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Eurtivong C, Zimmer C, Schirmeister T, Butkinaree C, Saruengkhanphasit R, Niwetmarin W, Ruchirawat S, Bhambra AS. A structure-based virtual high-throughput screening, molecular docking, molecular dynamics and MM/PBSA study identified novel putative drug-like dual inhibitors of trypanosomal cruzain and rhodesain cysteine proteases. Mol Divers 2024; 28:531-551. [PMID: 36617352 DOI: 10.1007/s11030-023-10600-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2022] [Accepted: 01/02/2023] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Virtual screening a collection of ~ 25,000 ChemBridge molecule collection identified two nitrogenous heterocyclic molecules, 12 and 15, with potential dual inhibitory properties against trypanosomal cruzain and rhodesain cysteine proteases. Similarity search in DrugBank found the two virtual hits with novel chemical structures with unreported anti-trypanosomal activities. Investigations into the binding mechanism by molecular dynamics simulations for 100 ns revealed the molecules were able to occupy the binding sites and stabilise the protease complexes. Binding affinities calculated using the MM/PBSA method for the last 20 ns showed that the virtual hits have comparable binding affinities to other known inhibitors from literature suggesting both molecules as promising scaffolds with dual cruzain and rhodesain inhibition properties, i.e. 12 has predicted ΔGbind values of - 38.1 and - 38.2 kcal/mol to cruzain and rhodesain, respectively, and 15 has predicted ΔGbind values of - 34.4 and - 25.8 kcal/mol to rhodesain. Per residue binding free energy decomposition studies and visual inspection at 100 ns snapshots revealed hydrogen bonding and non-polar attractions with important amino acid residues that contributed to the ΔGbind values. The interactions are similar to those previously reported in the literature. The overall ADMET predictions for the two molecules were favourable for drug development with acceptable pharmacokinetic profiles and adequate oral bioavailability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chatchakorn Eurtivong
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Mahidol Univeristy, 447 Sri-Ayutthaya Road, Ratchathewi, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand.
- Program in Chemical Sciences, Chulabhorn Graduate Institute, Chulabhorn Royal Academy, 906 Kamphaeng Phet 6, Talat Bang Khen, Lak Si, Bangkok, 10210, Thailand.
- Center of Excellence On Environmental Health and Toxicology (EHT), OPS, Ministry of Higher Education, Science, Research and Innovation, Bangkok, Thailand.
| | - Collin Zimmer
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, Johannes Gutenberg-University, Mainz, Germany
| | - Tanja Schirmeister
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, Johannes Gutenberg-University, Mainz, Germany
| | - Chutikarn Butkinaree
- National Omics Center, National Science and Technology Development Agency, Khlong Luang, 12120, Pathum Thani, Thailand
| | - Rungroj Saruengkhanphasit
- Program in Chemical Sciences, Chulabhorn Graduate Institute, Chulabhorn Royal Academy, 906 Kamphaeng Phet 6, Talat Bang Khen, Lak Si, Bangkok, 10210, Thailand
- Center of Excellence On Environmental Health and Toxicology (EHT), OPS, Ministry of Higher Education, Science, Research and Innovation, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Worawat Niwetmarin
- Program in Chemical Sciences, Chulabhorn Graduate Institute, Chulabhorn Royal Academy, 906 Kamphaeng Phet 6, Talat Bang Khen, Lak Si, Bangkok, 10210, Thailand
- Center of Excellence On Environmental Health and Toxicology (EHT), OPS, Ministry of Higher Education, Science, Research and Innovation, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Somsak Ruchirawat
- Program in Chemical Sciences, Chulabhorn Graduate Institute, Chulabhorn Royal Academy, 906 Kamphaeng Phet 6, Talat Bang Khen, Lak Si, Bangkok, 10210, Thailand
- Center of Excellence On Environmental Health and Toxicology (EHT), OPS, Ministry of Higher Education, Science, Research and Innovation, Bangkok, Thailand
- Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry, Chulabhorn Research Institute, Bangkok, 10210, Thailand
| | - Avninder S Bhambra
- Leicester School of Allied Health Sciences, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, de Montfort University, Leicester, UK
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Saha A, Pushpa, Moitra S, Basak D, Brahma S, Mondal D, Molla SH, Samadder A, Nandi S. Targeting Cysteine Proteases and their Inhibitors to Combat Trypanosomiasis. Curr Med Chem 2024; 31:2135-2169. [PMID: 37340748 DOI: 10.2174/0929867330666230619160509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2023] [Revised: 04/21/2023] [Accepted: 05/18/2023] [Indexed: 06/22/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Trypanosomiasis, caused by protozoan parasites of the Trypanosoma genus, remains a significant health burden in several regions of the world. Cysteine proteases play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of Trypanosoma parasites and have emerged as potential therapeutic targets for the development of novel antiparasitic drugs. INTRODUCTION This review article aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the role of cysteine proteases in trypanosomiasis and their potential as therapeutic targets. We discuss the biological significance of cysteine proteases in Trypanosoma parasites and their involvement in essential processes, such as host immune evasion, cell invasion, and nutrient acquisition. METHODS A comprehensive literature search was conducted to identify relevant studies and research articles on the role of cysteine proteases and their inhibitors in trypanosomiasis. The selected studies were critically analyzed to extract key findings and provide a comprehensive overview of the topic. RESULTS Cysteine proteases, such as cruzipain, TbCatB and TbCatL, have been identified as promising therapeutic targets due to their essential roles in Trypanosoma pathogenesis. Several small molecule inhibitors and peptidomimetics have been developed to target these proteases and have shown promising activity in preclinical studies. CONCLUSION Targeting cysteine proteases and their inhibitors holds great potential for the development of novel antiparasitic drugs against trypanosomiasis. The identification of potent and selective cysteine protease inhibitors could significantly contribute to the combat against trypanosomiasis and improve the prospects for the treatment of this neglected tropical disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aloke Saha
- Cell and Developmental Biology Special, Department of Zoology, University of Kalyani, Kalyani, Nadia, 741235, India
| | - Pushpa
- Cell and Developmental Biology Special, Department of Zoology, University of Kalyani, Kalyani, Nadia, 741235, India
| | - Susmita Moitra
- Cell and Developmental Biology Special, Department of Zoology, University of Kalyani, Kalyani, Nadia, 741235, India
| | - Deblina Basak
- Endocrinology Special, Department of Zoology, University of Kalyani, Kalyani, Nadia, 741235, India
| | - Sayandeep Brahma
- Cell and Developmental Biology Special, Department of Zoology, University of Kalyani, Kalyani, Nadia, 741235, India
| | - Dipu Mondal
- Cell and Developmental Biology Special, Department of Zoology, University of Kalyani, Kalyani, Nadia, 741235, India
| | - Sabir Hossen Molla
- Parasitology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Kalyani, Kalyani, Nadia, 741235, India
| | - Asmita Samadder
- Cytogenetics and Molecular Biology Lab., Department of Zoology, University of Kalyani, Kalyani, Nadia, 741235, India
| | - Sisir Nandi
- Global Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (Affiliated to Veer Madho Singh Bhandari Uttarakhand Technical University), Kashipur, 244713, India
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Giroud M, Kuhn B, Haap W. Drug Discovery Efforts to Identify Novel Treatments for Neglected Tropical Diseases - Cysteine Protease Inhibitors. Curr Med Chem 2024; 31:2170-2194. [PMID: 37916489 DOI: 10.2174/0109298673249097231017051733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2023] [Revised: 06/19/2023] [Accepted: 09/14/2023] [Indexed: 11/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Neglected tropical diseases are a severe burden for mankind, affecting an increasing number of people around the globe. Many of those diseases are caused by protozoan parasites in which cysteine proteases play a key role in the parasite's pathogenesis. OBJECTIVE In this review article, we summarize the drug discovery efforts of the research community from 2017 - 2022 with a special focus on the optimization of small molecule cysteine protease inhibitors in terms of selectivity profiles or drug-like properties as well as in vivo studies. The cysteine proteases evaluated by this methodology include Cathepsin B1 from Schistosoma mansoni, papain, cruzain, falcipain, and rhodesain. METHODS Exhaustive literature searches were performed using the keywords "Cysteine Proteases" and "Neglected Tropical Diseases" including the years 2017 - 2022. Overall, approximately 3'000 scientific papers were retrieved, which were filtered using specific keywords enabling the focus on drug discovery efforts. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION Potent and selective cysteine protease inhibitors to treat neglected tropical diseases were identified, which progressed to pharmacokinetic and in vivo efficacy studies. As far as the authors are aware of, none of those inhibitors reached the stage of active clinical development. Either the inhibitor's potency or pharmacokinetic properties or safety profile or a combination thereof prevented further development of the compounds. More efforts with particular emphasis on optimizing pharmacokinetic and safety properties are needed, potentially by collaborations of academic and industrial research groups with complementary expertise. Furthermore, new warheads reacting with the catalytic cysteine should be exploited to advance the research field in order to make a meaningful impact on society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maude Giroud
- Pharma Research and Early Development pRED, Roche Innovation Center Basel, Medicinal Chemistry, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, Grenzacherstrasse 124, Basel, CH-4070, Switzerland
| | - Bernd Kuhn
- Pharma Research and Early Development pRED, Roche Innovation Center Basel, Medicinal Chemistry, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, Grenzacherstrasse 124, Basel, CH-4070, Switzerland
| | - Wolfgang Haap
- Pharma Research and Early Development pRED, Roche Innovation Center Basel, Medicinal Chemistry, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, Grenzacherstrasse 124, Basel, CH-4070, Switzerland
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Dutra Barroso Gomes N, Paula Magalhães E, Rodrigues Ribeiro L, Cavalcante JW, Morais Gomes Maia M, Cunha da Silva FR, Ali A, Machado Marinho M, Silva Marinho E, Silva Dos Santos H, Costa Martins AM, Róseo Paula Pessoa Bezerra de Menezes R. Trypanocidal potential of synthetic p-aminochalcones: In silico and in vitro evaluation. Bioorg Chem 2023; 141:106931. [PMID: 37879182 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2023.106931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2023] [Revised: 10/10/2023] [Accepted: 10/19/2023] [Indexed: 10/27/2023]
Abstract
Chagas disease (CD) is a neglected tropical disease of worldwide health concern, caused by the flagellate protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi (T. cruzi), endemic in Latin America and present in North America and Europe. The WHO recommended drug for CD, benznidazole has low safety profile and several limitations. Therefore, an entity with better therapeutic potential to treat CD is required. Chalcones are an important class of compounds, which have shown antichagasic potential. Thus, the objective of this study was to evaluate the activity of synthetic p-aminochalcones against T. cruzi. Chalcones 1 and 2 were synthesized by Claisen-Schmidt condensation and characterized by both spectroscopic and theoretical methods. Initially, they were submitted to molecular docking simulations using cruzain and trypanothione reductase (TR) enzymes. It was expected to observe the possible interactions of chalcones with the catalytic site and other important regions of these main pharmacological targets of T. cruzi. Their cytotoxicity within host cells were assessed by MTT reduction assay using LLC-MK2 cells, with CC50 = 85.6 ± 9.2 µM and 1115 ± 381.7 µM for chalcones 1 and 2, respectively. These molecules were also tested against epimastigote and trypomastigote life forms of T. cruzi, causing reduction in the number of viable parasites. For the evaluation of the effect on intracellular amastigotes, infected LLC-MK2 cells were incubated with the chalcones for 24 h, causing reduction in the percentage of infected cells and the number of amastigotes/100 cells. Finally, flow cytometry assays were performed for analyzing cell death mechanisms (7-AAD/AxPE labelling), cytoplasmic ROS accumulation (DCFH-DA assay) and mitochondrial transmembrane potential disruption (Rho123 assay). Both chalcones (1 and 2) caused membrane damage, ROS accumulation and mitochondrial depolarization. In conclusion, the synthetic p-aminochalcones presented trypanocidal effect, causing membrane damage and oxidative stress. Their mechanism of action may be related to cruzain and TR inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Emanuel Paula Magalhães
- Post-Graduate Program in Pharmaceutical Sciences, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
| | - Lyanna Rodrigues Ribeiro
- Post-Graduate Program in Pharmaceutical Sciences, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
| | | | | | | | - Arif Ali
- Post-Graduate Program in Pharmacology, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
| | - Márcia Machado Marinho
- Theoretical and Eletrochemical Chemistry Research Group, State University of Ceará, Limoeiro do Norte, CE, Brazil; State University of Vale do Acaraú, Center for Exact Sciences and Technology, Sobral, CE, Brazil
| | - Emmanuel Silva Marinho
- Theoretical and Eletrochemical Chemistry Research Group, State University of Ceará, Limoeiro do Norte, CE, Brazil
| | - Hélcio Silva Dos Santos
- State University of Vale do Acaraú, Center for Exact Sciences and Technology, Sobral, CE, Brazil
| | - Alice Maria Costa Martins
- Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analysis, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
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Lameiro RF, Montanari CA. Investigating the Lack of Translation from Cruzain Inhibition to Trypanosoma cruzi Activity with Machine Learning and Chemical Space Analyses. ChemMedChem 2023; 18:e202200434. [PMID: 36692246 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.202200434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2022] [Revised: 01/17/2023] [Accepted: 01/17/2023] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Chagas disease is a neglected tropical disease caused by the protozoa Trypanosoma cruzi. Cruzain, its main cysteine protease, is commonly targeted in drug discovery efforts to find new treatments for this disease. Even though the essentiality of this enzyme for the parasite has been established, many cruzain inhibitors fail as trypanocidal agents. This lack of translation from biochemical to biological assays can involve several factors, including suboptimal physicochemical properties. In this work, we aim to rationalize this phenomenon through chemical space analyses of calculated molecular descriptors. These include statistical tests, visualization of projections, scaffold analysis, and creation of machine learning models coupled with interpretability methods. Our results demonstrate a significant difference between the chemical spaces of cruzain and T. cruzi inhibitors, with compounds with more hydrogen bond donors and rotatable bonds being more likely to be good cruzain inhibitors, but less likely to be active on T. cruzi. In addition, cruzain inhibitors seem to occupy specific regions of the chemical space that cannot be easily correlated with T. cruzi activity, which means that using predictive modeling to determine whether cruzain inhibitors will be trypanocidal is not a straightforward task. We believe that the conclusions from this work might be of interest for future projects that aim to develop novel trypanocidal compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael F Lameiro
- Medicinal and Biological Chemistry Group, São Carlos Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, Trabalhador São-Carlense Avenue 400, São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Carlos A Montanari
- Medicinal and Biological Chemistry Group, São Carlos Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, Trabalhador São-Carlense Avenue 400, São Carlos, Brazil
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Screening the Pathogen Box to Discover and Characterize New Cruzain and TbrCatL Inhibitors. Pathogens 2023; 12:pathogens12020251. [PMID: 36839523 PMCID: PMC9967275 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12020251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Revised: 01/31/2023] [Accepted: 02/02/2023] [Indexed: 02/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Chagas disease and Human African Trypanosomiasis, caused by Trypanosoma cruzi and T. brucei, respectively, pose relevant health challenges throughout the world, placing 65 to 70 million people at risk each. Given the limited efficacy and severe side effects associated with current chemotherapy, new drugs are urgently needed for both diseases. Here, we report the screening of the Pathogen Box collection against cruzain and TbrCatL, validated targets for Chagas disease and Human African Trypanosomiasis, respectively. Enzymatic assays were applied to screen 400 compounds, validate hits, determine IC50 values and, when possible, mechanisms of inhibition. In this case, 12 initial hits were obtained and ten were prioritized for follow-up. IC50 values were obtained for six of them (hit rate = 1.5%) and ranged from 0.46 ± 0.03 to 27 ± 3 µM. MMV687246 was found to be a mixed inhibitor of cruzain (Ki = 57 ± 6 µM) while MMV688179 was found to be a competitive inhibitor of cruzain with a nanomolar potency (Ki = 165 ± 63 nM). A putative binding mode for MMV688179 was obtained by docking. The six hits discovered against cruzain and TbrCatL are of great interest for further optimization by the medicinal chemistry community.
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7
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From rational design to serendipity: Discovery of novel thiosemicarbazones as potent trypanocidal compounds. Eur J Med Chem 2022; 244:114876. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2022.114876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2022] [Revised: 10/04/2022] [Accepted: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Previti S, Ettari R, Calcaterra E, Di Chio C, Ravichandran R, Zimmer C, Hammerschmidt S, Wagner A, Bogacz M, Cosconati S, Schirmeister T, Zappalà M. Development of Urea-Bond-Containing Michael Acceptors as Antitrypanosomal Agents Targeting Rhodesain. ACS Med Chem Lett 2022; 13:1083-1090. [PMID: 35859868 PMCID: PMC9290002 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.2c00084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
![]()
Human African Trypanosomiasis
(HAT) is a neglected tropical disease
widespread in sub-Saharan Africa. Rhodesain, a cysteine protease of Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, has been identified as a
valid target for the development of anti-HAT agents. Herein, we report
a series of urea-bond-containing Michael acceptors, which were demonstrated
to be potent rhodesain inhibitors with Ki values ranging from 0.15 to 2.51 nM, and five of them showed comparable k2nd values to that of K11777, a potent antitrypanosomal
agent. Moreover, most of the urea derivatives exhibited single-digit
micromolar activity against the protozoa, and the presence of substituents
at the P3 position appears to be essential for the antitrypanosomal
effect. Replacement of Phe with Leu at the P2 site kept unchanged
the inhibitory properties. Compound 7 (SPR7) showed the
best compromise in terms of rhodesain inhibition, selectivity, and
antiparasitic activity, thus representing a new lead compound for
future SAR studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santo Previti
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Viale Ferdinando Stagno d’Alcontres 31, 98166 Messina, Italy
| | - Roberta Ettari
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Viale Ferdinando Stagno d’Alcontres 31, 98166 Messina, Italy
| | - Elsa Calcaterra
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Viale Ferdinando Stagno d’Alcontres 31, 98166 Messina, Italy
| | - Carla Di Chio
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Viale Ferdinando Stagno d’Alcontres 31, 98166 Messina, Italy
| | - Rahul Ravichandran
- DiSTABiF, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, Via Vivaldi 43, 81100 Caserta, Italy
| | - Collin Zimmer
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, University of Mainz, Staudingerweg 5, 55128 Mainz, Germany
| | - Stefan Hammerschmidt
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, University of Mainz, Staudingerweg 5, 55128 Mainz, Germany
| | - Annika Wagner
- Institute of Organic Chemistry & Macromolecular Chemistry, Friedrich-Schiller-University of Jena, Humboldtstraße 10, 07743 Jena, Germany
| | - Marta Bogacz
- Institute of Organic Chemistry & Macromolecular Chemistry, Friedrich-Schiller-University of Jena, Humboldtstraße 10, 07743 Jena, Germany
| | - Sandro Cosconati
- DiSTABiF, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, Via Vivaldi 43, 81100 Caserta, Italy
| | - Tanja Schirmeister
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, University of Mainz, Staudingerweg 5, 55128 Mainz, Germany
| | - Maria Zappalà
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Viale Ferdinando Stagno d’Alcontres 31, 98166 Messina, Italy
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Kangethe RT, Winger EM, Settypalli TBK, Datta S, Wijewardana V, Lamien CE, Unger H, Coetzer TH, Cattoli G, Diallo A. Low Dose Gamma Irradiation of Trypanosoma evansi Parasites Identifies Molecular Changes That Occur to Repair Radiation Damage and Gene Transcripts That May Be Involved in Establishing Disease in Mice Post-Irradiation. Front Immunol 2022; 13:852091. [PMID: 35634275 PMCID: PMC9136415 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.852091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The protozoan parasite Trypanosoma evansi is responsible for causing surra in a variety of mammalian hosts and is spread by many vectors over a wide geographical area making it an ideal target for irradiation as a tool to study the initial events that occur during infection. Parasites irradiated at the representative doses 100Gy, 140Gy, and 200Gy were used to inoculate BALB/c mice revealing that parasites irradiated at 200Gy were unable to establish disease in all mice. Cytokine analysis of mice inoculated with 200Gy of irradiated parasites showed significantly lower levels of interleukins when compared to mice inoculated with non-irradiated and 100Gy irradiated parasites. Irradiation also differentially affected the abundance of gene transcripts in a dose-dependent trend measured at 6- and 20-hours post-irradiation with 234, 325, and 484 gene transcripts affected 6 hours post-irradiation for 100Gy-, 140Gy- and 200Gy-irradiated parasites, respectively. At 20 hours post-irradiation, 422, 381, and 457 gene transcripts were affected by irradiation at 100Gy, 140Gy, and 200Gy, respectively. A gene ontology (GO) term analysis was carried out for the three representative doses at 6 hours and 20 hours post-irradiation revealing different processes occurring at 20 hours when compared to 6 hours for 100Gy irradiation. The top ten most significant processes had a negative Z score. These processes fall in significance at 140Gy and even further at 200Gy, revealing that they were least likely to occur at 200Gy, and thus may have been responsible for infection in mice by 100Gy and 140Gy irradiated parasites. When looking at 100Gy irradiated parasites 20 hours post-irradiation processes with a positive Z score, we identified genes that were involved in multiple processes and compared their fold change values at 6 hours and 20 hours. We present these genes as possibly necessary for repair from irradiation damage at 6 hours and suggestive of being involved in the establishment of disease in mice at 20 hours post-irradiation. A potential strategy using this information to develop a whole parasite vaccine is also postulated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard T. Kangethe
- Animal Production and Health Laboratory, FAO/IAEA Agriculture and Biotechnology Laboratory, IAEA Laboratories Seibersdorf, International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Vienna, Austria
- *Correspondence: Richard T. Kangethe,
| | - Eva M. Winger
- Animal Production and Health Laboratory, FAO/IAEA Agriculture and Biotechnology Laboratory, IAEA Laboratories Seibersdorf, International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Vienna, Austria
| | - Tirumala Bharani K. Settypalli
- Animal Production and Health Laboratory, FAO/IAEA Agriculture and Biotechnology Laboratory, IAEA Laboratories Seibersdorf, International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Vienna, Austria
| | - Sneha Datta
- Animal Production and Health Laboratory, FAO/IAEA Agriculture and Biotechnology Laboratory, IAEA Laboratories Seibersdorf, International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Vienna, Austria
| | - Viskam Wijewardana
- Animal Production and Health Laboratory, FAO/IAEA Agriculture and Biotechnology Laboratory, IAEA Laboratories Seibersdorf, International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Vienna, Austria
| | - Charles E. Lamien
- Animal Production and Health Laboratory, FAO/IAEA Agriculture and Biotechnology Laboratory, IAEA Laboratories Seibersdorf, International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Vienna, Austria
| | - Hermann Unger
- Animal Production and Health Laboratory, FAO/IAEA Agriculture and Biotechnology Laboratory, IAEA Laboratories Seibersdorf, International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Vienna, Austria
| | - Theresa H.T. Coetzer
- Biochemistry, School of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa
| | - Giovanni Cattoli
- Animal Production and Health Laboratory, FAO/IAEA Agriculture and Biotechnology Laboratory, IAEA Laboratories Seibersdorf, International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Vienna, Austria
| | - Adama Diallo
- Animal Production and Health Laboratory, FAO/IAEA Agriculture and Biotechnology Laboratory, IAEA Laboratories Seibersdorf, International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Vienna, Austria
- UMR CIRAD INRA, Animal, Santé, Territoires, Risques et Ecosystèmes (ASTRE), Montpellier, France
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10
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Examination of multiple Trypanosoma cruzi targets in a new drug discovery approach for Chagas disease. Bioorg Med Chem 2022; 58:116577. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2021.116577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2021] [Revised: 12/10/2021] [Accepted: 12/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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Pauli I, Rezende CDO, Slafer BW, Dessoy MA, de Souza ML, Ferreira LLG, Adjanohun ALM, Ferreira RS, Magalhães LG, Krogh R, Michelan-Duarte S, Del Pintor RV, da Silva FBR, Cruz FC, Dias LC, Andricopulo AD. Multiparameter Optimization of Trypanocidal Cruzain Inhibitors With In Vivo Activity and Favorable Pharmacokinetics. Front Pharmacol 2022; 12:774069. [PMID: 35069198 PMCID: PMC8767159 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.774069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2021] [Accepted: 11/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Cruzain, the main cysteine protease of Trypanosoma cruzi, plays key roles in all stages of the parasite's life cycle, including nutrition acquisition, differentiation, evasion of the host immune system, and invasion of host cells. Thus, inhibition of this validated target may lead to the development of novel drugs for the treatment of Chagas disease. In this study, a multiparameter optimization (MPO) approach, molecular modeling, and structure-activity relationships (SARs) were employed for the identification of new benzimidazole derivatives as potent competitive inhibitors of cruzain with trypanocidal activity and suitable pharmacokinetics. Extensive pharmacokinetic studies enabled the identification of metabolically stable and permeable compounds with high selectivity indices. CYP3A4 was found to be involved in the main metabolic pathway, and the identification of metabolic soft spots provided insights into molecular optimization. Compound 28, which showed a promising trade-off between pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics, caused no acute toxicity and reduced parasite burden both in vitro and in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivani Pauli
- Laboratório de Química Medicinal e Computacional, Instituto de Física de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Celso de O Rezende
- Instituto de Química, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
| | - Brian W Slafer
- Instituto de Química, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
| | - Marco A Dessoy
- Instituto de Química, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
| | - Mariana L de Souza
- Laboratório de Química Medicinal e Computacional, Instituto de Física de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Leonardo L G Ferreira
- Laboratório de Química Medicinal e Computacional, Instituto de Física de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Abraham L M Adjanohun
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Rafaela S Ferreira
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Luma G Magalhães
- Laboratório de Química Medicinal e Computacional, Instituto de Física de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Renata Krogh
- Laboratório de Química Medicinal e Computacional, Instituto de Física de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Simone Michelan-Duarte
- Laboratório de Química Medicinal e Computacional, Instituto de Física de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, São Carlos, Brazil
| | | | | | - Fabio C Cruz
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Luiz C Dias
- Instituto de Química, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
| | - Adriano D Andricopulo
- Laboratório de Química Medicinal e Computacional, Instituto de Física de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, São Carlos, Brazil
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12
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Cullen DR, Gallagher A, Duncan CL, Pengon J, Rattanajak R, Chaplin J, Gunosewoyo H, Kamchonwongpaisan S, Payne A, Mocerino M. Synthesis and evaluation of tetrahydroisoquinoline derivatives against Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense. Eur J Med Chem 2021; 226:113861. [PMID: 34624822 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2021.113861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2021] [Revised: 09/16/2021] [Accepted: 09/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT) is a neglected tropical disease caused by the parasitic protozoan Trypanosoma brucei (T. b.), and affects communities in sub-Saharan Africa. Previously, analogues of a tetrahydroisoquinoline scaffold were reported as having in vitro activity (IC50 = 0.25-70.5 μM) against T. b. rhodesiense. In this study the synthesis and antitrypanosomal activity of 80 compounds based around a core tetrahydroisoquinoline scaffold are reported. A detailed structure activity relationship was revealed, and five derivatives (two of which have been previously reported) with inhibition of T. b. rhodesiense growth in the sub-micromolar range were identified. Four of these (3c, 12b, 17b and 26a) were also found to have good selectivity over mammalian cells (SI > 50). Calculated logD values and preliminary ADME studies predict that these compounds are likely to have good absorption and metabolic stability, with the ability to passively permeate the blood brain barrier. This makes them excellent leads for a blood-brain barrier permeable antitrypanosomal scaffold.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danica R Cullen
- School of Molecular and Life Sciences - Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, WA, 6845, Australia
| | - Ashlee Gallagher
- School of Molecular and Life Sciences - Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, WA, 6845, Australia.
| | - Caitlin L Duncan
- School of Molecular and Life Sciences - Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, WA, 6845, Australia
| | - Jutharat Pengon
- BIOTEC Medical Molecular Biotechnology Research Group - National Science and Technology Development Agency, 113 Thailand Science Park, Phahonyothin Road, Khlong Luang, Pathum Thani, 12120, Thailand
| | - Roonglawan Rattanajak
- BIOTEC Medical Molecular Biotechnology Research Group - National Science and Technology Development Agency, 113 Thailand Science Park, Phahonyothin Road, Khlong Luang, Pathum Thani, 12120, Thailand
| | - Jason Chaplin
- Epichem Pty Ltd. Suite 5, 3 Brodie-Hall Drive Bentley, WA, 6102, Australia
| | - Hendra Gunosewoyo
- Curtin Medical School - Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, WA, 6845, Australia
| | - Sumalee Kamchonwongpaisan
- BIOTEC Medical Molecular Biotechnology Research Group - National Science and Technology Development Agency, 113 Thailand Science Park, Phahonyothin Road, Khlong Luang, Pathum Thani, 12120, Thailand
| | - Alan Payne
- School of Molecular and Life Sciences - Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, WA, 6845, Australia
| | - Mauro Mocerino
- School of Molecular and Life Sciences - Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, WA, 6845, Australia.
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13
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Alves L, Santos DA, Cendron R, Rocho FR, Matos TKB, Leitão A, Montanari CA. Nitrile-based peptoids as cysteine protease inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem 2021; 41:116211. [PMID: 33991733 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2021.116211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2021] [Revised: 04/28/2021] [Accepted: 04/30/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Peptidomimetics of the class of dipeptidyl nitrile analog peptoids were synthesized as inhibitors of mammalian cysteine proteases of the papain superfamily. The dipeptidyl nitrile side chains were attached to the peptide backbone's nitrogen atom, not to the α-carbons. Synthesized nitrile-based peptoid analogs that lack the hydrogen amide at P2-P3 are responsible for many of the secondary structure elements in peptides and proteins, making them resistant to proteolysis. The designed peptoids would lose a hydrogen bond with cruzain Asp161 decreasing the affinity toward the enzyme. A structure-activity relationship and matched molecular pair-based analysis between the dipeptidyl nitrile Neq0409 and its peptoid 4a yielded the following cruzain affinities: pKiNeq0409 = 6.5 and pKi4a = 5.2. respectively. A retrosynthetic matched molecular pair cliff (RMMP-cliff) analysis with a ΔpKiNeq0409-4a of 1.3 log is found for this transformation. These novel peptoids were then optimized, leading to compound 4i, with high cruzain inhibition (pKi = 6.8). Cross-class cathepsin activity was observed for some of these novel compounds against cathepsins K, L and S, while other compounds presented a selective inhibition of cathepsin K (4b, 4c, 4k) over ten times higher than the other enzymes. The putative mode of binding was determined by using covalent docking, which also aided to describe the structure-activity relationship (SAR). Interestingly, none of the peptoids inhibited CatB to any appreciable extent. These results provide guidance to identify novel bioactive nitrile-based peptoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luana Alves
- Medicinal and Biological Chemistry Group (NEQUIMED), Institute of Chemistry of São Carlos, University of São Paulo, São Carlos/SP, Brazil
| | - Deborah A Santos
- Medicinal and Biological Chemistry Group (NEQUIMED), Institute of Chemistry of São Carlos, University of São Paulo, São Carlos/SP, Brazil.
| | - Rodrigo Cendron
- Medicinal and Biological Chemistry Group (NEQUIMED), Institute of Chemistry of São Carlos, University of São Paulo, São Carlos/SP, Brazil
| | - Fernanda R Rocho
- Medicinal and Biological Chemistry Group (NEQUIMED), Institute of Chemistry of São Carlos, University of São Paulo, São Carlos/SP, Brazil
| | - Thiago K B Matos
- Medicinal and Biological Chemistry Group (NEQUIMED), Institute of Chemistry of São Carlos, University of São Paulo, São Carlos/SP, Brazil
| | - Andrei Leitão
- Medicinal and Biological Chemistry Group (NEQUIMED), Institute of Chemistry of São Carlos, University of São Paulo, São Carlos/SP, Brazil.
| | - Carlos A Montanari
- Medicinal and Biological Chemistry Group (NEQUIMED), Institute of Chemistry of São Carlos, University of São Paulo, São Carlos/SP, Brazil
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14
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Silva LR, Guimarães AS, do Nascimento J, do Santos Nascimento IJ, da Silva EB, McKerrow JH, Cardoso SH, da Silva-Júnior EF. Computer-aided design of 1,4-naphthoquinone-based inhibitors targeting cruzain and rhodesain cysteine proteases. Bioorg Med Chem 2021; 41:116213. [PMID: 33992862 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2021.116213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2021] [Revised: 04/23/2021] [Accepted: 05/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Chagas disease and Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT) are caused by Trypanosoma cruzi and T. brucei parasites, respectively. Cruzain (CRZ) and Rhodesain (RhD) are cysteine proteases that share 70% of identity and play vital functions in these parasites. These macromolecules represent promising targets for designing new inhibitors. In this context, 26 CRZ and 5 RhD 3D-structures were evaluated by molecular redocking to identify the most accurate one to be utilized as a target. Posteriorly, a virtual screening of a library containing 120 small natural and nature-based compounds was performed on both of them. In total, 14 naphthoquinone-based analogs were identified, synthesized, and biologically evaluated. In total, five compounds were active against RhD, being three of them also active on CRZ. A derivative of 1,4-naphthoquinonepyridin-2-ylsulfonamide was found to be the most active molecule, exhibiting IC50 values of 6.3 and 1.8 µM for CRZ and RhD, respectively. Dynamic simulations at 100 ns demonstrated good stability and do not alter the targets' structures. MM-PBSA calculations revealed that it presents a higher affinity for RhD (-25.3 Kcal mol-1) than CRZ, in which van der Waals interactions were more relevant. A mechanistic hypothesis (via C3-Michael-addition reaction) involving a covalent mode of inhibition for this compound towards RhD was investigated by covalent molecular docking and DFT B3LYP/6-31 + G* calculations, exhibiting a low activation energy (ΔG‡) and providing a stable product (ΔG), with values of 7.78 and - 39.72 Kcal mol-1, respectively; similar to data found in the literature. Nevertheless, a reversibility assay by dilution revealed that JN-11 is a time-dependent and reversible inhibitor. Finally, this study applies modern computer-aided techniques to identify promising inhibitors from a well-known chemical class of natural products. Then, this work could inspire other future studies in the field, being useful for designing potent naphthoquinones as RhD inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leandro Rocha Silva
- Chemistry and Biotechnology Institute, Federal University of Alagoas, Campus A.C. Simões, Lourival Melo Mota Avenue, Maceió 57072-970, Brazil; Laboratory of Organic and Medicinal Synthesis, Federal University of Alagoas, Campus Arapiraca, Manoel Severino Barbosa Avenue, Arapiraca 57309-005, Brazil
| | - Ari Souza Guimarães
- Chemistry and Biotechnology Institute, Federal University of Alagoas, Campus A.C. Simões, Lourival Melo Mota Avenue, Maceió 57072-970, Brazil; Laboratory of Organic and Medicinal Synthesis, Federal University of Alagoas, Campus Arapiraca, Manoel Severino Barbosa Avenue, Arapiraca 57309-005, Brazil
| | - Jadiely do Nascimento
- Laboratory of Organic and Medicinal Synthesis, Federal University of Alagoas, Campus Arapiraca, Manoel Severino Barbosa Avenue, Arapiraca 57309-005, Brazil
| | - Igor José do Santos Nascimento
- Chemistry and Biotechnology Institute, Federal University of Alagoas, Campus A.C. Simões, Lourival Melo Mota Avenue, Maceió 57072-970, Brazil
| | - Elany Barbosa da Silva
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - James H McKerrow
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Sílvia Helena Cardoso
- Laboratory of Organic and Medicinal Synthesis, Federal University of Alagoas, Campus Arapiraca, Manoel Severino Barbosa Avenue, Arapiraca 57309-005, Brazil
| | - Edeildo Ferreira da Silva-Júnior
- Chemistry and Biotechnology Institute, Federal University of Alagoas, Campus A.C. Simões, Lourival Melo Mota Avenue, Maceió 57072-970, Brazil.
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15
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Medeiros AR, Ferreira LLG, de Souza ML, de Oliveira Rezende Junior C, Espinoza-Chávez RM, Dias LC, Andricopulo AD. Chemoinformatics Studies on a Series of Imidazoles as Cruzain Inhibitors. Biomolecules 2021; 11:biom11040579. [PMID: 33920961 PMCID: PMC8071344 DOI: 10.3390/biom11040579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2021] [Revised: 04/05/2021] [Accepted: 04/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural products based on imidazole scaffolds have inspired the discovery of a wide variety of bioactive compounds. Herein, a series of imidazoles that act as competitive and potent cruzain inhibitors was investigated using a combination of ligand- and structure-based drug design strategies. Quantitative structure-activity relationships (QSARs) were generated along with the investigation of enzyme-inhibitor molecular interactions. Predictive hologram QSAR (HQSAR, r2pred = 0.80) and AutoQSAR (q2 = 0.90) models were built, and key structural properties that underpin cruzain inhibition were identified. Moreover, comparative molecular field analysis (CoMFA, r2pred = 0.81) and comparative molecular similarity indices analysis (CoMSIA, r2pred = 0.73) revealed 3D molecular features that strongly affect the activity of the inhibitors. These findings were examined along with molecular docking studies and were highly compatible with the intermolecular contacts that take place between cruzain and the inhibitors. The results gathered herein revealed the main factors that determine the activity of the imidazoles studied and provide novel knowledge for the design of improved cruzain inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex R. Medeiros
- Laboratório de Química Medicinal e Computacional, Centro de Pesquisa e Inovação em Biodiversidade e Fármacos, Instituto de Física de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. João Dagnone 1100, São Carlos, SP 13563-120, Brazil; (A.R.M.); (L.L.G.F.); (M.L.d.S.)
| | - Leonardo L. G. Ferreira
- Laboratório de Química Medicinal e Computacional, Centro de Pesquisa e Inovação em Biodiversidade e Fármacos, Instituto de Física de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. João Dagnone 1100, São Carlos, SP 13563-120, Brazil; (A.R.M.); (L.L.G.F.); (M.L.d.S.)
| | - Mariana L. de Souza
- Laboratório de Química Medicinal e Computacional, Centro de Pesquisa e Inovação em Biodiversidade e Fármacos, Instituto de Física de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. João Dagnone 1100, São Carlos, SP 13563-120, Brazil; (A.R.M.); (L.L.G.F.); (M.L.d.S.)
| | | | - Rocío Marisol Espinoza-Chávez
- Instituto de Química, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, SP 13084-971, Brazil; (C.d.O.R.J.); (R.M.E.-C.); (L.C.D.)
| | - Luiz Carlos Dias
- Instituto de Química, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, SP 13084-971, Brazil; (C.d.O.R.J.); (R.M.E.-C.); (L.C.D.)
| | - Adriano D. Andricopulo
- Laboratório de Química Medicinal e Computacional, Centro de Pesquisa e Inovação em Biodiversidade e Fármacos, Instituto de Física de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. João Dagnone 1100, São Carlos, SP 13563-120, Brazil; (A.R.M.); (L.L.G.F.); (M.L.d.S.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +55-16-33739844
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16
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Rosas-Jimenez JG, Garcia-Revilla MA, Madariaga-Mazon A, Martinez-Mayorga K. Predictive Global Models of Cruzain Inhibitors with Large Chemical Coverage. ACS OMEGA 2021; 6:6722-6735. [PMID: 33748586 PMCID: PMC7970485 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.0c05645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2020] [Accepted: 02/11/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Chagas disease affects 8-11 million people worldwide, most of them living in Latin America. Moreover, migratory phenomena have spread the infection beyond endemic areas. Efforts for the development of new pharmacological therapies are paramount as the pharmacological profile of the two marketed drugs currently available, nifurtimox and benznidazole, needs to be improved. Cruzain, a parasitic cysteine protease, is one of the most attractive biological targets due to its roles in parasite survival and immune evasion. In this work, we compiled and curated a database of diverse cruzain inhibitors previously reported in the literature. From this data set, quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) models for the prediction of their pIC50 values were generated using k-nearest neighbors and random forest algorithms. Local and global models were calculated and compared. The statistical parameters for internal and external validation indicate a significant predictability, with q loo 2 values around 0.66 and 0.61 and external R 2 coefficients of 0.725 and 0.766. The applicability domain is quantitatively defined, according to QSAR good practices, using the leverage and similarity methods. The models described in this work are readily available in a Python script for the discovery of novel cruzain inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose Guadalupe Rosas-Jimenez
- Division
de Ciencias Naturales y Exactas, Universidad
de Guanajuato, Guanajuato 36050, Mexico
- Instituto
de Quimica, Universidad Nacional Autonoma
de Mexico, Mexico
City 04510, Mexico
| | - Marco A. Garcia-Revilla
- Division
de Ciencias Naturales y Exactas, Universidad
de Guanajuato, Guanajuato 36050, Mexico
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17
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Kim TK, Tirloni L, Bencosme-Cuevas E, Kim TH, Diedrich JK, Yates JR, Mulenga A. Borrelia burgdorferi infection modifies protein content in saliva of Ixodes scapularis nymphs. BMC Genomics 2021; 22:152. [PMID: 33663385 PMCID: PMC7930271 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-021-07429-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2020] [Accepted: 02/08/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Lyme disease (LD) caused by Borrelia burgdorferi is the most prevalent tick-borne disease. There is evidence that vaccines based on tick proteins that promote tick transmission of B. burgdorferi could prevent LD. As Ixodes scapularis nymph tick bites are responsible for most LD cases, this study sought to identify nymph tick saliva proteins associated with B. burgdorferi transmission using LC-MS/MS. Tick saliva was collected using a non-invasive method of stimulating ticks (uninfected and infected: unfed, and every 12 h during feeding through 72 h, and fully-fed) to salivate into 2% pilocarpine-PBS for protein identification using LC-MS/MS. RESULTS We identified a combined 747 tick saliva proteins of uninfected and B. burgdorferi infected ticks that were classified into 25 functional categories: housekeeping-like (48%), unknown function (18%), protease inhibitors (9%), immune-related (6%), proteases (8%), extracellular matrix (7%), and small categories that account for <5% each. Notably, B. burgdorferi infected ticks secreted high number of saliva proteins (n=645) than uninfected ticks (n=376). Counter-intuitively, antimicrobial peptides, which function to block bacterial infection at tick feeding site were suppressed 23-85 folds in B. burgdorferi infected ticks. Similar to glycolysis enzymes being enhanced in mammalian cells exposed to B. burgdorferi : eight of the 10-glycolysis pathway enzymes were secreted at high abundance by B. burgdorferi infected ticks. Of significance, rabbits exposed to B. burgdorferi infected ticks acquired potent immunity that caused 40-60% mortality of B. burgdorferi infected ticks during the second infestation compared to 15-28% for the uninfected. This might be explained by ELISA data that show that high expression levels of immunogenic proteins in B. burgdorferi infected ticks. CONCLUSION Data here suggest that B. burgdorferi infection modified protein content in tick saliva to promote its survival at the tick feeding site. For instance, enzymes; copper/zinc superoxide dismutase that led to production of H2O2 that is toxic to B. burgdorferi were suppressed, while, catalase and thioredoxin that neutralize H2O2, and pyruvate kinase which yields pyruvate that protects Bb from H2O2 killing were enhanced. We conclude data here is an important resource for discovery of effective antigens for a vaccine to prevent LD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tae Kwon Kim
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, United States of America
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, United States of America
| | - Lucas Tirloni
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, United States of America
- Laboratory of Bacteriology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Hamilton, Montana, United States of America
| | - Emily Bencosme-Cuevas
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, United States of America
| | - Tae Heung Kim
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, United States of America
| | - Jolene K Diedrich
- Department of Molecular Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, United States of America
- Mass Spectrometry Core, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - John R Yates
- Department of Molecular Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Albert Mulenga
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, United States of America.
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de Castro Andreassa E, Santos MDMD, Wassmandorf R, Wippel HH, Carvalho PC, Fischer JDSDG, Souza TDACBD. Proteomic changes in Trypanosoma cruzi epimastigotes treated with the proapoptotic compound PAC-1. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2020; 1869:140582. [PMID: 33285319 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2020.140582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2020] [Revised: 10/23/2020] [Accepted: 11/30/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Apoptosis is a highly regulated process of cell death in metazoans. Therefore, understanding the biochemical changes associated with apoptosis-like death in Trypanosoma cruzi is key to drug development. PAC-1 was recently shown to induce apoptosis in T. cruzi; with this as motivation, we used quantitative proteomics to unveil alterations of PAC-1-treated versus untreated epimastigotes. The PAC-1 treatment reduced the abundance of putative vesicle-associated membrane protein, putative eukaryotic translation initiation factor 1 eIF1, coatomer subunit beta, putative amastin, and a putative cytoskeleton-associated protein. Apoptosis-like signaling also increases the abundance of proteins associated with actin cytoskeleton remodeling, cell polarization, apoptotic signaling, phosphorylation, methylation, ergosterol biosynthesis, vacuolar proteins associated with autophagy, and flagellum motility. We shortlist seventeen protein targets for possible use in chemotherapy for Chagas disease. Almost all differentially abundant proteins belong to a family of proteins previously associated with apoptosis in metazoans, suggesting that the apoptotic pathway's key functions have been preserved from trypanosomatids and metazoans. SIGNIFICANCE: Approximately 8 million people worldwide are infected with Trypanosoma cruzi. The treatment of Chagas disease comprises drugs with severe side effects, thus limiting their application. Thus, developing new pharmaceutical solutions is relevant, and several molecules targeting apoptosis are therapeutically efficient for parasitic, cardiac, and neurological diseases. Apoptotic processes lead to specific morphological features that have been previously observed in T. cruzi. Here, we investigate changes in epimastigotes' proteomic profile treated with the proapoptotic compound PAC-1, providing data concerning the regulation of both metabolic and cellular processes in nonmetazoan apoptotic cells. We shortlist seventeen protein target candidates for use in chemotherapy for Chagas disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emanuella de Castro Andreassa
- Structural and Computational Proteomics Laboratory, Carlos Chagas Institute, FIOCRUZ-PR, Curitiba, PR, 80320-290, Brazil
| | - Marlon Dias Mariano Dos Santos
- Structural and Computational Proteomics Laboratory, Carlos Chagas Institute, FIOCRUZ-PR, Curitiba, PR, 80320-290, Brazil
| | - Rafaela Wassmandorf
- Structural and Computational Proteomics Laboratory, Carlos Chagas Institute, FIOCRUZ-PR, Curitiba, PR, 80320-290, Brazil
| | - Helisa Helena Wippel
- Structural and Computational Proteomics Laboratory, Carlos Chagas Institute, FIOCRUZ-PR, Curitiba, PR, 80320-290, Brazil
| | - Paulo Costa Carvalho
- Structural and Computational Proteomics Laboratory, Carlos Chagas Institute, FIOCRUZ-PR, Curitiba, PR, 80320-290, Brazil
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19
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Update on relevant trypanosome peptidases: Validated targets and future challenges. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2020; 1869:140577. [PMID: 33271348 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2020.140577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2020] [Revised: 11/09/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi, the agent of the American Trypanosomiasis, Chagas disease, and Trypanosoma brucei gambiense and Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, the agents of Sleeping sickness (Human African Trypanosomiasis, HAT), as well as Trypanosoma brucei brucei, the agent of the cattle disease nagana, contain cysteine, serine, threonine, aspartyl and metallo peptidases. The most abundant among these enzymes are the cysteine proteases from the Clan CA, the Cathepsin L-like cruzipain and rhodesain, and the Cathepsin B-like enzymes, which have essential roles in the parasites and thus are potential targets for chemotherapy. In addition, several other proteases, present in one or both parasites, have been characterized, and some of them are also promising candidates for the developing of new drugs. Recently, new inhibitors, with good selectivity for the parasite proteasomes, have been described and are very promising as lead compounds for the development of new therapies for these neglected diseases. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: "Play and interplay of proteases in health and disease".
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20
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da Silva CFN, Chrispim PBH, Possato B, Portapilla GB, Rohrabaugh TN, Ramos LCB, Santana da Silva R, de Albuquerque S, Turro C, Nikolaou S. Anticancer and antitrypanosomal activities of trinuclear ruthenium compounds with orthometalated phenazine ligands. Dalton Trans 2020; 49:16440-16452. [PMID: 32776028 DOI: 10.1039/d0dt01035a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Trinuclear ruthenium complexes with orthometalated phenazines of general formula [Ru3(μ3-O)(μ2-OAc)5(L)(py)2]PF6 (L = dppn, benzo[i]dipyrido[3,2-a:2',3'-c]phenazine, 1; dppz, dipyrido[3,2-a:2',3'-c]phenazine, 2; CH3-dppz, 7-methyldipyrido[3,2-a:2',3'-c]phenazine, 3; Cl-dppz, 7-chlorodipyrido[3,2-a:2',3'-c]phenazine, 4) were investigated for their cytotoxic activity toward the B16F10 murine melanoma and the L929 non-cancer cell lines and against Trypanosoma cruzi (2-4). This study also reports a multi-technique investigation into how complexes 1-4 interact with DNA and human serum albumin, HSA. At concentrations ranging from 2 to 50 μM, all the complexes reduced B16F10 murine melanoma cell viability by over 50%. Complex 4 had the highest cytotoxic effect in the series, diminishing B16F10 cell viability to 38% at 2 μM, with an overall order for anticancer activity of 4 > 2 > 3 > 1. Complexes 2-4 showed remarkable activity in inhibiting epimastigote and amastigote forms of T. cruzi. Complex 2 showed better antitrypanosomal activity than the reference drug (IC50 = 1.19 μM and IC50 = 0.25 μM for epimastigote and amastigotes forms, respectivily). Ethidium bromide (EB) displacement assays showed that DNA intercalation progressively increases with the extension of the π-conjugation of the cyclometalating ligand and the presence of substituents in the phenazinic portion (1 > 4-3 > 2), showing that complex 1 is a stronger intercalator than EB itself (Kapp > 107 M-1). Viscosity measurements followed the same trend. Cytotoxicity against cancer cells and antitrypanosomal activity follow the same order, which is different to the tendency of DNA intercalation, suggesting DNA is not the main target of these complexes. Compound 1-4 showed very high affinity with HSA (Kb ∼109 M-1). Circular dichroism results also showed that the complexes alter significantly the secondary structure of the HSA, lowering the α-helix % from 86.2 (pure protein) to less than 5% for compounds 1, 2 and 4 at 2.8 μM. These findings demonstrated the important role of phenazines for the biological activity of triruthenium compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camila Fontes Neves da Silva
- LABIQSC2 (Laboratório de Atividade Biológica e Química Supramolecular de Compostos de Coordenação), Departamento de Química, Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Bandeirantes 3900, 14040-901, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil.
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21
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Robinson WJ, Taylor AE, Lauga-Cami S, Weaver GW, Arroo RRJ, Kaiser M, Gul S, Kuzikov M, Ellinger B, Singh K, Schirmeister T, Botana A, Eurtivong C, Bhambra AS. The discovery of novel antitrypanosomal 4-phenyl-6-(pyridin-3-yl)pyrimidines. Eur J Med Chem 2020; 209:112871. [PMID: 33070078 PMCID: PMC7762786 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2020.112871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Revised: 09/10/2020] [Accepted: 09/19/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Human African trypanosomiasis, or sleeping sickness, is a neglected tropical disease caused by Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense and Trypanosoma brucei gambiense which seriously affects human health in Africa. Current therapies present limitations in their application, parasite resistance, or require further clinical investigation for wider use. Our work herein describes the design and syntheses of novel antitrypanosomal 4-phenyl-6-(pyridin-3-yl)pyrimidines, with compound 13, the 4-(2-methoxyphenyl)-6-(pyridine-3-yl)pyrimidin-2-amine demonstrating an IC50 value of 0.38 μM and a promising off-target ADME-Tox profile in vitro. In silico molecular target investigations showed rhodesain to be a putative candidate, supported by STD and WaterLOGSY NMR experiments, however, in vitro evaluation of compound 13 against rhodesain exhibited low experimental inhibition. Therefore, our reported library of drug-like pyrimidines present promising scaffolds for further antikinetoplastid drug development for both phenotypic and target-based drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- William J Robinson
- Leicester School of Allied Health Sciences, De Montfort University, The Gateway, Leicester, LE1 9BH, UK
| | - Annie E Taylor
- Leicester School of Allied Health Sciences, De Montfort University, The Gateway, Leicester, LE1 9BH, UK
| | - Solange Lauga-Cami
- Leicester School of Allied Health Sciences, De Montfort University, The Gateway, Leicester, LE1 9BH, UK
| | - George W Weaver
- Department of Chemistry, Loughborough University, Loughborough, LE11 3TU, UK
| | - Randolph R J Arroo
- Leicester School of Pharmacy, De Montfort University, The Gateway, Leicester, LE1 9BH, UK
| | - Marcel Kaiser
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, 4051, Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, 4003, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Sheraz Gul
- Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology Screening Port, Hamburg, Germany; Fraunhofer Cluster of Excellence Immune-Mediated Diseases CIMD, Hamburg Site, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Maria Kuzikov
- Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology Screening Port, Hamburg, Germany; Fraunhofer Cluster of Excellence Immune-Mediated Diseases CIMD, Hamburg Site, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Bernhard Ellinger
- Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology Screening Port, Hamburg, Germany; Fraunhofer Cluster of Excellence Immune-Mediated Diseases CIMD, Hamburg Site, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Kuldip Singh
- Department of Chemistry, University of Leicester, Leicester, LE1 7RH, UK
| | - Tanja Schirmeister
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz, Staudingerweg 5, D-55128, Mainz, Germany
| | - Adolfo Botana
- JEOL UK, JEOL House, Silvert Court, Watchmead, Welwyn Garden City, Herts, AL7 1LT, UK
| | - Chatchakorn Eurtivong
- Program in Chemical Sciences, Chulabhorn Graduate Institute, Chulabhorn Royal Academy, Bangkok, 10210, Thailand
| | - Avninder S Bhambra
- Leicester School of Allied Health Sciences, De Montfort University, The Gateway, Leicester, LE1 9BH, UK.
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22
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The role of imidazole and benzimidazole heterocycles in Chagas disease: A review. Eur J Med Chem 2020; 206:112692. [PMID: 32818869 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2020.112692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2020] [Revised: 07/21/2020] [Accepted: 07/24/2020] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The haemoflagellate protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi (T. cruzi) is the causative agent of Chagas disease (CD), a potentially life-threatening disease. Little by little, remarkable progress has been achieved against CD, although it is still not enough. In the absence of effective chemotherapy, many research groups, organizations and pharmaceutical companies have focused their efforts on the search for compounds that could become viable drugs against CD. Within the wide variety of reported derivatives, this review summarizes and provides a global vision of the situation of those compounds that include broadly studied heterocycles in their structures due to their applications in medicinal chemistry: imidazole and benzimidazole rings. Therefore, the intention of this work is to present a compilation, as much as possible, of all the reported information, regarding these imidazole and benzimidazole derivatives against T. cruzi, as a starting point for future researchers in this field.
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23
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Benzimidazole inhibitors of the major cysteine protease of Trypanosoma brucei. Future Med Chem 2020; 11:1537-1551. [PMID: 31469332 DOI: 10.4155/fmc-2018-0523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Aim: Limitations in available therapies for trypanosomiases indicate the need for improved medicines. Cysteine proteases cruzain and rhodesain are validated targets for treatment of Chagas disease and human African trypanosomiasis. Previous studies reported a benzimidazole series as potent cruzain inhibitors. Results & methodology: Considering the high similarity between these proteases, we evaluated 40 benzimidazoles against rhodesain. We describe their structure-activity relationships (SAR), revealing trends similar to those observed for cruzain and features that lead to enzyme selectivity. This series comprises noncovalent competitive inhibitors (best Ki = 0.21 μM against rhodesain) and micromolar activity against Trypanosoma brucei brucei. A cheminformatics analysis confirms scaffold novelty, and the inhibitors described have favorable predicted physicochemical properties. Conclusion: Our results support this series as a starting point for new human African trypanosomiasis medicines.
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24
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Santiago NN, de Alcântara GP, da Costa JS, Carvalho SA, Barbosa JM, Salomão K, de Castro SL, Pereira HM, da Silva EF. Synthesis and Antitrypanosomal Profile of Novel Hydrazonoyl Derivatives. Med Chem 2020; 16:487-494. [DOI: 10.2174/1573406415666190712115237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2018] [Revised: 05/24/2019] [Accepted: 06/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Background:
Approximately, 5-7 million people are infected with T. cruzi in the world,
and approximately 10,000 people per year die of complications linked to this disease.
Method:
This work describes the construction of a new family of hidrazonoyl substituted derivatives,
structurally designed exploring the molecular hybridization between megazol and nitrofurazone.
Results and Discussion:
The compounds were evaluated for their in vitro activity against bloodstream
trypomastigotes of Trypanosoma cruzi, etiological agent of Chagas disease, and for their
potential toxicity to mammalian cells.
Conclusion:
Among these hydrazonoyl derivatives, we identified the derivative (4) that showed
trypanocidal activity (IC50/24 h = 15.0 µM) similar to Bz, the standard drug, and low toxicity to
mammalian cells, reaching an SI value of 18.7.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natália N. Santiago
- Instituto de Tecnologia em Farmacos, Farmanguinhos, Laboratorio de sintese 1, Fundacao Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Giulianna P. de Alcântara
- Instituto de Tecnologia em Farmacos, Farmanguinhos, Laboratorio de sintese 1, Fundacao Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Juliana S. da Costa
- Instituto de Tecnologia em Farmacos, Farmanguinhos, Laboratorio de sintese 1, Fundacao Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Samir A. Carvalho
- Instituto de Tecnologia em Farmacos, Farmanguinhos, Laboratorio de sintese 1, Fundacao Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Juliana M.C. Barbosa
- Laboratorio de Biologia Celular, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundacao Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Kelly Salomão
- Laboratorio de Biologia Celular, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundacao Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Solange L. de Castro
- Laboratorio de Biologia Celular, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundacao Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Henrique M.G. Pereira
- Programa de Pos-Graduacao em Quimica, Instituto de Quimica, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Edson F. da Silva
- Instituto de Tecnologia em Farmacos, Farmanguinhos, Laboratorio de sintese 1, Fundacao Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
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25
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Klein P, Barthels F, Johe P, Wagner A, Tenzer S, Distler U, Le TA, Schmid P, Engel V, Engels B, Hellmich UA, Opatz T, Schirmeister T. Naphthoquinones as Covalent Reversible Inhibitors of Cysteine Proteases-Studies on Inhibition Mechanism and Kinetics. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25092064. [PMID: 32354191 PMCID: PMC7248907 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25092064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2020] [Revised: 04/16/2020] [Accepted: 04/21/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The facile synthesis and detailed investigation of a class of highly potent protease inhibitors based on 1,4-naphthoquinones with a dipeptidic recognition motif (HN-l-Phe-l-Leu-OR) in the 2-position and an electron-withdrawing group (EWG) in the 3-position is presented. One of the compound representatives, namely the acid with EWG = CN and with R = H proved to be a highly potent rhodesain inhibitor with nanomolar affinity. The respective benzyl ester (R = Bn) was found to be hydrolyzed by the target enzyme itself yielding the free acid. Detailed kinetic and mass spectrometry studies revealed a reversible covalent binding mode. Theoretical calculations with different density functionals (DFT) as well as wavefunction-based approaches were performed to elucidate the mode of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Klein
- Department of Chemistry, Organic Chemistry Section, Johannes Gutenberg-Universität, Duesbergweg 10-14, 55128 Mainz, Germany;
| | - Fabian Barthels
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, Johannes Gutenberg-Universität, Staudingerweg 5, 55128 Mainz, Germany; (F.B.); (P.J.)
| | - Patrick Johe
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, Johannes Gutenberg-Universität, Staudingerweg 5, 55128 Mainz, Germany; (F.B.); (P.J.)
| | - Annika Wagner
- Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry Section, Johannes Gutenberg-Universität, Johann-Joachim Becherweg 30, 55128 Mainz, Germany; (A.W.); (U.A.H.)
| | - Stefan Tenzer
- Institute of Immunology, University Medical Center, Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz, Langenbeckstr. 1, 55131 Mainz, Germany; (S.T.); (U.D.)
| | - Ute Distler
- Institute of Immunology, University Medical Center, Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz, Langenbeckstr. 1, 55131 Mainz, Germany; (S.T.); (U.D.)
| | - Thien Anh Le
- Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, Universität Würzburg, Emil-Fischer-Straße 42, 97074 Würzburg, Germany; (T.A.L.); (P.S.); (V.E.); (B.E.)
| | - Paul Schmid
- Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, Universität Würzburg, Emil-Fischer-Straße 42, 97074 Würzburg, Germany; (T.A.L.); (P.S.); (V.E.); (B.E.)
| | - Volker Engel
- Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, Universität Würzburg, Emil-Fischer-Straße 42, 97074 Würzburg, Germany; (T.A.L.); (P.S.); (V.E.); (B.E.)
| | - Bernd Engels
- Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, Universität Würzburg, Emil-Fischer-Straße 42, 97074 Würzburg, Germany; (T.A.L.); (P.S.); (V.E.); (B.E.)
| | - Ute A. Hellmich
- Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry Section, Johannes Gutenberg-Universität, Johann-Joachim Becherweg 30, 55128 Mainz, Germany; (A.W.); (U.A.H.)
- Centre for Biomolecular Magnetic Resonance (BMRZ), Goethe-University Frankfurt, 60323 Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Till Opatz
- Department of Chemistry, Organic Chemistry Section, Johannes Gutenberg-Universität, Duesbergweg 10-14, 55128 Mainz, Germany;
- Correspondence: (T.O.); (T.S.); Tel.: +49-(0)6131-39-22272 (T.O.); +49-(0)6131-39-25742 (T.S.)
| | - Tanja Schirmeister
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, Johannes Gutenberg-Universität, Staudingerweg 5, 55128 Mainz, Germany; (F.B.); (P.J.)
- Correspondence: (T.O.); (T.S.); Tel.: +49-(0)6131-39-22272 (T.O.); +49-(0)6131-39-25742 (T.S.)
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26
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New Cysteine Protease Inhibitors: Electrophilic (Het)arenes and Unexpected Prodrug Identification for the Trypanosoma Protease Rhodesain. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25061451. [PMID: 32210166 PMCID: PMC7145299 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25061451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2020] [Revised: 03/07/2020] [Accepted: 03/13/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Electrophilic (het)arenes can undergo reactions with nucleophiles yielding π- or Meisenheimer (σ-) complexes or the products of the SNAr addition/elimination reactions. Such building blocks have only rarely been employed for the design of enzyme inhibitors. Herein, we demonstrate the combination of a peptidic recognition sequence with such electrophilic (het)arenes to generate highly active inhibitors of disease-relevant proteases. We further elucidate an unexpected mode of action for the trypanosomal protease rhodesain using NMR spectroscopy and mass spectrometry, enzyme kinetics and various types of simulations. After hydrolysis of an ester function in the recognition sequence of a weakly active prodrug inhibitor, the liberated carboxylic acid represents a highly potent inhibitor of rhodesain (Ki = 4.0 nM). The simulations indicate that, after the cleavage of the ester, the carboxylic acid leaves the active site and re-binds to the enzyme in an orientation that allows the formation of a very stable π-complex between the catalytic dyad (Cys-25/His-162) of rhodesain and the electrophilic aromatic moiety. The reversible inhibition mode results because the SNAr reaction, which is found in an alkaline solvent containing a low molecular weight thiol, is hindered within the enzyme due to the presence of the positively charged imidazolium ring of His-162. Comparisons between measured and calculated NMR shifts support this interpretation.
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27
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Eyssen LEA, Coetzer TH. Validation of ligands targeting metacaspase-2 (MCA2) from Trypanosoma brucei brucei and their application to MCA5 from T. congolense as possible trypanocides. J Mol Graph Model 2020; 97:107579. [PMID: 32197135 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmgm.2020.107579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2019] [Revised: 03/01/2020] [Accepted: 03/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Metacaspases (MCAs) are ideal drug and diagnostic targets for animal and human African trypanosomiasis, as these cysteine peptidases are absent from the metazoan kingdom and have been implicated in the parasite cell cycle and cell death. Tsetse fly-transmitted trypanosomes that live free in the bloodstream and/or cerebrospinal fluid of the mammalian host cause animal and human African trypanosomiasis (nagana or sleeping sickness respectively). Chemotherapy and chemoprophylaxis are the main forms of control, but in contrast to human trypanocides, the veterinary drugs are old and drug resistance is on the increase. A peptidomimetic library targeting the MCA2 from Trypanosoma brucei brucei has ligands with low IC50 values, some of which were antiparasitic. This study validates the inhibitory activity of these ligands using the protein structure solved by X-ray diffraction after the ligand library was published. Water molecules were shown to be important in substrate binding and strategies to improve the efficacy of these ligands are highlighted. These ligands appear to be pan-specific as they were docked into the active site of the homology modelled MCA5 of animal infective Trypanosoma congolense with similar binding energies and conformations.
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Affiliation(s)
- L E-A Eyssen
- Biochemistry, School of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal (Pietermaritzburg Campus), Private Bag X01, Scottsville, 3209, South Africa
| | - Theresa Ht Coetzer
- Biochemistry, School of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal (Pietermaritzburg Campus), Private Bag X01, Scottsville, 3209, South Africa.
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28
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da Costa CHS, Bonatto V, Dos Santos AM, Lameira J, Leitão A, Montanari CA. Evaluating QM/MM Free Energy Surfaces for Ranking Cysteine Protease Covalent Inhibitors. J Chem Inf Model 2020; 60:880-889. [PMID: 31944110 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jcim.9b00847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
One tactic for cysteine protease inhibition is to form a covalent bond between an electrophilic atom of the inhibitor and the thiol of the catalytic cysteine. In this study, we evaluate the reaction free energy obtained from a hybrid quantum mechanical/molecular mechanical (QM/MM) free energy profile as a predictor of affinity for reversible, covalent inhibitors of rhodesain. We demonstrate that the reaction free energy calculated with the PM6/MM potential is in agreement with the experimental data and suggest that the free energy profile for covalent bond formation in a protein environment may be a useful tool for the inhibitor design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clauber H S da Costa
- Laboratório de Planejamento e Desenvolvimento de Fármacos , Universidade Federal do Pará , Rua Augusto Correa S/N , 66075-110 Belém , PA , Brazil
| | - Vinícius Bonatto
- Grupo de Quı́mica Medicinal do Instituto de Quı́mica de São Carlos da , Universidade de São Paulo, NEQUIMED/IQSC/USP , 13566-590 São Carlos , SP , Brazil
| | - Alberto M Dos Santos
- Laboratório de Planejamento e Desenvolvimento de Fármacos , Universidade Federal do Pará , Rua Augusto Correa S/N , 66075-110 Belém , PA , Brazil
| | - Jerônimo Lameira
- Laboratório de Planejamento e Desenvolvimento de Fármacos , Universidade Federal do Pará , Rua Augusto Correa S/N , 66075-110 Belém , PA , Brazil.,Grupo de Quı́mica Medicinal do Instituto de Quı́mica de São Carlos da , Universidade de São Paulo, NEQUIMED/IQSC/USP , 13566-590 São Carlos , SP , Brazil
| | - Andrei Leitão
- Grupo de Quı́mica Medicinal do Instituto de Quı́mica de São Carlos da , Universidade de São Paulo, NEQUIMED/IQSC/USP , 13566-590 São Carlos , SP , Brazil
| | - Carlos A Montanari
- Grupo de Quı́mica Medicinal do Instituto de Quı́mica de São Carlos da , Universidade de São Paulo, NEQUIMED/IQSC/USP , 13566-590 São Carlos , SP , Brazil
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29
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Tan MSY, Davison D, Sanchez MI, Anderson BM, Howell S, Snijders A, Edgington-Mitchell LE, Deu E. Novel broad-spectrum activity-based probes to profile malarial cysteine proteases. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0227341. [PMID: 31923258 PMCID: PMC6953825 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0227341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2019] [Accepted: 12/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Clan CA cysteine proteases, also known as papain-like proteases, play important roles throughout the malaria parasite life cycle and are therefore potential drug targets to treat this disease and prevent its transmission. In order to study the biological function of these proteases and to chemically validate some of them as viable drug targets, highly specific inhibitors need to be developed. This is especially challenging given the large number of clan CA proteases present in Plasmodium species (ten in Plasmodium falciparum), and the difficulty of designing selective inhibitors that do not cross-react with other members of the same family. Additionally, any efforts to develop antimalarial drugs targeting these proteases will also have to take into account potential off-target effects against the 11 human cysteine cathepsins. Activity-based protein profiling has been a very useful tool to determine the specificity of inhibitors against all members of an enzyme family. However, current clan CA proteases broad-spectrum activity-based probes either target endopeptidases or dipeptidyl aminopeptidases, but not both subfamilies efficiently. In this study, we present a new series of dipeptydic vinyl sulfone probes containing a free N-terminal tryptophan and a fluorophore at the P1 position that are able to label both subfamilies efficiently, both in Plasmodium falciparum and in mammalian cells, thus making them better broad-spectrum activity-based probes. We also show that some of these probes are cell permeable and can therefore be used to determine the specificity of inhibitors in living cells. Interestingly, we show that the choice of fluorophore greatly influences the specificity of the probes as well as their cell permeability.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Dara Davison
- The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Mateo I. Sanchez
- Department of Genetics, Stanford School of Medicine, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Bethany M. Anderson
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, The University of Melbourne, Parkville Victoria, Australia
| | | | | | - Laura E. Edgington-Mitchell
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, The University of Melbourne, Parkville Victoria, Australia
- Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Maxillofacial Surgery, College of Dentistry, New York University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Edgar Deu
- The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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30
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de Souza ML, de Oliveira Rezende Junior C, Ferreira RS, Espinoza Chávez RM, Ferreira LLG, Slafer BW, Magalhães LG, Krogh R, Oliva G, Cruz FC, Dias LC, Andricopulo AD. Discovery of Potent, Reversible, and Competitive Cruzain Inhibitors with Trypanocidal Activity: A Structure-Based Drug Design Approach. J Chem Inf Model 2019; 60:1028-1041. [PMID: 31765144 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jcim.9b00802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
A virtual screening conducted with nearly 4 000 000 compounds from lead-like and fragment-like subsets enabled the identification of a small-molecule inhibitor (1) of the Trypanosoma cruzi cruzain enzyme, a validated drug target for Chagas disease. Subsequent comprehensive structure-based drug design and structure-activity relationship studies led to the discovery of carbamoyl imidazoles as potent, reversible, and competitive cruzain inhibitors. The most potent carbamoyl imidazole inhibitor (45) exhibited high affinity with a Ki value of 20 nM, presenting both in vitro and in vivo activity against T. cruzi. Furthermore, the most promising compounds reduced parasite burden in vivo and showed no toxicity at a dose of 100 mg/kg. These carbamoyl imidazoles are structurally attractive, nonpeptidic, and easy to prepare and synthetically modify. Finally, these results further advance our understanding of the noncovalent mode of inhibition of this pharmaceutically relevant enzyme, building strong foundations for drug discovery efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana L de Souza
- Laboratory of Medicinal and Computational Chemistry, Physics Institute of Sao Carlos , University of Sao Paulo , Sao Carlos - SP 13563-120 , Brazil
| | | | - Rafaela S Ferreira
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology , Federal University of Minas Gerais , Belo Horizonte - MG 31270-901 , Brazil
| | | | - Leonardo L G Ferreira
- Laboratory of Medicinal and Computational Chemistry, Physics Institute of Sao Carlos , University of Sao Paulo , Sao Carlos - SP 13563-120 , Brazil
| | - Brian W Slafer
- Institute of Chemistry , State University of Campinas , Campinas - SP 13084-971 , Brazil
| | - Luma G Magalhães
- Laboratory of Medicinal and Computational Chemistry, Physics Institute of Sao Carlos , University of Sao Paulo , Sao Carlos - SP 13563-120 , Brazil
| | - Renata Krogh
- Laboratory of Medicinal and Computational Chemistry, Physics Institute of Sao Carlos , University of Sao Paulo , Sao Carlos - SP 13563-120 , Brazil
| | - Glaucius Oliva
- Laboratory of Medicinal and Computational Chemistry, Physics Institute of Sao Carlos , University of Sao Paulo , Sao Carlos - SP 13563-120 , Brazil
| | - Fabio Cardoso Cruz
- Department of Pharmacology , Federal University of Sao Paulo , Sao Paulo - SP 04023-062 , Brazil
| | - Luiz Carlos Dias
- Institute of Chemistry , State University of Campinas , Campinas - SP 13084-971 , Brazil
| | - Adriano D Andricopulo
- Laboratory of Medicinal and Computational Chemistry, Physics Institute of Sao Carlos , University of Sao Paulo , Sao Carlos - SP 13563-120 , Brazil
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Ferreira RAA, Pauli I, Sampaio TS, de Souza ML, Ferreira LLG, Magalhães LG, Rezende CDO, Ferreira RS, Krogh R, Dias LC, Andricopulo AD. Structure-Based and Molecular Modeling Studies for the Discovery of Cyclic Imides as Reversible Cruzain Inhibitors With Potent Anti- Trypanosoma cruzi Activity. Front Chem 2019; 7:798. [PMID: 31824926 PMCID: PMC6886403 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2019.00798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2019] [Accepted: 11/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Chagas disease causes ~10,000 deaths each year, mainly in Latin America, where it is endemic. The currently available chemotherapeutic agents are ineffective in the chronic stage of the disease, and the lack of pharmaceutical innovation for Chagas disease highlights the urgent need for the development of new drugs. The enzyme cruzain, the main cysteine protease of Trypanosoma cruzi, has been explored as a validated molecular target for drug discovery. Herein, the design, molecular modeling studies, synthesis, and biological evaluation of cyclic imides as cruzain inhibitors are described. Starting with a micromolar-range cruzain inhibitor (3a, IC50 = 2.2 μM), this molecular optimization strategy resulted in the nanomolar-range inhibitor 10j (IC50 = 0.6 μM), which is highly active against T. cruzi intracellular amastigotes (IC50 = 1.0 μM). Moreover, most compounds were selective toward T. cruzi over human fibroblasts, which were used as host cells, and are less toxic to hepatic cells than the marketed drug benznidazole. This study enabled the discovery of novel chemical diversity and established robust structure-activity relationships to guide the design of optimized cruzain inhibitors as new trypanocidal agents.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ivani Pauli
- Laboratório de Química Medicinal e Computacional, Centro de Pesquisa e Inovação em Biodiversidade e Fármacos, Instituto de Física de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Thiago S Sampaio
- Instituto de Química, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
| | - Mariana L de Souza
- Laboratório de Química Medicinal e Computacional, Centro de Pesquisa e Inovação em Biodiversidade e Fármacos, Instituto de Física de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Leonardo L G Ferreira
- Laboratório de Química Medicinal e Computacional, Centro de Pesquisa e Inovação em Biodiversidade e Fármacos, Instituto de Física de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Luma G Magalhães
- Laboratório de Química Medicinal e Computacional, Centro de Pesquisa e Inovação em Biodiversidade e Fármacos, Instituto de Física de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Celso de O Rezende
- Instituto de Química, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
| | - Rafaela S Ferreira
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Renata Krogh
- Laboratório de Química Medicinal e Computacional, Centro de Pesquisa e Inovação em Biodiversidade e Fármacos, Instituto de Física de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Luiz C Dias
- Instituto de Química, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
| | - Adriano D Andricopulo
- Laboratório de Química Medicinal e Computacional, Centro de Pesquisa e Inovação em Biodiversidade e Fármacos, Instituto de Física de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, São Carlos, Brazil
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Lopes CD, Possato B, Gaspari APS, Oliveira RJ, Abram U, Almeida JPA, Rocho FDR, Leitão A, Montanari CA, Maia PIS, da Silva JS, de Albuquerque S, Carneiro ZA. Organometallic Gold(III) Complex [Au(Hdamp)(L1 4)] + (L1 = SNS-Donating Thiosemicarbazone) as a Candidate to New Formulations against Chagas Disease. ACS Infect Dis 2019; 5:1698-1707. [PMID: 31419384 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.8b00284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Chagas disease remains a serious public health concern with unsatisfactory treatment outcomes due to strain-specific drug resistance and various side effects. To identify new therapeutic drugs against Trypanosoma cruzi, we evaluated both the in vitro and in vivo activity of the organometallic gold(III) complex [Au(III)(Hdamp)(L14)]Cl (L1 = SNS-donating thiosemicarbazone), henceforth denoted 4-Cl. Our results demonstrated that 4-Cl was more effective than benznidazole (Bz) in eliminating both the extracellular trypomastigote and intracellular amastigote forms of the parasite without cytotoxic effects on mammalian cells. In in vivo assays, 4-Cl in PBS solution loses the protonation and becomes the 4-neutral. 4-Neutral reduced parasitaemia and tissue parasitism in addition to protecting the liver and heart from tissue damage at 2.8 mg/kg/day. All these changes resulted in the survival of 100% of the mice treated with the gold complex during the acute phase. Analyzing the surviving animals of the acute infection, the parasite load after 150 days of infection was equivalent to those treated with the standard dose of Bz without demonstrating the hepatotoxicity of the latter. In addition, we identified a modulation of interferon gamma (IFN-γ) levels that may be targeting the disease's positive outcome. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first gold organometallic study that shows promise in an in vivo experimental model against Chagas disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla Duque Lopes
- Department of Clinical Toxicological and Bromatological Analysis School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo (USP), Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo 14040-903, Brazil
- Departament of Biochemistry and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo 14049-900, Brazil
| | - Bruna Possato
- Department of Clinical Toxicological and Bromatological Analysis School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo (USP), Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo 14040-903, Brazil
| | - Ana Paula S. Gaspari
- Department of Clinical Toxicological and Bromatological Analysis School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo (USP), Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo 14040-903, Brazil
| | - Ronaldo J. Oliveira
- Núcleo de Desenvolvimento de Compostos Bioativos (NDCBio), Universidade Federal do Triângulo Mineiro, Uberaba, Minas Gerais 38025-470, Brazil
| | - Ulrich Abram
- Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin D-14195, Germany
| | - José P. A. Almeida
- Department of Clinical Toxicological and Bromatological Analysis School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo (USP), Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo 14040-903, Brazil
| | - Fernanda dos Reis Rocho
- Grupo de Estudos em Química Medicinal de Produtos Naturais−NEQUIMED-PN, Instituto de Química de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Trabalhador Sancarlense 400, P.O. Box 780, São Carlos, São Paulo 13560-960, Brazil
| | - Andrei Leitão
- Grupo de Estudos em Química Medicinal de Produtos Naturais−NEQUIMED-PN, Instituto de Química de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Trabalhador Sancarlense 400, P.O. Box 780, São Carlos, São Paulo 13560-960, Brazil
| | - Carlos A. Montanari
- Grupo de Estudos em Química Medicinal de Produtos Naturais−NEQUIMED-PN, Instituto de Química de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Trabalhador Sancarlense 400, P.O. Box 780, São Carlos, São Paulo 13560-960, Brazil
| | - Pedro I. S. Maia
- Núcleo de Desenvolvimento de Compostos Bioativos (NDCBio), Universidade Federal do Triângulo Mineiro, Uberaba, Minas Gerais 38025-470, Brazil
| | - João S. da Silva
- Departament of Biochemistry and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo 14049-900, Brazil
| | - Sérgio de Albuquerque
- Department of Clinical Toxicological and Bromatological Analysis School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo (USP), Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo 14040-903, Brazil
| | - Zumira A. Carneiro
- Department of Clinical Toxicological and Bromatological Analysis School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo (USP), Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo 14040-903, Brazil
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Salsi F, Bulhões Portapilla G, Schutjajew K, Roca Jungfer M, Goulart A, Hagenbach A, de Albuquerque S, Abram U. Organometallic Gold(III) Complexes with Tridentate Halogen‐Substituted Thiosemicarbazones: Effects of Halogenation on Cytotoxicity and Anti‐Parasitic Activity. Eur J Inorg Chem 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/ejic.201900904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Federico Salsi
- Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry Freie Universität Berlin Fabeckstr. 34–36 D‐14195 Berlin Germany
| | - Gisele Bulhões Portapilla
- Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto Universidade de São Paulo Av. do Café – Vila Monte Alegre 14040‐903 Ribeirão Preto Brazil
| | - Konstantin Schutjajew
- Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry Freie Universität Berlin Fabeckstr. 34–36 D‐14195 Berlin Germany
| | - Maximilian Roca Jungfer
- Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry Freie Universität Berlin Fabeckstr. 34–36 D‐14195 Berlin Germany
| | - Amanda Goulart
- Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto Universidade de São Paulo Av. do Café – Vila Monte Alegre 14040‐903 Ribeirão Preto Brazil
| | - Adelheid Hagenbach
- Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry Freie Universität Berlin Fabeckstr. 34–36 D‐14195 Berlin Germany
| | - Sérgio de Albuquerque
- Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto Universidade de São Paulo Av. do Café – Vila Monte Alegre 14040‐903 Ribeirão Preto Brazil
| | - Ulrich Abram
- Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry Freie Universität Berlin Fabeckstr. 34–36 D‐14195 Berlin Germany
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Boudreau PD, Miller BW, McCall LI, Almaliti J, Reher R, Hirata K, Le T, Siqueira-Neto JL, Hook V, Gerwick WH. Design of Gallinamide A Analogs as Potent Inhibitors of the Cysteine Proteases Human Cathepsin L and Trypanosoma cruzi Cruzain. J Med Chem 2019; 62:9026-9044. [PMID: 31539239 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.9b00294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Gallinamide A, originally isolated with a modest antimalarial activity, was subsequently reisolated and characterized as a potent, selective, and irreversible inhibitor of the human cysteine protease cathepsin L. Molecular docking identified potential modifications to improve binding, which were synthesized as a suite of analogs. Resultingly, this current study produced the most potent gallinamide analog yet tested against cathepsin L (10, Ki = 0.0937 ± 0.01 nM and kinact/Ki = 8 730 000). From a protein structure and substrate preference perspective, cruzain, an essential Trypanosoma cruzi cysteine protease, is highly homologous. Our investigations revealed that gallinamide and its analogs potently inhibit cruzain and are exquisitely toxic toward T. cruzi in the intracellular amastigote stage. The most active compound, 5, had an IC50 = 5.1 ± 1.4 nM, but was relatively inactive to both the epimastigote (insect stage) and the host cell, and thus represents a new candidate for the treatment of Chagas disease.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Jehad Almaliti
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy , The University of Jordan , Amman 11942 , Jordan
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Cianni L, Feldmann CW, Gilberg E, Gütschow M, Juliano L, Leitão A, Bajorath J, Montanari CA. Can Cysteine Protease Cross-Class Inhibitors Achieve Selectivity? J Med Chem 2019; 62:10497-10525. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.9b00683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lorenzo Cianni
- Medicinal Chemistry Group, Institute of Chemistry of São Carlos, University of São Paulo, Avenue Trabalhador Sancarlense, 400, 23566-590 São Carlos, SP, Brazil
- Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical Chemistry I, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, D-53121 Bonn, Germany
- Department of Life Science Informatics, B-IT, LIMES Program Unit Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität, Endenicher Allee 19c, D-53115 Bonn, Germany
| | - Christian Wolfgang Feldmann
- Department of Life Science Informatics, B-IT, LIMES Program Unit Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität, Endenicher Allee 19c, D-53115 Bonn, Germany
| | - Erik Gilberg
- Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical Chemistry I, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, D-53121 Bonn, Germany
- Department of Life Science Informatics, B-IT, LIMES Program Unit Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität, Endenicher Allee 19c, D-53115 Bonn, Germany
| | - Michael Gütschow
- Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical Chemistry I, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, D-53121 Bonn, Germany
| | - Luiz Juliano
- A. C. Camargo Cancer Center and São Paulo Medical School of Federal University of São Paulo, Rua Professor Antônio Prudente, 211, 01509-010 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Andrei Leitão
- Medicinal Chemistry Group, Institute of Chemistry of São Carlos, University of São Paulo, Avenue Trabalhador Sancarlense, 400, 23566-590 São Carlos, SP, Brazil
| | - Jürgen Bajorath
- Department of Life Science Informatics, B-IT, LIMES Program Unit Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität, Endenicher Allee 19c, D-53115 Bonn, Germany
| | - Carlos A. Montanari
- Medicinal Chemistry Group, Institute of Chemistry of São Carlos, University of São Paulo, Avenue Trabalhador Sancarlense, 400, 23566-590 São Carlos, SP, Brazil
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Pereira GAN, da Silva EB, Braga SFP, Leite PG, Martins LC, Vieira RP, Soh WT, Villela FS, Costa FMR, Ray D, de Andrade SF, Brandstetter H, Oliveira RB, Caffrey CR, Machado FS, Ferreira RS. Discovery and characterization of trypanocidal cysteine protease inhibitors from the 'malaria box'. Eur J Med Chem 2019; 179:765-778. [PMID: 31284086 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2019.06.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2019] [Revised: 06/19/2019] [Accepted: 06/21/2019] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Chagas disease, Human African Trypanosomiasis, and schistosomiasis are neglected parasitic diseases for which new treatments are urgently needed. To identify new chemical leads, we screened the 400 compounds of the Open Access Malaria Box against the cysteine proteases, cruzain (Trypanosoma cruzi), rhodesain (Trypanosoma brucei) and SmCB1 (Schistosoma mansoni), which are therapeutic targets for these diseases. Whereas just three hits were observed for SmCB1, 70 compounds inhibited cruzain or rhodesain by at least 50% at 5 μM. Among those, 15 commercially available compounds were selected for confirmatory assays, given their potency, time-dependent inhibition profile and reported activity against parasites. Additional assays led to the confirmation of four novel classes of cruzain and rhodesain inhibitors, with potency in the low-to mid-micromolar range against enzymes and T. cruzi. Assays against mammalian cathepsins S and B revealed inhibitor selectivity for parasitic proteases. For the two competitive inhibitors identified (compounds 7 and 12), their binding mode was predicted by docking, providing a basis for structure-based optimization efforts. Compound 12 also acted directly against the trypomastigote and the intracellular amastigote forms of T. cruzi at 3 μM. Therefore, through a combination of experimental and computational approaches, we report promising hits for optimization in the development of new trypanocidal drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Glaécia A N Pereira
- Laboratório de Modelagem Molecular e Planejamento de Fármacos, Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Avenida Antonio Carlos 6627, Belo Horizonte, MG, 31270-901, Brazil; CAPES Foundation, Ministry of Education of Brazil, Brasília, DF, Brazil
| | - Elany B da Silva
- Laboratório de Modelagem Molecular e Planejamento de Fármacos, Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Avenida Antonio Carlos 6627, Belo Horizonte, MG, 31270-901, Brazil
| | - Saulo F P Braga
- Laboratório de Modelagem Molecular e Planejamento de Fármacos, Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Avenida Antonio Carlos 6627, Belo Horizonte, MG, 31270-901, Brazil; CAPES Foundation, Ministry of Education of Brazil, Brasília, DF, Brazil
| | - Paulo Gaio Leite
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Avenida Antonio Carlos 6627, Belo Horizonte, MG, 31270-901, Brazil
| | - Luan C Martins
- Laboratório de Modelagem Molecular e Planejamento de Fármacos, Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Avenida Antonio Carlos 6627, Belo Horizonte, MG, 31270-901, Brazil
| | - Rafael P Vieira
- Laboratório de Modelagem Molecular e Planejamento de Fármacos, Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Avenida Antonio Carlos 6627, Belo Horizonte, MG, 31270-901, Brazil; CAPES Foundation, Ministry of Education of Brazil, Brasília, DF, Brazil
| | - Wai Tuck Soh
- Structural Biology Group By Department of Biosciences, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Filipe S Villela
- Laboratório de Modelagem Molecular e Planejamento de Fármacos, Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Avenida Antonio Carlos 6627, Belo Horizonte, MG, 31270-901, Brazil
| | - Francielly M R Costa
- Laboratório de Modelagem Molecular e Planejamento de Fármacos, Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Avenida Antonio Carlos 6627, Belo Horizonte, MG, 31270-901, Brazil
| | - Debalina Ray
- University of California San Francisco, 1700 4th Street, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
| | - Saulo F de Andrade
- Pharmaceutical Synthesis Group (PHARSG), Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Hans Brandstetter
- Structural Biology Group By Department of Biosciences, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Renata B Oliveira
- Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Avenida Antonio Carlos 6627, Belo Horizonte, MG, 31270-901, Brazil
| | - Conor R Caffrey
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Fabiana S Machado
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Avenida Antonio Carlos 6627, Belo Horizonte, MG, 31270-901, Brazil
| | - Rafaela S Ferreira
- Laboratório de Modelagem Molecular e Planejamento de Fármacos, Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Avenida Antonio Carlos 6627, Belo Horizonte, MG, 31270-901, Brazil.
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Santos LH, Waldner BJ, Fuchs JE, Pereira GAN, Liedl KR, Caffarena ER, Ferreira RS. Understanding Structure–Activity Relationships for Trypanosomal Cysteine Protease Inhibitors by Simulations and Free Energy Calculations. J Chem Inf Model 2018; 59:137-148. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jcim.8b00557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lucianna H. Santos
- Grupo de Biofísica Computacional e Modelagem Molecular, Programa de Computação Científica (PROCC), Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Av. Brasil 4365, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21040-360, Brazil
- Laboratório de Modelagem Molecular e Planejamento de Fármacos, Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Avenida Antônio Carlos 6627, Belo Horizonte, MG 31270-901, Brazil
| | - Birgit J. Waldner
- Institute of General, Inorganic and Theoretical Chemistry, and Center for Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck (CMBI), University of Innsbruck, Innrain 82, Innsbruck, Tyrol 6020, Austria
| | - Julian E. Fuchs
- Institute of General, Inorganic and Theoretical Chemistry, and Center for Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck (CMBI), University of Innsbruck, Innrain 82, Innsbruck, Tyrol 6020, Austria
| | - Glaécia A. N. Pereira
- Laboratório de Modelagem Molecular e Planejamento de Fármacos, Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Avenida Antônio Carlos 6627, Belo Horizonte, MG 31270-901, Brazil
- CAPES Foundation, Ministry of Education of Brazil, Brasília, DF Brazil
| | - Klaus R. Liedl
- Institute of General, Inorganic and Theoretical Chemistry, and Center for Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck (CMBI), University of Innsbruck, Innrain 82, Innsbruck, Tyrol 6020, Austria
| | - Ernesto R. Caffarena
- Grupo de Biofísica Computacional e Modelagem Molecular, Programa de Computação Científica (PROCC), Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Av. Brasil 4365, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21040-360, Brazil
| | - Rafaela S. Ferreira
- Laboratório de Modelagem Molecular e Planejamento de Fármacos, Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Avenida Antônio Carlos 6627, Belo Horizonte, MG 31270-901, Brazil
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Rocha DA, Silva EB, Fortes IS, Lopes MS, Ferreira RS, Andrade SF. Synthesis and structure-activity relationship studies of cruzain and rhodesain inhibitors. Eur J Med Chem 2018; 157:1426-1459. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2018.08.079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2018] [Revised: 08/13/2018] [Accepted: 08/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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Siqueira-Neto JL, Debnath A, McCall LI, Bernatchez JA, Ndao M, Reed SL, Rosenthal PJ. Cysteine proteases in protozoan parasites. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2018; 12:e0006512. [PMID: 30138453 PMCID: PMC6107107 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0006512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Cysteine proteases (CPs) play key roles in the pathogenesis of protozoan parasites, including cell/tissue penetration, hydrolysis of host or parasite proteins, autophagy, and evasion or modulation of the host immune response, making them attractive chemotherapeutic and vaccine targets. This review highlights current knowledge on clan CA cysteine proteases, the best-characterized group of cysteine proteases, from 7 protozoan organisms causing human diseases with significant impact: Entamoeba histolytica, Leishmania species (sp.), Trypanosoma brucei, T. cruzi, Cryptosporidium sp., Plasmodium sp., and Toxoplasma gondii. Clan CA proteases from three organisms (T. brucei, T. cruzi, and Plasmodium sp.) are well characterized as druggable targets based on in vitro and in vivo models. A number of candidate inhibitors are under development. CPs from these organisms and from other protozoan parasites should be further characterized to improve our understanding of their biological functions and identify novel targets for chemotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jair L. Siqueira-Neto
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Anjan Debnath
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Laura-Isobel McCall
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Jean A. Bernatchez
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Momar Ndao
- National Reference Centre for Parasitology, The Research Institute of the McGill University Health Center, Montreal, Canada
- Program in Infectious Diseases and Immunity in Global Health, The Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Sharon L. Reed
- Departments of Pathology and Medicine, University of California San Diego School of Medicine, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Philip J. Rosenthal
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
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Ahamad S, Hassan MI, Dwivedi N. Designing of phenol-based β-carbonic anhydrase1 inhibitors through QSAR, molecular docking, and MD simulation approach. 3 Biotech 2018; 8:256. [PMID: 29765814 DOI: 10.1007/s13205-018-1278-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2018] [Accepted: 05/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis (Tb) is an airborne infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Beta-carbonic anhydrase 1 (β-CA1) has emerged as one of the potential targets for new antitubercular drug development. In this work, three-dimensional quantitative structure-activity relationships (3D-QSAR), molecular docking, and molecular dynamics (MD) simulation approaches were performed on a series of natural and synthetic phenol-based β-CA1 inhibitors. The developed 3D-QSAR model (r2 = 0.94, q2 = 0.86, and pred_r2 = 0.74) indicated that the steric and electrostatic factors are important parameters to modulate the bioactivity of phenolic compounds. Based on this indication, we designed 72 new phenolic inhibitors, out of which two compounds (D25 and D50) effectively stabilized β-CA1 receptor and, thus, are potential candidates for new generation antitubercular drug discovery program.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahzaib Ahamad
- 1School of Biotechnology, IFTM University, Lodhipur Rajpoot, Delhi Road, Moradabad, India
| | - Md Imtaiyaz Hassan
- 2Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Basic Sciences, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, 110025 India
| | - Neeraja Dwivedi
- 1School of Biotechnology, IFTM University, Lodhipur Rajpoot, Delhi Road, Moradabad, India
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42
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Giroud M, Dietzel U, Anselm L, Banner D, Kuglstatter A, Benz J, Blanc JB, Gaufreteau D, Liu H, Lin X, Stich A, Kuhn B, Schuler F, Kaiser M, Brun R, Schirmeister T, Kisker C, Diederich F, Haap W. Repurposing a Library of Human Cathepsin L Ligands: Identification of Macrocyclic Lactams as Potent Rhodesain and Trypanosoma brucei Inhibitors. J Med Chem 2018; 61:3350-3369. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.7b01869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Maude Giroud
- Laboratorium für Organische Chemie, ETH Zurich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 3, 8093 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Uwe Dietzel
- Rudolf-Virchow Center for Experimental Biomedicine, University of Würzburg, Josef-Schneider-Strasse 2, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Lilli Anselm
- Roche Pharmaceutical Research and Early Development (pRED), Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Grenzacherstrasse 124, 4070 Basel, Switzerland
| | - David Banner
- Roche Pharmaceutical Research and Early Development (pRED), Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Grenzacherstrasse 124, 4070 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Andreas Kuglstatter
- Roche Pharmaceutical Research and Early Development (pRED), Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Grenzacherstrasse 124, 4070 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Jörg Benz
- Roche Pharmaceutical Research and Early Development (pRED), Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Grenzacherstrasse 124, 4070 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Jean-Baptiste Blanc
- Roche Pharmaceutical Research and Early Development (pRED), Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Grenzacherstrasse 124, 4070 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Delphine Gaufreteau
- Roche Pharmaceutical Research and Early Development (pRED), Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Grenzacherstrasse 124, 4070 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Haixia Liu
- Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Roche Innovation Center Shanghai, 720 Cailun Road, Pudong, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Xianfeng Lin
- Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Roche Innovation Center Shanghai, 720 Cailun Road, Pudong, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - August Stich
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Medical Mission Institute, Salvatorstrasse 7, 97074 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Bernd Kuhn
- Roche Pharmaceutical Research and Early Development (pRED), Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Grenzacherstrasse 124, 4070 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Franz Schuler
- Roche Pharmaceutical Research and Early Development (pRED), Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Grenzacherstrasse 124, 4070 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Marcel Kaiser
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, 4051 Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, 4003 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Reto Brun
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, 4051 Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, 4003 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Tanja Schirmeister
- Institut für Pharmazie und Biochemie, Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz, Staudinger Weg 5, 55128 Mainz, Germany
| | - Caroline Kisker
- Rudolf-Virchow Center for Experimental Biomedicine, University of Würzburg, Josef-Schneider-Strasse 2, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
| | - François Diederich
- Laboratorium für Organische Chemie, ETH Zurich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 3, 8093 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Wolfgang Haap
- Roche Pharmaceutical Research and Early Development (pRED), Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Grenzacherstrasse 124, 4070 Basel, Switzerland
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