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Allinson JP, Vlies BH, Brill SE, Law M, Burnside G, Finney LJ, Alves-Moreira L, Donaldson GC, Calverley PMA, Walker PP, Wedzicha JA. A Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-controlled Trial of Long-Term Doxycycline Therapy on Exacerbation Rate in Patients with Stable Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2023; 208:549-558. [PMID: 37450935 PMCID: PMC10492249 DOI: 10.1164/rccm.202212-2287oc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2022] [Accepted: 07/14/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Rationale: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) exacerbations are a major cause of morbidity and mortality, and preventing them is a key treatment target. Long-term macrolide treatment is effective at reducing exacerbations, but there is a paucity of evidence for other antibiotic classes. Objectives: To assess whether 12-month use of doxycycline reduces the exacerbation rate in people with COPD. Methods: People with moderate to very severe COPD and an exacerbation history were recruited from three UK centers and randomized to 12 months of doxycycline 100 mg once daily or placebo. The primary study outcome was the exacerbation rate per person-year. Results: A total of 222 people were randomized. Baseline mean FEV1 was 1.35 L (SD, 0.35 L), 52.5% predicted (SD, 15.9% predicted). The median number of treated exacerbations in the year before the study was 2 (SD, 1-4). A total of 71% of patients reported two or more exacerbations, and 81% were already prescribed inhaled corticosteroids at baseline. The COPD exacerbation rate did not differ between the groups (doxycycline/placebo rate ratio [RR], 0.86; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.67-1.10; P = 0.23). No difference was seen if only treated exacerbations or hospitalizations were considered. In preplanned subgroup analysis, doxycycline appeared to better reduce the exacerbation rate among people with severe COPD (RR, 0.36; 95% CI, 0.15-0.85; P = 0.019) and in those with an eosinophil count <300 cells/μl (RR, 0.50; 95% CI, 0.29-0.84; P = 0.01). Health status measured by St. George's Respiratory Questionnaire was 5.2 points worse in the doxycycline group at 12 months (P < 0.007). Conclusions: Doxycycline did not significantly reduce the exacerbation rate, over 12 months, in participants with COPD who exacerbated regularly, but it may have benefitted those with more severe COPD or blood eosinophil counts <300 cells/μl. Clinical trial registered with www.clinicaltrials.gov (NCT02305940).
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Affiliation(s)
- James P. Allinson
- National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Royal Brompton Hospital, London, United Kingdom
| | | | - Simon E. Brill
- National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Martin Law
- Hub for Trials Methodology Research, Medical Research Council Biostatistics Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Girvan Burnside
- Department of Health Data Science, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom; and
| | - Lydia J. Finney
- National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Luana Alves-Moreira
- National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Gavin C. Donaldson
- National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | | | | | - Jadwiga A. Wedzicha
- National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
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Genschmer KR, Madison M, Viera L, Margaroli C, Gaggar A, Blalock JE, Russell DW. Therapeutic effect of two strategies directed at disruption of pathogenic neutrophil extracellular vesicles in a murine emphysema model. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2023; 324:L694-L699. [PMID: 37014068 PMCID: PMC10151039 DOI: 10.1152/ajplung.00057.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2023] [Revised: 03/23/2023] [Accepted: 03/28/2023] [Indexed: 04/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is characterized by lung extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling that contributes to obstruction. This is driven, in part by extracellular vesicles (EVs) from activated neutrophils (PMNs), which express on their surface an α-1 antitrypsin (AAT) insensitive form of neutrophil elastase (NE). These EVs are predicted to bind to collagen fibers via Mac-1 integrins, during which time NE can enzymatically degrade the collagen. Protamine sulfate (PS), a cationic compound used safely for decades in humans, has been shown, in vitro, to dissociate this NE from the EV surface, rendering it AAT-sensitive. In addition, a nonapeptide inhibitor, MP-9, has been shown to prevent EV association with collagen. We sought to test whether PS, MP-9, or a combination of the two could effectively prevent NE+ EV-driven ECM remodeling in an animal COPD model. EVs were preincubated with PBS, protamine sulfate (25 μM), MP-9 (50 μM), or a combination of PS and MP-9. These were delivered intratracheally to anesthetized female 10- to 12-wk-old A/J mice for a 7-day time period. One group of mice was euthanized and lungs sectioned for morphometry, and the other group was used for live pulmonary function testing. The effect of alveolar destruction by activated neutrophil EVs was abrogated by pretreatment with PS or MP-9. However, in pulmonary function tests, only the PS groups (and combined PS/MP-9 groups) returned pulmonary function to near-control levels. These data presented here offer an insight into the effective use of PS in therapeutic setting for EV-derived alveolar damage.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Protamine sulfate facilitates the removal of neutrophil elastase (NE) from the surface of extracellular vesicles from activated neutrophils. This "free" NE is no longer protected from inhibition by its endogenous anti-protease, α-1-anti-trypsin. This function of protamine sulfate highlights it as a potential therapeutic strategy for COPD, which may attenuate the disease process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristopher R Genschmer
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care, Department of Medicine, UAB Lung Health Center, Heersink School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States
| | - Matthew Madison
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care, Department of Medicine, UAB Lung Health Center, Heersink School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States
- Department of Clinical and Diagnostic Sciences, UAB School of Health Professions, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States
| | - Liliana Viera
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care, Department of Medicine, UAB Lung Health Center, Heersink School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States
| | - Camilla Margaroli
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care, Department of Medicine, UAB Lung Health Center, Heersink School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States
- Department of Pathology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States
| | - Amit Gaggar
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care, Department of Medicine, UAB Lung Health Center, Heersink School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States
- Program in Protease and Matrix Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States
- Gregory Fleming James Cystic Fibrosis Research Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States
- Department of Cell, Developmental, and Integrative Biology, Heersink School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States
- Pulmonary Section, Birmingham Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Birmingham, Alabama, United States
| | - J Edwin Blalock
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care, Department of Medicine, UAB Lung Health Center, Heersink School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States
| | - Derek W Russell
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care, Department of Medicine, UAB Lung Health Center, Heersink School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States
- Pulmonary Section, Birmingham Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Birmingham, Alabama, United States
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3
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Margaroli C, Madison MC, Viera L, Russell DW, Gaggar A, Genschmer KR, Blalock JE. A novel in vivo model for extracellular vesicle-induced emphysema. JCI Insight 2022; 7:153560. [PMID: 35077395 PMCID: PMC8876451 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.153560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2021] [Accepted: 01/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a debilitating chronic disease and the third-leading cause of mortality worldwide. It is characterized by airway neutrophilia, promoting tissue injury through release of toxic mediators and proteases. Recently, it has been shown that neutrophil-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) from lungs of patients with COPD can cause a neutrophil elastase–dependent (NE-dependent) COPD-like disease upon transfer to mouse airways. However, in vivo preclinical models elucidating the impact of EVs on disease are lacking, delaying opportunities for therapeutic testing. Here, we developed an in vivo preclinical mouse model of lung EV–induced COPD. EVs from in vivo LPS-activated mouse neutrophils induced COPD-like disease in naive recipients through an α-1 antitrypsin–resistant, NE-dependent mechanism. Together, these results show a key pathogenic and mechanistic role for neutrophil-derived EVs in a mouse model of COPD. Broadly, the in vivo model described herein could be leveraged to develop targeted therapies for severe lung disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camilla Margaroli
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine
- Program in Protease and Matrix Biology, and
| | - Matthew C. Madison
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine
- Program in Protease and Matrix Biology, and
| | - Liliana Viera
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine
| | - Derek W. Russell
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine
- Program in Protease and Matrix Biology, and
| | - Amit Gaggar
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine
- Program in Protease and Matrix Biology, and
- Lung Health Center and Gregory Fleming James Cystic Fibrosis Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
- Birmingham VA Medical Center, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Kristopher R. Genschmer
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine
- Program in Protease and Matrix Biology, and
| | - J. Edwin Blalock
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine
- Lung Health Center and Gregory Fleming James Cystic Fibrosis Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
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Gjorevski N, Avignon B, Gérard R, Cabon L, Roth AB, Bscheider M, Moisan A. Neutrophilic infiltration in organ-on-a-chip model of tissue inflammation. LAB ON A CHIP 2020; 20:3365-3374. [PMID: 32761043 DOI: 10.1039/d0lc00417k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The multiphasic etiology of tissue inflammation and the fundamental immunological differences between species render inflammatory pathologies difficult to recapitulate in animal models, and account for the paucity of therapies that are successfully translated from rodents to humans. Here, we present a human-relevant organ-on-a-chip platform for experimental inflammatory diseases. We created an immunocompetent in vitro gut model by incorporating intestinal epithelial and immune cells into microfluidic chambers that permit cell movement across an extracellular matrix (ECM) and fluidic channels. This is the first model that integrates a mucosal barrier, a three-dimensional ECM, resident and infiltrating immune cells, and simulates a functional crosstalk that ultimately triggers cellular processes representative of inflammation. Under homeostatic conditions, enterocytes form a tight epithelium and subepithelial macrophages are non-activated. Introduction of pro-inflammatory mediators triggers macrophage activation and inflammation-induced intestinal barrier leakiness. Neutrophils in a parallel, matrix-separated non-epithelial channel are attracted by such a pro-inflammatory microenvironment and migrate through the extracellular matrix, further exacerbating tissue inflammation and damage. With this model, we provide the foundations to recapitulate and investigate the onset of tissue inflammation in a controlled, human-relevant system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikolce Gjorevski
- Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Basel, Switzerland.
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5
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Martin SL, Reihill JA. Promotion of a Protease-Antiprotease Imbalance in the Airways through Chronic Vaping. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2020; 200:1337-1339. [PMID: 31496259 PMCID: PMC6884052 DOI: 10.1164/rccm.201908-1605ed] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- S Lorraine Martin
- School of PharmacyQueen's University BelfastBelfast, Northern Ireland
| | - James A Reihill
- School of PharmacyQueen's University BelfastBelfast, Northern Ireland
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6
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Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease and Lung Cancer: Underlying Pathophysiology and New Therapeutic Modalities. Drugs 2019; 78:1717-1740. [PMID: 30392114 DOI: 10.1007/s40265-018-1001-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and lung cancer are major lung diseases affecting millions worldwide. Both diseases have links to cigarette smoking and exert a considerable societal burden. People suffering from COPD are at higher risk of developing lung cancer than those without, and are more susceptible to poor outcomes after diagnosis and treatment. Lung cancer and COPD are closely associated, possibly sharing common traits such as an underlying genetic predisposition, epithelial and endothelial cell plasticity, dysfunctional inflammatory mechanisms including the deposition of excessive extracellular matrix, angiogenesis, susceptibility to DNA damage and cellular mutagenesis. In fact, COPD could be the driving factor for lung cancer, providing a conducive environment that propagates its evolution. In the early stages of smoking, body defences provide a combative immune/oxidative response and DNA repair mechanisms are likely to subdue these changes to a certain extent; however, in patients with COPD with lung cancer the consequences could be devastating, potentially contributing to slower postoperative recovery after lung resection and increased resistance to radiotherapy and chemotherapy. Vital to the development of new-targeted therapies is an in-depth understanding of various molecular mechanisms that are associated with both pathologies. In this comprehensive review, we provide a detailed overview of possible underlying factors that link COPD and lung cancer, and current therapeutic advances from both human and preclinical animal models that can effectively mitigate this unholy relationship.
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Camarinho R, Garcia PV, Choi H, Rodrigues AS. Overproduction of TNF-α and lung structural remodelling due to chronic exposure to volcanogenic air pollution. CHEMOSPHERE 2019; 222:227-234. [PMID: 30708156 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.01.138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2018] [Revised: 01/16/2019] [Accepted: 01/23/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Volcanogenic air pollution studies and their effects on the respiratory system are still outnumbered by studies regarding the effects of anthropogenic air pollution, representing an unknown risk to human population inhabiting volcanic areas worldwide (either eruptive or non-eruptive areas). This study was carried in the archipelago of the Azores- Portugal, in two areas with active volcanism (Village of Furnas and Village of Ribeira Quente) and a reference site (Rabo de Peixe). The hydrothermal volcanism of Furnas volcanic complex is responsible for the release of 1000 t d-1 of CO2, H2S, the radioactive gas - radon, among others. Besides the gaseous emissions, particulate matter and metals (Hg, Cd, Zn, Al, Ni, etc.) are also released into the environment. We tested a hypothesis whether chronic exposure to volcanogenic air pollution causes lung structural remodelling, in the house mouse, Mus musculus, as a bioindicator species. Histopathological evaluations were performed to assess the amount of macrophages, mononuclear leukocyte infiltrate, pulmonary emphysema, and the production of pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-α. Also, the percentage of collagen and elastin fibers was calculated. Mice chronically exposed to volcanogenic air pollution presented an increased score in the histopathological evaluations for the amount of macrophages, mononuclear leukocyte infiltrate, pulmonary emphysema and production of TNF-α; and also increased percentages of collagen and elastin. For the first time, we demonstrate that non-eruptive active volcanism has a high potential to cause lung structural remodelling. This study also highlights the Mus musculus as a useful bioindicator for future biomonitoring programs in these type of volcanic environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Camarinho
- Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University of the Azores, 9501-801, Ponta Delgada, Portugal; IVAR - Instituto de Vulcanologia e Avaliação de Riscos, University of the Azores, 9501-801, Ponta Delgada, Portugal.
| | - P V Garcia
- Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University of the Azores, 9501-801, Ponta Delgada, Portugal; CE3C - cE3c, Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes /Azorean Biodiversity Group, University of the Azores, 9501-801, Ponta Delgada, Azores, Portugal.
| | - H Choi
- University of Albany - Department of Environmental Health Sciences, University at Albany School of Public Health One University Place, Rm 153, Rensselaer, NY, 12144-3456, USA.
| | - A S Rodrigues
- Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University of the Azores, 9501-801, Ponta Delgada, Portugal; IVAR - Instituto de Vulcanologia e Avaliação de Riscos, University of the Azores, 9501-801, Ponta Delgada, Portugal.
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8
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Somborac-Bačura A, Rumora L, Novak R, Rašić D, Dumić J, Čepelak I, Žanić-Grubišić T. Differential expression of heat shock proteins and activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases in A549 alveolar epithelial cells exposed to cigarette smoke extract. Exp Physiol 2018; 103:1666-1678. [PMID: 30242929 DOI: 10.1113/ep087038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2018] [Accepted: 09/20/2018] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
NEW FINDINGS What is the central question of this study? What is the effect of cigarette smoke on cell death, oxidative damage, expression of heat shock proteins (HSPs) and activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) in A549 alveolar epithelial cells? What is the main finding and its importance? Cigarette smoke induces cytotoxicity and oxidative damage to A549 cells, increases expression of different HSPs and activates MAPK signalling pathways. This could be related to inflammatory response and apoptosis observed in lungs of patients with smoking-related diseases. ABSTRACT Cigarette smoking is one of the main risk factors for development of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). We previously reported that cigarette smoke (CS) induces damage to proteins and their ineffective degradation. Here, we hypothesize that CS could induce oxidative stress and cytotoxicity in lung epithelial cells through alterations of heat shock protein (HSP) expression and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signalling pathways. We exposed A549 alveolar epithelial cells to various concentrations of cigarette smoke extract (CSE). Higher concentrations of CSE caused apoptosis of A549 cells after 4 h, while after 24 h cell viability was decreased, and lactate dehydrogenase in cell culture medium was increased as well as the number of necrotic cells. Concentrations of malondialdehyde (MDA) were elevated, while total thiol groups were decreased. Changes in the expression of HSPs (HSP70, HSP32 and HSP27) were time-dependent. After 6 h, CSE caused an increase in the expression of HSP70 and HSP32, while after 8 h all examined HSPs were up-regulated and remained increased up to 48 h. Treatment of A549 cells with CSE stimulated phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase and p38 in a dose-dependent manner, while c-Jun N-terminal kinase activation was not detected. By using specific inhibitors, we demonstrated that MAPKs and HSPs interplay in CSE effects. In conclusion, our results show that MAPKs and HSPs are involved in the mechanism underlying CSE-induced cytotoxicity and oxidative damage to A549 alveolar epithelial cells. These processes could be related to inflammatory response and apoptosis observed in lungs of patients with smoking-related diseases, such as COPD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anita Somborac-Bačura
- Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Hematology, University of Zagreb, Kneza Domagoja, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Lada Rumora
- Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Hematology, University of Zagreb, Kneza Domagoja, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Ruđer Novak
- Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Zagreb, Ante Kovačića, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Dubravka Rašić
- Unit of Toxicology, Institute for Medical Research and Occupational Health, Ksaverska cesta, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Jerka Dumić
- Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Zagreb, Ante Kovačića, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Ivana Čepelak
- Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Hematology, University of Zagreb, Kneza Domagoja, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Tihana Žanić-Grubišić
- Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Hematology, University of Zagreb, Kneza Domagoja, Zagreb, Croatia
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Neutrophil Fates in Bronchiectasis and Alpha-1 Antitrypsin Deficiency. Ann Am Thorac Soc 2018; 13 Suppl 2:S123-9. [PMID: 27115946 DOI: 10.1513/annalsats.201512-805kv] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The neutrophil is a powerful cellular defender of the vulnerable interface between the environment and pulmonary tissues. This cell's potent weapons are carefully calibrated in the healthy state to maximize effectiveness in fighting pathogens while minimizing tissue damage and allowing for repair of what damage does occur. The three related chronic airway disorders of cystic fibrosis, non-cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis, and alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency all demonstrate significant derangements of this homeostatic system that result in their respective pathologies. An important shared feature among them is the inefficient resolution of chronic inflammation that serves as a central means for neutrophil-driven lung damage resulting in disease progression. Examining the commonalities and divergences between these diseases in the light of their immunopathology is informative and may help guide us toward future therapeutics designed to modulate the neutrophil's interplay with the pulmonary environment.
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10
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Cigarette Smoke Induces Activation of Polymorphonuclear Leukocytes. Lung 2017; 196:27-31. [DOI: 10.1007/s00408-017-0077-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2017] [Accepted: 12/04/2017] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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O'Reilly PJ, Ding Q, Akthar S, Cai G, Genschmer KR, Patel DF, Jackson PL, Viera L, Roda M, Locy ML, Bernstein EA, Lloyd CM, Bernstein KE, Snelgrove RJ, Blalock JE. Angiotensin-converting enzyme defines matrikine-regulated inflammation and fibrosis. JCI Insight 2017; 2:91923. [PMID: 29202450 PMCID: PMC5752376 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.91923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2016] [Accepted: 10/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The neutrophil chemoattractant proline-glycine-proline (PGP) is generated from collagen by matrix metalloproteinase-8/9 (MMP-8/9) and prolyl endopeptidase (PE), and it is concomitantly degraded by extracellular leukotriene A4 hydrolase (LTA4H) to limit neutrophilia. Components of cigarette smoke can acetylate PGP, yielding a species (AcPGP) that is resistant to LTA4H-mediated degradation and can, thus, support a sustained neutrophilia. In this study, we sought to elucidate if an antiinflammatory system existed to degrade AcPGP that is analogous to the PGP-LTA4H axis. We demonstrate that AcPGP is degraded through a previously unidentified action of the enzyme angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE). Pulmonary ACE is elevated during episodes of acute inflammation, as a consequence of enhanced vascular permeability, to ensure the efficient degradation of AcPGP. Conversely, we suggest that this pathway is aberrant in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) enabling the accumulation of AcPGP. Consequently, we identify a potentially novel protective role for AcPGP in limiting pulmonary fibrosis and suggest the pathogenic function attributed to ACE in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) to be a consequence of overzealous AcPGP degradation. Thus, AcPGP seemingly has very divergent roles: it is pathogenic in its capacity to drive neutrophilic inflammation and matrix degradation in the context of COPD, but it is protective in its capacity to limit fibrosis in IPF. ACE degrades the collagen-derived matrikine, acetylate proline–glycine–proline, to limit pulmonary inflammation and promote repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip J O'Reilly
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Qiang Ding
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Samia Akthar
- Inflammation Repair and Development, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Guoqiang Cai
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Kristopher R Genschmer
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Dhiren F Patel
- Inflammation Repair and Development, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Patricia L Jackson
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA.,Birmingham V.A. Medical Center, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Liliana Viera
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Mojtaba Roda
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Science, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Morgan L Locy
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Ellen A Bernstein
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Department of Pathology, Cedars-Sinai Medical Centre, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Clare M Lloyd
- Inflammation Repair and Development, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Kenneth E Bernstein
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Department of Pathology, Cedars-Sinai Medical Centre, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Robert J Snelgrove
- Inflammation Repair and Development, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - J Edwin Blalock
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
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12
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Liao XH, Kimmel AR. A Unique High-Throughput Assay to Identify Novel Small Molecule Inhibitors of Chemotaxis and Migration. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017; 74:12.11.1-12.11.13. [PMID: 28256720 DOI: 10.1002/cpcb.17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Chemotaxis and cell migration play pivotal roles in normal physiological processes such as embryogenesis, inflammation, and wound healing, as well as in pathological processes including chronic inflammatory disease and cancer metastasis. Novel chemotaxis/migration inhibitors are desirable for developing effective therapeutics and probing molecular mechanisms. We describe a fluorescence-based phenotypic assay in a 1536-well plate format for high-throughput screening of novel inhibitors of chemotaxis/migration within complex libraries of thousands of compounds. Although the assay utilizes the unique cellular response properties of Dictyostelium, the compounds identified are able to inhibit chemotaxis of mammalian cells. In addition, a parallel cell cytotoxicity counter-screen with an ATP content assay is described that eliminates cytotoxic compounds from the screen. This novel compound screening approach enables rapid identification of novel lead compounds that inhibit chemotaxis in human and other cells for drug development and research tools. © 2017 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin-Hua Liao
- Fujian Key Laboratory for Translational Research in Cancer and Neurodegenerative Diseases, Institute for Translational Medicine, and Key Laboratory of Ministry of Education for Gastrointestinal Cancer, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Alan R Kimmel
- Laboratory of Cellular and Developmental Biology, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
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13
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A High-Throughput, Multi-Cell Phenotype Assay for the Identification of Novel Inhibitors of Chemotaxis/Migration. Sci Rep 2016; 6:22273. [PMID: 26956526 PMCID: PMC4783656 DOI: 10.1038/srep22273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2015] [Accepted: 02/09/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Chemotaxis and cell migration are fundamental, universal eukaryotic processes essential for biological functions such as embryogenesis, immunity, cell renewal, and wound healing, as well as for pathogenesis of many diseases including cancer metastasis and chronic inflammation. To identify novel chemotaxis inhibitors as probes for mechanistic studies and leads for development of new therapeutics, we developed a unique, unbiased phenotypic chemotaxis-dependent Dictyostelium aggregation assay for high-throughput screening using rapid, laser-scanning cytometry. Under defined conditions, individual Dictyostelium secrete chemoattractants, migrate, and aggregate. Chemotaxis is quantified by laser-scanning cytometry with a GFP marker expressed only in cells after chemotaxis/multi-cell aggregation. We applied the assay to screen 1,280 known compounds in a 1536-well plate format and identified two chemotaxis inhibitors. The chemotaxis inhibitory activities of both compounds were confirmed in both Dictyostelium and in human neutrophils in a directed EZ-TAXIscan chemotaxis assay. The compounds were also shown to inhibit migration of two human cancer cell lines in monolayer scratch assays. This test screen demonstrated that the miniaturized assay is extremely suited for high-throughput screening of very large libraries of small molecules to identify novel classes of chemotaxis/migratory inhibitors for drug development and research tools for targeting chemotactic pathways universal to humans and other systems.
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14
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15
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Abstract
Nanoparticles of carbon black in cigarette smoke trigger inflammation in the lung.
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Affiliation(s)
- Derek W Russell
- Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, United States
| | - J Edwin Blalock
- Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, United States
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16
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Akthar S, Patel DF, Beale RC, Peiró T, Xu X, Gaggar A, Jackson PL, Blalock JE, Lloyd CM, Snelgrove RJ. Matrikines are key regulators in modulating the amplitude of lung inflammation in acute pulmonary infection. Nat Commun 2015; 6:8423. [PMID: 26400771 PMCID: PMC4595997 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms9423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2015] [Accepted: 08/20/2015] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Bioactive matrix fragments (matrikines) have been identified in a myriad of disorders, but their impact on the evolution of airway inflammation has not been demonstrated. We recently described a pathway where the matrikine and neutrophil chemoattractant proline–glycine–proline (PGP) could be degraded by the enzyme leukotriene A4 hydrolase (LTA4H). LTA4H classically functions in the generation of pro-inflammatory leukotriene B4, thus LTA4H exhibits opposing pro- and anti-inflammatory activities. The physiological significance of this secondary anti-inflammatory activity remains unknown. Here we show, using readily resolving pulmonary inflammation models, that loss of this secondary activity leads to more pronounced and sustained inflammation and illness owing to PGP accumulation. PGP elicits an exacerbated neutrophilic inflammation and protease imbalance that further degrades the extracellular matrix, generating fragments that perpetuate inflammation. This highlights a critical role for the secondary anti-inflammatory activity of LTA4H and thus has consequences for the generation of global LTA4H inhibitors currently being developed. Proteases degrade extracellular matrix during inflammation, releasing peptides that can recruit neutrophils. Here the authors show that degradation of such bioactive peptide by the enzyme leukotriene A4 hydrolase is critical to limit pulmonary inflammation during bacterial infection in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samia Akthar
- Leukocyte Biology Section, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Dhiren F Patel
- Leukocyte Biology Section, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Rebecca C Beale
- Leukocyte Biology Section, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Teresa Peiró
- Leukocyte Biology Section, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Xin Xu
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham and Lung Health Center, Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 3529, USA
| | - Amit Gaggar
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham and Lung Health Center, Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 3529, USA.,Gregory Fleming James Cystic Fibrosis Center and Program in Protease and Matrix Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama 35294, USA.,Birmingham V.A. Medical Center, Birmingham, Alabama 35294, USA
| | - Patricia L Jackson
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham and Lung Health Center, Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 3529, USA
| | - J Edwin Blalock
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham and Lung Health Center, Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 3529, USA.,Birmingham V.A. Medical Center, Birmingham, Alabama 35294, USA
| | - Clare M Lloyd
- Leukocyte Biology Section, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Robert J Snelgrove
- Leukocyte Biology Section, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK
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17
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Unopposed Cathepsin G, Neutrophil Elastase, and Proteinase 3 Cause Severe Lung Damage and Emphysema. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2014; 184:2197-210. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2014.04.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2013] [Revised: 04/02/2014] [Accepted: 04/21/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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18
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Allen LAH. Neutrophils: potential therapeutic targets in tularemia? Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2013; 3:109. [PMID: 24409419 PMCID: PMC3873502 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2013.00109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2013] [Accepted: 12/14/2013] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The central role of neutrophils in innate immunity and host defense has long been recognized, and the ability of these cells to efficiently engulf and kill invading bacteria has been extensively studied, as has the role of neutrophil apoptosis in resolution of the inflammatory response. In the past few years additional immunoregulatory properties of neutrophils were discovered, and it is now clear that these cells play a much greater role in control of the immune response than was previously appreciated. In this regard, it is noteworthy that Francisella tularensis is one of relatively few pathogens that can successfully parasitize neutrophils as well as macrophages, DC and epithelial cells. Herein we will review the mechanisms used by F. tularensis to evade elimination by neutrophils. We will also reprise effects of this pathogen on neutrophil migration and lifespan as compared with other infectious and inflammatory disease states. In addition, we will discuss the evidence which suggests that neutrophils contribute to disease progression rather than effective defense during tularemia, and consider whether manipulation of neutrophil migration or turnover may be suitable adjunctive therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lee-Ann H Allen
- Inflammation Program and the Departments of Internal Medicine and Microbiology, University of Iowa and the VA Medical Center Iowa City, IA, USA
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19
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Camarinho R, Garcia PV, Rodrigues AS. Chronic exposure to volcanogenic air pollution as cause of lung injury. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2013; 181:24-30. [PMID: 23800425 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2013.05.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2012] [Revised: 05/24/2013] [Accepted: 05/30/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Few studies were made regarding the pulmonary effects of exposure to volcanogenic air pollution, representing an unrecognized health risk for humans inhabiting non-eruptive volcanically active areas (10% of world human population). We tested the hypothesis whether chronic exposure to air pollution of volcanogenic origin causes lung injury, using wild mice (Mus musculus) as model. Lung injury was determined using histological morphometric parameters, inflammatory status (InfS) and the amount of black silver deposits (BSD). Mice exposed to volcanogenic air pollution have decreased percentage of alveolar space, alveolar perimeter and lung structural functionality (LSF) ratio and, increased alveolar septal thickness, amount of BSD and InfS. For the first time it is evidenced that non-eruptive active volcanism has a high potential to cause lung injury. This study also highlights the usefulness of M. musculus as bioindicator species, and of the developed biomarker of effect LSF ratio, for future animal and/or human biomonitoring programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ricardo Camarinho
- CVARG, Centro de Vulcanologia e Avaliação de Riscos Geológicos, Ponta Delgada, Portugal.
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20
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The role of macrophages in obstructive airways disease: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma. Cytokine 2013; 64:613-25. [PMID: 24084332 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2013.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2013] [Revised: 09/04/2013] [Accepted: 09/06/2013] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Macrophages are a major cellular component of the innate immune system, and play an important role in the recognition of microbes, particulates, and immunogens and to the regulation of inflammatory responses. In the lung, macrophages react with soluble proteins that bind microbial products in order to remove pathogens and particles and to maintain the sterility of the airway tract. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma are both obstructive airway diseases that involve chronic inflammation of the respiratory tract which contributes to disease progression. In the case of COPD, there is increasing evidence that lung macrophages orchestrate inflammation through the release of chemokines that attract neutrophils, monocytes and T cells and the release of several proteases. On the other hand, in asthma, it seems that alveolar macrophages are inappropriately activated and are implicated in the development and progression of the disease. In this review we summarize the current basic and clinical research studies which highlight the role of macrophages in asthma and COPD.
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21
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Jin J, Arif B, Garcia-Fernandez F, Ennis TL, Davis EC, Thompson RW, Curci JA. Novel mechanism of aortic aneurysm development in mice associated with smoking and leukocytes. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2012; 32:2901-9. [PMID: 23042818 PMCID: PMC3506015 DOI: 10.1161/atvbaha.112.300208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2010] [Accepted: 08/17/2012] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The purpose of this study was to evaluate potential mechanisms promoting abdominal aortic aneurysm development with tobacco smoke (TS) exposure. METHODS AND RESULTS Experiments used the elastase perfusion model of abdominal aortic aneurysms with smoke-free controls. The effect of TS exposure was evaluated in C57/Bl6 mice, after broad-spectrum matrix metalloproteinase inhibition with doxycycline and in mice deficient in matrix metalloproteinase-9, matrix metalloproteinase-12, Cathepsin-S, and Neutrophil Elastase. Preparations of washed marrow, spleen, and peripheral blood leukocytes were transferred to smoke-free mice from 6-week TS-exposed mice or smoke-free mice. All mice were euthanized 14 days after elastase perfusion, and the percentage of change in aortic diameter (%Δ aortic diameter) was calculated. Electron microscopy of aortic tissue from animals exposed to TS without elastase exposure did not demonstrate any ultrastructural changes. Neither doxycycline nor any specific elastase deficiency was effective at preventing an increase in %Δ aortic diameter in TS-exposed animals. Smoke exposure for 6 weeks increased the %Δ aortic diameter after a smoke-free interval of up to 6 weeks before elastase perfusion. Leukocyte preparations from TS-exposed mice localized to abdominal aortic aneurysms and increased the %Δ aortic diameter in smoke-free mice. CONCLUSIONS The effect of TS on the development of abdominal aortic aneurysms is not dependent on the activity of elastolytic enzymes and persists for long periods despite cessation of TS. Alterations in leukocyte response to aortic injury appear to mediate this effect.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Aorta, Abdominal/pathology
- Aorta, Abdominal/physiopathology
- Aorta, Abdominal/ultrastructure
- Aortic Aneurysm, Abdominal/chemically induced
- Aortic Aneurysm, Abdominal/pathology
- Aortic Aneurysm, Abdominal/physiopathology
- Cathepsins/deficiency
- Cathepsins/genetics
- Cathepsins/physiology
- Cell Count
- Disease Models, Animal
- Doxycycline/pharmacology
- Leukocyte Elastase/deficiency
- Leukocyte Elastase/genetics
- Leukocyte Elastase/physiology
- Leukocytes, Mononuclear/pathology
- Leukocytes, Mononuclear/physiology
- Male
- Matrix Metalloproteinase 12/deficiency
- Matrix Metalloproteinase 12/genetics
- Matrix Metalloproteinase 12/physiology
- Matrix Metalloproteinase 9/deficiency
- Matrix Metalloproteinase 9/genetics
- Matrix Metalloproteinase 9/physiology
- Matrix Metalloproteinases/drug effects
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Smoking/adverse effects
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianping Jin
- Department of Surgery (Section of Vascular Surgery), Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, USA
| | - Batool Arif
- Department of Surgery (Section of Vascular Surgery), Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, USA
| | | | - Terri L. Ennis
- Department of Surgery (Section of Vascular Surgery), Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, USA
| | - Elaine C. Davis
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, McGill University, Montreal, CA
| | - Robert W. Thompson
- Department of Surgery (Section of Vascular Surgery), Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, USA
- Department of Radiology, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, USA
- Cell Biology and Physiology, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, USA
| | - John A. Curci
- Department of Surgery (Section of Vascular Surgery), Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, USA
- Department of Surgery, John Cochran VAMC, St. Louis, USA
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22
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Madsen JLH, Andersen TL, Santamaria S, Nagase H, Enghild JJ, Skrydstrup T. Synthesis and Evaluation of Silanediols as Highly Selective Uncompetitive Inhibitors of Human Neutrophil Elastase. J Med Chem 2012; 55:7900-8. [DOI: 10.1021/jm301000k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Julie L. H. Madsen
- Center for Insoluble Protein
Structures, Department of Chemistry, and Interdisciplinary Nanoscience
Center, Aarhus University, Langelandsgade
140, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Thomas L. Andersen
- Center for Insoluble Protein
Structures, Department of Chemistry, and Interdisciplinary Nanoscience
Center, Aarhus University, Langelandsgade
140, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Salvatore Santamaria
- Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, 65 Aspenlea Road, London W6
8LH, U.K
- The Kennedy Institute
of Rheumatology,
Nuffield Department of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology and Musculoskeletal
Sciences, University of Oxford, 65 Aspenlea
Road, London W6 8LH, U.K
| | - Hideaki Nagase
- Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, 65 Aspenlea Road, London W6
8LH, U.K
- The Kennedy Institute
of Rheumatology,
Nuffield Department of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology and Musculoskeletal
Sciences, University of Oxford, 65 Aspenlea
Road, London W6 8LH, U.K
| | - Jan J. Enghild
- Center for Insoluble Protein
Structures, Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, and Interdisciplinary
Nanoscience Center, Aarhus University,
Gustav Wieds Vej 10, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Troels Skrydstrup
- Center for Insoluble Protein
Structures, Department of Chemistry, and Interdisciplinary Nanoscience
Center, Aarhus University, Langelandsgade
140, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
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23
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Hartl D, Gaggar A, Bruscia E, Hector A, Marcos V, Jung A, Greene C, McElvaney G, Mall M, Döring G. Innate immunity in cystic fibrosis lung disease. J Cyst Fibros 2012; 11:363-82. [PMID: 22917571 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcf.2012.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 173] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2012] [Revised: 06/29/2012] [Accepted: 07/02/2012] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Chronic lung disease determines the morbidity and mortality of cystic fibrosis (CF) patients. The pulmonary immune response in CF is characterized by an early and non-resolving activation of the innate immune system, which is dysregulated at several levels. Here we provide a comprehensive overview of innate immunity in CF lung disease, involving (i) epithelial dysfunction, (ii) pathogen sensing, (iii) leukocyte recruitment, (iv) phagocyte impairment, (v) mechanisms linking innate and adaptive immunity and (iv) the potential clinical relevance. Dissecting the complex network of innate immune regulation and associated pro-inflammatory cascades in CF lung disease may pave the way for novel immune-targeted therapies in CF and other chronic infective lung diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Hartl
- Department of Pediatrics I, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.
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24
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Hardison MT, Brown MD, Snelgrove RJ, Blalock JE, Jackson P. Cigarette smoke enhances chemotaxis via acetylation of proline-glycine-proline. Front Biosci (Elite Ed) 2012; 4:2402-9. [PMID: 22652647 PMCID: PMC5796637 DOI: 10.2741/e552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Several chronic lung diseases have been linked to cigarette smoking (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD), and cancer are associated with increased tobacco use). We recently described a collagen fragment, proline-glycine-proline (PGP), chemotactic for neutrophils, that appears to play a role in COPD, cystic fibrosis, and bronchiolitis obliterans syndrome. PGP can exist in either its native or acetylated form (NAcPGP), although the mechanism of N-terminal-acetylation remains unknown. This work investigates the possibility that cigarette smoke (CS) and its components acetylate PGP, describing a possible mechanism for some of the chronic inflammation seen in tobacco-associated disease. CSE and CSC (3.56 and 12.38 ng/ml NAcPGP respectively, p less than 0.01) and its components (acrolein, acetaldehyde, and methyl glyoxal) acetylated PGP (0.51, 1.03, and 0.23 ng/ml NAcPGP, p less than 0.01). Both N-acetyl-cysteine and carbocysteine (scavengers of reactive aldehydes) blocked chemical acetylation of PGP by CS (100 percent and 97 percent inhibition, respectively, p less than 0.01). NAcPGP is more chemoattractive to neutrophils, and less susceptible to degradation by Leukotriene-A4-Hydrolase (detected in the lung). These experiments propose a mechanism for the increased neutrophil recruitment seen in smoking-associated lung diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Thomas Hardison
- Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham 1918 University Blvd., Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
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25
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Matera MG, Calzetta L, Segreti A, Cazzola M. Emerging drugs for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Expert Opin Emerg Drugs 2012; 17:61-82. [DOI: 10.1517/14728214.2012.660917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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26
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Devillier P, Jebrak G, Morel H, Chinet T, Didier A, Roche N. [Treatment of distal airways involvement in COPD]. Rev Mal Respir 2011; 28:1340-56. [PMID: 22152941 DOI: 10.1016/j.rmr.2011.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2011] [Accepted: 08/06/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The current pharmacological treatment of COPD provides only partial beneficial effects on symptoms, exercise tolerance, frequency of exacerbations and quality of life. This could be related to poor targeting of the distal airways by current treatments, yet these airways are particularly involved in airflow obstruction and its consequences such as hyperinflation. BACKGROUND Many treatments used in COPD could have effects on distal airways, including bronchodilators, corticosteroids, mucolytics and antibiotics. However, these possible effects remain poorly understood. VIEWPOINTS New treatments targeting more specifically the mechanisms of inflammation, oxidative stress and tissue remodeling that characterize COPD, could prove useful in its management, but most are still only in the early stages of their development. Advances could also come from improvements in inhalation devices, delivering more of the medication to the distal airways. CONCLUSIONS Improvement in the management of COPD could come from progress in terms of both molecules and their mode of administration.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Devillier
- UPRES EA 220, pôle des maladies respiratoires, hôpital Foch, 11 rue Guillaume-Lenoir, Suresnes, France
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27
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Fulop T, Khalil A, Larbi A. The role of elastin peptides in modulating the immune response in aging and age-related diseases. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 60:28-33. [PMID: 22099332 DOI: 10.1016/j.patbio.2011.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2011] [Accepted: 09/16/2011] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
It is now well accepted that aging is associated with the occurrence of a low-grade inflammation called Inflamm-aging. This leads to the imbalance between the various mediators of the inflammatory response in favour of the pro-inflammatory response represented by pro-inflammatory cytokines and oxidative stress. The question that arises, and is still under investigation, what is the origin of the driving force leading to these changes. One of the current hypotheses is that chronic stimulation of the immune system contributes to the pro-inflammatory shift. The chronic stimulation can be of viral origin such as cytomegalovirus, from tumor antigens or from other sources such as the extracellular matrix, especially from elastin fibres and collagens. Aging and various inflammatory diseases such as atherosclerosis, abdominal aortic aneurysms, chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD), cancer and type 2 diabetes are characterized by the destruction of elastin fibers and the consequent generation of elastin peptides which are biologically active. This review will describe the putative contribution of elastin peptides to inflamm-aging and extend on their role on immunosenescence, as well as on age-associated chronic inflammatory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Fulop
- Research center on Aging, University of Sherbrooke, 1036, rue Belvedere sud, Sherbrooke, Qc, J1H 4C4, Canada.
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28
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Lucas SD, Costa E, Guedes RC, Moreira R. Targeting COPD: advances on low-molecular-weight inhibitors of human neutrophil elastase. Med Res Rev 2011; 33 Suppl 1:E73-101. [PMID: 21681767 DOI: 10.1002/med.20247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a major increasing health problem and the World Health Organization (WHO) reports COPD as the fifth leading cause of death worldwide. COPD refers to a condition of inflammation and progressive weakening of the structure of the lung as well as irreversible narrowing of the airways. Current treatment is only palliative and no available drug halts the progression of the disease. Human neutrophil elastase (HNE) is a serine protease, which plays a major role in the COPD inflammatory process. The protease/anti-protease imbalance leads to an excess of extracellular HNE hydrolyzing elastin, the structural protein that confers elasticity to the lung tissue. Although HNE was identified as a therapeutic target for COPD more than 30 years ago, only Sivelestat (ONO-5046), an HNE inhibitor from Ono Pharmaceutical, has been approved for clinical use. Nevertheless, Sivelestat is only approved in Japan and its development in the USA was terminated in 2003. Other inhibitors in pre-clinical or phase I trials were discontinued for various reasons. Hence, there is an urgent need for low-molecular-weight synthetic elastase inhibitors and the present review discusses the recent advances on this field covering acylating agents, transition-state inhibitors, mechanism-based inhibitors, relevant natural products, and major patent disclosures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susana D Lucas
- Research Institute for Medicines and Pharmaceutical Sciences, iMed UL, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Lisbon, Av Prof Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisbon, Portugal
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29
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Targeting of a common receptor shared by CXCL8 and N-Ac-PGP as a therapeutic strategy to alleviate chronic neutrophilic lung diseases. Eur J Pharmacol 2011; 667:1-5. [PMID: 21669195 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2011.05.073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2011] [Revised: 05/09/2011] [Accepted: 05/27/2011] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Persistent neutrophilia is implicated in the pathology of several chronic lung diseases and consequently targeting the signals that drive the recruitment of these cells offers a plausible therapeutic strategy. The tripeptide Pro-Gly-Pro (PGP) is a neutrophil chemoattractant derived from extracellular matrix collagen and implicated in diseases such as COPD and cystic fibrosis. It was anticipated that PGP exerts its chemoatactic activity by mimicking key sequences found within classical neutrophil chemokines, such as CXCL8, and binding their receptors, CXCR1/2. Recently, however, the role of CXCR1/2 as the receptors for PGP has been questioned. In this issue of European Journal of Pharmacology, three studies address this controversy and demonstrate CXCR1/2 to be a common receptor for CXCL8 and PGP. Accordingly, these studies demonstrate the therapeutic potential of targeting this shared receptor to simultaneously alleviate neutrophilic inflammation driven by multiple neutrophil chemoattractants.
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30
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Brown BN, Price IM, Toapanta FR, DeAlmeida DR, Wiley CA, Ross TM, Oury TD, Vodovotz Y. An agent-based model of inflammation and fibrosis following particulate exposure in the lung. Math Biosci 2011; 231:186-96. [PMID: 21385589 PMCID: PMC3088650 DOI: 10.1016/j.mbs.2011.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2010] [Revised: 02/26/2011] [Accepted: 03/01/2011] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Inflammation and airway remodeling occur in a variety of airway diseases. Modeling aspects of the inflammatory and fibrotic processes following repeated exposure to particulate matter may provide insights into a spectrum of airway diseases, as well as prevention/treatment strategies. An agent-based model (ABM) was created to examine the response of an abstracted population of inflammatory cells (nominally macrophages, but possibly including other inflammatory cells such as lymphocytes) and cells involved in remodeling (nominally fibroblasts) to particulate exposure. The model focused on a limited number of relevant interactions, specifically those among macrophages, fibroblasts, a pro-inflammatory cytokine (TNF-α), an anti-inflammatory cytokine (TGF-β1), collagen deposition, and tissue damage. The model yielded three distinct states that were equated with (1) self-resolving inflammation and a return to baseline, (2) a pro-inflammatory process of localized tissue damage and fibrosis, and (3) elevated pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines, persistent tissue damage, and fibrosis outcomes. Experimental results consistent with these predicted states were observed in histology sections of lung tissue from mice exposed to particulate matter. Systematic in silico studies suggested that the development of each state depended primarily upon the degree and duration of exposure. Thus, a relatively simple ABM resulted in several, biologically feasible, emergent states, suggesting that the model captures certain salient features of inflammation following exposure of the lung to particulate matter. This ABM may hold future utility in the setting of airway disease resulting from inflammation and fibrosis following particulate exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryan N. Brown
- Center for Inflammation and Regenerative Modeling, McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA
| | - Ian M. Price
- Center for Inflammation and Regenerative Modeling, McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA
- Department of Mathematics, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, USA
| | - Franklin R. Toapanta
- Center for Vaccine Research, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA
| | - Dilhari R. DeAlmeida
- Center for Vaccine Research, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA
| | - Clayton A. Wiley
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Ted M. Ross
- Center for Vaccine Research, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA
| | - Tim D. Oury
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Yoram Vodovotz
- Center for Inflammation and Regenerative Modeling, McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA
- Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213
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Roche N, Devillier P, Aguilaniu B, Escamilla R, Wallaert B, Burgel PR, Berger P, Brillet PY, Chambellan A, Chanez P, Chaouat A, Louis R, Mal H, Marthan R, Muir JF, Pérez T, Similowski T, Aubier M. BPCO et inflammation : mise au point d’un groupe d’experts. Comment traiter l’inflammation ? Rev Mal Respir 2011; 28:427-42. [DOI: 10.1016/j.rmr.2010.08.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2010] [Accepted: 08/27/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Braber S, Koelink PJ, Henricks PAJ, Jackson PL, Nijkamp FP, Garssen J, Kraneveld AD, Blalock JE, Folkerts G. Cigarette smoke-induced lung emphysema in mice is associated with prolyl endopeptidase, an enzyme involved in collagen breakdown. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2011; 300:L255-65. [PMID: 21112944 PMCID: PMC3043817 DOI: 10.1152/ajplung.00304.2010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2010] [Accepted: 11/19/2010] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
There is increasing evidence that the neutrophil chemoattractant proline-glycine-proline (PGP), derived from the breakdown of the extracellular matrix, plays an important role in neutrophil recruitment to the lung. PGP formation is a multistep process involving neutrophils, metalloproteinases (MMPs), and prolyl endopeptidase (PE). This cascade of events is now investigated in the development of lung emphysema. A/J mice were whole body exposed to cigarette smoke for 20 wk. After 20 wk or 8 wk after smoking cessation, animals were killed, and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and lung tissue were collected to analyze the neutrophilic airway inflammation, the MMP-8 and MMP-9 levels, the PE activity, and the PGP levels. Lung tissue degradation was assessed by measuring the mean linear intercept. Additionally, we investigated the effect of the peptide L-arginine-threonine-arginine (RTR), which binds to PGP sequences, on the smoke-induced neutrophil influx in the lung after 5 days of smoke exposure. Neutrophilic airway inflammation was induced by cigarette smoke exposure. MMP-8 and MMP-9 levels, PE activity, and PGP levels were elevated in the lungs of cigarette smoke-exposed mice. PE was highly expressed in epithelial and inflammatory cells (macrophages and neutrophils) in lung tissue of cigarette smoke-exposed mice. After smoking cessation, the neutrophil influx, the MMP-8 and MMP-9 levels, the PE activity, and the PGP levels were decreased or reduced to normal levels. Moreover, RTR inhibited the smoke-induced neutrophil influx in the lung after 5 days' smoke exposure. In the present murine model of cigarette smoke-induced lung emphysema, it is demonstrated for the first time that all relevant components (neutrophils, MMP-8, MMP-9, PE) involved in PGP formation from collagen are upregulated in the airways. Together with MMPs, PE may play an important role in the formation of PGP and thus in the pathophysiology of lung emphysema.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saskia Braber
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht Univ., The Netherlands.
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Cox LAT. A causal model of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) risk. RISK ANALYSIS : AN OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE SOCIETY FOR RISK ANALYSIS 2011; 31:38-62. [PMID: 20846171 DOI: 10.1111/j.1539-6924.2010.01487.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Research on the etiology of chronic pulmonary disease (COPD), an irreversible degenerative lung disease affecting 15% to 20% of smokers, has blossomed over the past half-century. Profound new insights have emerged from a combination of in vitro and -omics studies on affected lung cell populations (including cytotoxic CD8(+) T lymphocytes, regulatory CD4(+) helper T cells, dendritic cells, alveolar macrophages and neutrophils, alveolar and bronchiolar epithelial cells, goblet cells, and fibroblasts) and extracellular matrix components (especially, elastin and collagen fibers); in vivo studies on wild-type and genetically engineered mice and other rodents; clinical investigation of cell- and molecular-level changes in asymptomatic smokers and COPD patients; genetic studies of susceptible and rapidly-progressing phenotypes (both human and animal); biomarker studies of enzyme and protein degradation products in induced sputum, bronchiolar lavage, urine, and blood; and epidemiological and clinical investigations of the time course of disease progression. To this rich mix of data, we add a relatively simple in silico computational model that incorporates recent insights into COPD disease causation and progression. Our model explains irreversible degeneration of lung tissue as resulting from a cascade of positive feedback loops: a macrophage inflammation loop, a neutrophil inflammation loop, and an alveolar epithelial cell apoptosis loop. Unrepaired damage results in clinical symptoms. The resulting model illustrates how to simplify and make more understandable the main aspects of the very complex dynamics of COPD initiation and progression, as well as how to predict the effects on risk of interventions that affect specific biological responses.
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Cantor JO, Cerreta JM, Ochoa M, Ma S, Liu M, Turino GM. Therapeutic effects of hyaluronan on smoke-induced elastic fiber injury: does delayed treatment affect efficacy? Lung 2010; 189:51-6. [PMID: 21153833 DOI: 10.1007/s00408-010-9271-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2010] [Accepted: 11/07/2010] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Aerosolized hyaluronan (HA) has been previously shown to prevent cigarette smoke-induced airspace enlargement and elastic fiber injury in mice when given concurrently with smoke. In the present study, a more stringent test of the therapeutic potential of HA was performed by delaying treatment with this agent for 1 month. After treatment with cigarette smoke for 3 h per day for 5 days per week for 1 month, mice (DBA/2J) began receiving aerosolized HA (0.1%) for 1 h prior to smoke exposure (controls were given aerosolized water). The results indicate that much of the damage to the lung elastic fibers occurred within the first several months of smoke exposure, as measured by levels of desmosine and isodesmosine (DID) in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF). In contrast to previously published studies, where concurrent administration of aerosolized HA significantly reduced BALF DID levels within 3 months of smoke exposure, the same effect was not seen until 6 months when HA treatment was delayed. However, despite the prolonged breakdown of elastic fibers in the current study, a significant reduction in airspace enlargement was observed after only 2 months of HA treatment. These findings provide further support for testing this agent in patients with pre-existing chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
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Gaggar A, Rowe SM, Matthew H, Blalock JE. Proline-Glycine-Proline (PGP) and High Mobility Group Box Protein-1 (HMGB1): Potential Mediators of Cystic Fibrosis Airway Inflammation. Open Respir Med J 2010. [PMID: 20448817 PMCID: PMC2864429 DOI: 10.2174/1874306401004010032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Cystic fibrosis (CF) is chronic lung disease characterized by an unrelenting neutrophil-predominant airway inflammatory response. This inflammation leads to extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling and eventually to the development of bronchiectasis. While many components of the immune response in CF have been well-characterized, recent data suggests that small molecules may play an important and underappreciated role in this inflammation. This review will examine two novel molecules: proline-glycine-proline (PGP) and high mobility group box protein-1 (HMGB1), and their potential impact in CF lung disease. This review will provide a brief overview of CF lung disease and background on both HMGB1 and PGP. It will then focus on these molecules in a murine model of CF-like airway disease and in human biological specimens from CF individuals. Finally, this manuscript will address possible mechanisms for therapeutic targeting of these bioactive mediators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amit Gaggar
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL
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Gaggar A, Rowe SM, Matthew H, Blalock JE. Proline-Glycine-Proline (PGP) and High Mobility Group Box Protein-1 (HMGB1): Potential Mediators of Cystic Fibrosis Airway Inflammation. Open Respir Med J 2010; 4:32-8. [PMID: 20448817 DOI: 10.2174/1874306401004020032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2009] [Revised: 11/09/2009] [Accepted: 11/10/2009] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Cystic fibrosis (CF) is chronic lung disease characterized by an unrelenting neutrophil-predominant airway inflammatory response. This inflammation leads to extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling and eventually to the development of bronchiectasis. While many components of the immune response in CF have been well-characterized, recent data suggests that small molecules may play an important and underappreciated role in this inflammation. This review will examine two novel molecules: proline-glycine-proline (PGP) and high mobility group box protein-1 (HMGB1), and their potential impact in CF lung disease. This review will provide a brief overview of CF lung disease and background on both HMGB1 and PGP. It will then focus on these molecules in a murine model of CF-like airway disease and in human biological specimens from CF individuals. Finally, this manuscript will address possible mechanisms for therapeutic targeting of these bioactive mediators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amit Gaggar
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL
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