus

Anandamide, an endocannabinoid, prostaglandins derived from cyclooxygenase-2 and nitric oxide synthesized by nitric oxide synthase (NOS), are relevant mediators of embryo implantation. We adopted a pharmacological approach to investigate if anandamide modulated NOS activity in the receptive rat uterus and if prostaglandins mediated this effect. As we were interested in studying the changes that occur at the maternal side of the fetal-maternal interface, we worked with uteri obtained from pseudopregnant rats. Females were sacrificed on day 5 of pseudopregnancy, the day in which implantation would occur, and the uterus was obtained. Anandamide (2 ng/kg, i.p.) inhibited NOS activity (P<0.001) and increased the levels of prostaglandin E(2) (P<0.001) and prostaglandin F(2α) (P<0.01). These effects were mediated via cannabinoid receptor type 2, as the pre-treatment with SR144528 (10 mg/kg, i.p.), a selective cannabinoid receptor type 2 antagonist, completely reverted anandamide effect on NOS activity and prostaglandin levels. The pre-treatment with a non-selective cyclooxygenase inhibitor (indomethacin 2.5mg/kg, i.p.) or with selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors (meloxicam 4 mg/kg, celecoxib 3mg/kg, i.p.) reverted anandamide inhibition on NOS, suggesting that prostaglandins are derived from cyclooxygenase-2 mediated anandamide effect. Thus, anandamide levels seemed to modulate NOS activity, fundamental for implantation, via cannabinoid receptor type 2 receptors, in the receptive uterus. This modulation depends on the production of cyclooxygenase-2 derivatives. These data establish cannabinoid receptors and cyclooxygenase enzymes as an interesting target for the treatment of implantation deficiencies.

Discovery of prostamide F2α and its role in inflammatory pain and dorsal horn nociceptive neuron hyperexcitability

It was suggested that endocannabinoids are metabolized by cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 in the spinal cord of rats with kaolin/λ-carrageenan-induced knee inflammation, and that this mechanism contributes to the analgesic effects of COX-2 inhibitors in this experimental model. We report the development of a specific method for the identification of endocannabinoid COX-2 metabolites, its application to measure the levels of these compounds in tissues, and the finding of prostamide F_2α (PMF_2α) in mice with knee inflammation. Whereas the levels of spinal endocannabinoids were not significantly altered by kaolin/λ-carrageenan-induced knee inflammation, those of the COX-2 metabolite of AEA, PMF_2α, were strongly elevated. The formation of PMF_2α was reduced by indomethacin (a non-selective COX inhibitor), NS-398 (a selective COX-2 inhibitor) and SC-560 (a selective COX-1 inhibitor). In healthy mice, spinal application of PMF_2α increased the firing of nociceptive (NS) neurons, and correspondingly reduced the threshold of paw withdrawal latency (PWL). These effects were attenuated by the PMF_2α receptor antagonist AGN211336, but not by the FP receptor antagonist AL8810. Also prostaglandin F_2α increased NS neuron firing and reduced the threshold of PWL in healthy mice, and these effects were antagonized by AL8810, and not by AGN211336. In mice with kaolin/λ-carrageenan-induced knee inflammation, AGN211336, but not AL8810, reduced the inflammation-induced NS neuron firing and reduction of PWL. These findings suggest that inflammation-induced, and prostanoid-mediated, enhancement of dorsal horn NS neuron firing stimulates the production of spinal PMF_2α, which in turn contributes to further NS neuron firing and pain transmission by activating specific receptors.

Lipidomics of polyunsaturated-fatty-acid-derived oxygenated metabolites

Nutritionally important PUFAs (polyunsaturated fatty acids) mediate some of their bioactivities through formation of oxygenated metabolites. These bioactive lipids are formed by COX (cyclo-oxygenase), LOX (lipoxygenase) and cytochrome-P450-catalysed reactions, as well as non-enzymatic lipid peroxidation. These reactions produce numerous species, some of which can be formed through more than one pathway. MS-based lipidomics offers the selectivity and sensitivity required for qualitative and quantitative analysis of multiple lipid species, in a variety of biological systems, and can facilitate the study of these mediators.

(R)-Profens are substrate-selective inhibitors of endocannabinoid oxygenation by COX-2

Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) catalyzes the oxygenation of arachidonic acid and the endocannabinoids 2-arachidonoylglycerol and arachidonoylethanolamide. Evaluation of a series of COX-2 inhibitors revealed that many weak competitive inhibitors of arachidonic acid oxygenation are potent inhibitors of endocannabinoid oxygenation. (R) enantiomers of ibuprofen, naproxen and flurbiprofen, which are considered to be inactive as COX-2 inhibitors, are potent 'substrate-selective inhibitors' of endocannabinoid oxygenation. Crystal structures of the COX-2–(R)-naproxen and COX-2–(R)-flurbiprofen complexes verified this unexpected binding and defined the orientation of the (R) enantiomers relative to (S) enantiomers. (R)-Profens selectively inhibited endocannabinoid oxygenation by lipopolysaccharide-stimulated dorsal root ganglion (DRG) cells. Substrate-selective inhibition provides new tools for investigating the role of COX-2 in endocannabinoid oxygenation and a possible explanation for the ability of (R)-profens to maintain endocannabinoid tone in models of neuropathic pain.