Inflammasome biology, molecular pathology and therapeutic implications

Research progress of propofol in alleviating cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury

Ischemic stroke is a leading cause of adult disability and death worldwide. The primary treatment for cerebral ischemia patients is to restore blood supply to the ischemic region as quickly as possible. However, in most cases, more severe tissue damage occurs, which is known as cerebral ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury. The pathological mechanisms of brain I/R injury include mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, excitotoxicity, calcium overload, neuroinflammation, programmed cell death and others. Propofol (2,6-diisopropylphenol), a short-acting intravenous anesthetic, possesses not only sedative and hypnotic effects but also immunomodulatory and neuroprotective effects. Numerous studies have reported the protective properties of propofol during brain I/R injury. In this review, we summarize the potential protective mechanisms of propofol to provide insights for its better clinical application in alleviating cerebral I/R injury.

Potential therapeutic and diagnostic approaches of exosomes in multiple sclerosis pathophysiology

Exosomes are bilayer lipid vesicles that are released by cells and contain proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids. They can be internalized by other cells, inducing inflammatory responses and instigating toxicities in the recipient cells. Exosomes can also serve as therapeutic vehicles by transporting protective cargo to maintain homeostasis. Multiple studies have shown that exosomes can initiate and participate in the regulation of neuroinflammation, improve neurogenesis, and are closely related to the pathogenesis of central nervous system (CNS) diseases, including multiple sclerosis (MS). Exosomes can be secreted by both neurons and glial cells in the CNS, and their contents change with disease occurrence. Due to their ability to penetrate the blood-brain barrier and their stability in peripheral fluids, exosomes are attractive biomarkers of CNS diseases. In recent years, exosomes have emerged as potential therapeutic agents for CNS diseases, including MS. However, the molecular pathways in the pathogenesis of MS are still unknown, and further research is needed to fully understand the role of exosomes in the occurrence or improvement of MS disease. Thereby, in this review, we intend to provide a more complete understanding of the pathways in which exosomes are involved and affect the occurrence or improvement of MS disease.

Pyroptosis mediates osteoporosis via the inflammation immune microenvironment

Osteoporosis represents a systemic imbalance in bone metabolism, augmenting the susceptibility to fractures among patients and emerging as a notable mortality determinant in the elderly population. It has evolved into a worldwide concern impacting the physical well-being of the elderly, imposing a substantial burden on both human society and the economy. Presently, the precise pathogenesis of osteoporosis remains inadequately characterized and necessitates further exploration. The advancement of osteoporosis is typically linked to the initiation of an inflammatory response. Cells in an inflammatory environment can cause inflammatory death including pyroptosis. Pyroptosis is a recently identified form of programmed cell death with inflammatory properties, mediated by the caspase and gasdermin families. It is regarded as the most inflammatory form of cell death in contemporary medical research. Under the influence of diverse cytokines, macrophages, and other immune cells may undergo pyroptosis, releasing inflammatory factors, such as IL-1β and IL-18. Numerous lines of evidence highlight the pivotal role of pyroptosis in the pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases, including cancer, intestinal disorders, hepatic conditions, and cutaneous ailments. Osteoporosis progression is frequently associated with inflammation; hence, pyroptosis may also play a role in the pathogenesis of osteoporosis to a certain extent, making it a potential target for treatment. This paper has provided a comprehensive summary of pertinent research concerning pyroptosis and its impact on osteoporosis. The notion proposing that pyroptosis mediates osteoporosis via the inflammatory immune microenvironment is advanced, and we subsequently investigate potential targets for treating osteoporosis through the modulation of pyroptosis.

Mechanism of NLRP3 Inflammasome in Epilepsy and Related Therapeutic Agents

Epilepsy is one of the most widespread and complex diseases in the central nervous system (CNS), affecting approximately 65 million people globally, an important factor resulting in neurological disability-adjusted life year (DALY) and progressive cognitive dysfunction. Medication is the most essential treatment. The currently used drugs have shown drug resistance in some patients and only control symptoms; the development of novel and more efficacious pharmacotherapy is imminent. Increasing evidence suggests neuroinflammation is involved in the occurrence and development of epilepsy, and high expression of NLRP3 inflammasome has been observed in the temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) brain tissue of patients and animal models. The inflammasome is a crucial cause of neuroinflammation by activating IL-1β and IL-18. Many preclinical studies have confirmed that regulating NLRP3 inflammasome pathway can prevent the development of epilepsy, reduce the severity of epilepsy, and play a neuroprotective role. Therefore, regulating NLRP3 inflammasome could be a potential target for epilepsy treatment. In summary, this review describes the priming and activation of inflammasome and its biological function in the progression of epilepsy. In addition, we reviewes the current pharmacological researches for epilepsy based on the regulation of NLRP3 inflammasome, aiming to provide a basis and reference for developing novel antiepileptic drugs.

The Role of Inflammasome in Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm and Its Potential Drugs

Abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) has been recognized as a serious chronic inflammatory degenerative aortic disease in recent years. At present, there is no other effective intervention except surgical treatment for AAA. With the aging of the human population, its incidence is increasing year by year, posing a serious threat to human health. Modern studies suggest that vascular chronic inflammatory response is the core process in AAA occurrence and development. Inflammasome, a multiprotein complex located in the cytoplasm, mediates the expression of various inflammatory cytokines like interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-18, and thus plays a pivotal role in inflammation regulation. Therefore, inflammasome may exert a crucial influence on the progression of AAA. This article reviews some mechanism studies to investigate the role of inflammasome in AAA and then summarizes several potential drugs targeting inflammasome for the treatment of AAA, aiming to provide new ideas for the clinical prevention and treatment of AAA beyond surgical methods.

Calcium-sensing receptor-mediated macrophage polarization improves myocardial remodeling in spontaneously hypertensive rats

Chronic inflammation is a key element in the progression of essential hypertension (EH). Calcium plays a key role in inflammation, so its receptor, the calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR), is an essential mediator of the inflammatory process. Compelling evidence suggests that CaSR mediates inflammation in tissues and immune cells, where it mediates their activity and chemotaxis. Macrophages (Mφs) play a major role in the inflammatory response process. This study provided convincing evidence that R568, a positive regulator of CaSR, was effective in lowering blood pressure in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs), improving cardiac function by alleviating cardiac hypertrophy and fibrosis. R568 can increase the content of CaSR and M2 macrophages (M2Mφs, exert an anti-inflammatory effect) in myocardial tissue, reduce M1 macrophages (M1Mφs), which have a pro-inflammatory effect in this process. In contrast, NPS2143, a negative state regulator of CaSR, exerted the opposite effect in all of the above experiments. Following this study, R568 increased CaSR content in SHR myocardial tissue, lowered blood pressure, promoted macrophages to M2Mφs and improved myocardial fibrosis, but interestingly, both M1Mφs and M2Mφs were increased in the peritoneal cavity of SHRs, the number of M2Mφs remained lower than M1Mφs. In vitro, R568 increased CaSR content in RAW264.7 cells (a macrophage cell line), regulating intracellular Ca2+ ([Ca2+]i) inhibited NOD-like receptor family protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome activation and ultimately prevented its conversion to M1Mφs. The results showed that a decrease in CaSR in hypertensive rats causes further development of hypertension and cardiac damage. EH myocardial remodeling can be improved by CaSR overexpression by suppressing NLRP3 inflammasome activation and macrophage polarization toward M1Mφs and increasing M2Mφs.

Genetic and epigenetic dysregulation of innate immune mechanisms in autoinflammatory diseases

Dysregulation and hyperactivation of innate immune responses can lead to the onset of systemic autoinflammatory diseases. Monogenic autoinflammatory diseases are caused by inborn genetic errors and based on molecular mechanisms at play, can be divided into inflammasomopathies, interferonopathies, relopathies, protein misfolding, and endogenous antagonist deficiencies. On the other hand, more common autoinflammatory diseases are multifactorial, with both genetic and non-genetic factors playing an important role. During the last decade, long-term memory characteristics of innate immune responses have been described (also called trained immunity) that in physiological conditions provide enhanced host protection from pathogenic re-infection. However, if dysregulated, induction of trained immunity can become maladaptive, perpetuating chronic inflammatory activation. Here, we describe the mechanisms of genetic and epigenetic dysregulation of the innate immune system and maladaptive trained immunity that leads to the onset and perpetuation of the most common and recently described systemic autoinflammatory diseases.

The pyrin inflammasome, a leading actor in pediatric autoinflammatory diseases

The activation of the pyrin inflammasome represents a highly intriguing mechanism employed by the innate immune system to effectively counteract pathogenic agents. Despite its key role in innate immunity, pyrin has also garnered significant attention due to its association with a range of autoinflammatory diseases (AIDs) including familial Mediterranean fever caused by disruption of the MEFV gene, or in other genes involved in its complex regulation mechanisms. Pyrin activation is strictly dependent on homeostasis-altering molecular processes, mostly consisting of the disruption of the small Ras Homolog Family Member A (RhoA) GTPases by pathogen toxins. The downstream pathways are regulated by the phosphorylation of specific pyrin residues by the kinases PKN1/2 and the binding of the chaperone 14-3-3. Furthermore, a key role in pyrin activation is played by the cytoskeleton and gasdermin D, which is responsible for membrane pores in the context of pyroptosis. In addition, recent evidence has highlighted the role of steroid hormone catabolites and alarmins S100A8/A9 and S100A12 in pyrin-dependent inflammation. The aim of this article is to offer a comprehensive overview of the most recent evidence on the pyrin inflammasome and its molecular pathways to better understand the pathogenesis behind the significant group of pyrin-related AIDs.

Dual-engineered cartilage-targeting extracellular vesicles derived from mesenchymal stem cells enhance osteoarthritis treatment via miR-223/NLRP3/pyroptosis axis: Toward a precision therapy

Osteoarthritis (OA) is the most common disabling joint disease with no effective disease modifying drugs. Extracellular vesicles released by several types of mesenchymal stem cells could promote cartilage repair and ameliorate OA pathology in animal models, representing a novel therapeutic strategy. In this study, we demonstrated that extracellular vesicles derived from human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells (hUC-EVs) could maintain chondrocyte homeostasis and alleviate OA, and further revealed a novel molecular mechanism of this therapeutic effect. miR-223, which could directly bind with the 3'UTR of NLRP3 mRNA, was found to be a key miRNA for hUC-EVs to exert beneficial effects on inflammation inhibiting and cartilage protecting. For enhancing the effect on mitigating osteoarthritis, exogenous miR-223 was loaded into hUC-EVs by electroporation, and a collagen II-targeting peptide (WYRGRL) was modified onto the surface of hUC-EVs by genetic engineering to achieve a more targeted and efficient RNA delivery to the cartilage. The dual-engineered EVs showed a maximal effect on inhibiting the NLRP3 inflammasome activation and chondrocyte pyroptosis, and offered excellent results for the treatment of OA. This study provides a novel theoretical basis and a promising therapeutic strategy for the application of engineered extracellular vesicles in OA treatment.

Uveitis Associated with Monogenic Autoinflammatory Syndromes in Children

Monogenic autoinflammatory syndromes (MAISs), are caused by pathogenic genetic variants in the innate immune system, leading to dysregulation and aberrant inflammasome activation spontaneously or with minimal triggering. The diagnosis and treatment of MAISs can be intricate, relying on an increased recognition of potential differential diagnoses. This review examines the clinical features of MAIS, with a special focus on uveitis. It also evaluates treatment options and assesses the effects of activating molecular and cytokine pathways.

Activation of cannabinoid receptors 2 alleviates myocardial damage in cecal ligation and puncture-induced sepsis by inhibiting pyroptosis

BACKGROUND

It has been reported that cannabinoid receptors 2 (CB2 receptors) play an important role in the pathophysiological process of sepsis, which may also be associated with the regulation of pyroptosis, an inflammatory programmed cell death. The present study aimed to investigate the protective effect of CB2 receptors on myocardial damage in a model of septic mice by inhibiting pyroptosis.

METHODS

The C57BL/6 mice underwent cecal ligation and puncture (CLP) to induce sepsis. All mice were randomly divided into the sham, CLP, or CLP+HU308 group. Blood and heart tissue samples were collected 12 h after surgery. Hematoxylin and eosin staining was used for analyzing histopathological results. Creatine kinase isoenzymes (CK-MB) and IL-1β were measured using ELISA, while lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) level was determined using photoelectric colorimetry. The expression levels of CB2 receptors and pyroptosis-associated proteins (NLRP3, caspase-1, and GSDMD) were measured using western blotting. The location and distribution of CB2 receptors and caspase-1 in myocardial tissues were assessed by immunofluorescence. TUNEL staining was used to quantify the number of dead cells in myocardial tissues.

RESULTS

The CLP procedure increased CB2 receptor expression in mice. CB2 receptors were located in myocardial macrophages. Activating CB2 receptors decreased the levels of myocardial damage mediator LDH, CK-MB, and inflammatory cytokine IL-1β. The results also showed that CLP increased the pyroptosis in myocardial tissues, while CB2 agonist HU308 inhibited pyroptosis by decreasing the level of NLRP3 and activating caspase-1 and GSDMD.

CONCLUSIONS

CB2 receptor activation has a protective effect on the myocardium of mice with sepsis by inhibiting pyroptosis.

NLRP3 Inflammasome Involvement in Heart, Liver, and Lung Diseases-A Lesson from Cytokine Storm Syndrome

Inflammation and inflammasomes have been proposed as important regulators of the host-microorganism interaction, playing a key role in morbidity and mortality due to the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in subjects with chronic conditions and compromised immune system. The inflammasome consists of a multiprotein complex that finely regulates the activation of caspase-1 and the production and secretion of potent pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β and IL-18. The pyrin containing NOD (nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain) like receptor (NLRP) is a family of intracellular receptors, sensing patterns associated to pathogens or danger signals and NLRP3 inflammasome is the most deeply analyzed for its involvement in the innate and adaptive immune system as well as its contribution to several autoinflammatory and autoimmune diseases. It is highly expressed in leukocytes and up-regulated in sentinel cells upon inflammatory stimuli. NLRP3 expression has also been reported in B and T lymphocytes, in epithelial cells of oral and genital mucosa, in specific parenchymal cells as cardiomyocytes, and keratinocytes, and chondrocytes. It is well known that a dysregulated activation of the inflammasome is involved in the pathogenesis of different disorders that share the common red line of inflammation in their pathogenetic fingerprint. Here, we review the potential roles of the NLRP3 inflammasome in cardiovascular events, liver damage, pulmonary diseases, and in that wide range of systemic inflammatory syndromes named as a cytokine storm.

A review of studies on the implication of NLRP3 inflammasome for Parkinson's disease and related candidate treatment targets

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disease for which the prevalence is second only to Alzheimer's disease (AD). This disease primarily affects people of middle and old age, significantly impacting their health and quality of life. The main pathological features include the degenerative nigrostriatal dopaminergic (DA) neuron loss and Lewy body (LB) formation. Currently, available PD medications primarily aim to alleviate clinical symptoms, however, there is no universally recognized therapy worldwide that effectively prevents, clinically treats, stops, or reverses the disease. Consequently, the evaluation and exploration of potential therapeutic targets for PD are of utmost importance. Nevertheless, the pathophysiology of PD remains unknown, and neuroinflammation mediated by inflammatory cytokines that prompts neuron death is fundamental for the progression of PD. The nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome is a key complex of proteins linking the neuroinflammatory cascade in PD. Moreover, mounting evidence suggests that traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) alleviates PD by suppressing the NLRP3 inflammasome. This article aims to comprehensively review the available studies on the composition and activating mechanism of the NLRP3 inflammasome, along with its significance in PD pathogenesis and potential treatment targets. We also review natural products or synthetic compounds which reduce neuroinflammation via modulating NLRP3 inflammasome activity, aiming to identify new targets for future PD diagnosis and treatment through the exploration of NLRP3 inhibitors. Additionally, this review offers valuable references for developing new PD treatment methods.

Early onset drusen and RPE dysfunction in a patient with NLRP3-AID

Retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) dysfunction, manifested as drusen formation and RPE mottling, is a characteristic lesion of aging. The mechanism of RPE dysfunction remains unknown. Previous animal studies have proven that the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome in RPE leads to apoptosis and pyroptosis, which may play a very important role in the development of age-related macular degeneration (AMD). However, there is a lack of clinical evidence to support the above hypothesis. Herein, we report a 38-year-old Chinese Han woman who had NLRP3-associated autoinflammatory disease (NLRP3-AID) with widely scattered drusen at the posterior pole in both eyes. NLRP3-AID is a rare disease caused by mutations of the NLRP3 gene, leading to NLRP3 inflammasome activation. This report of early-onset drusen provides clinical evidence that the NLRP3 inflammasome might contribute to the occurrence of RPE dysfunction and is a potential cause of age-related macular degeneration (AMD).

Validation of a physiological type 2 diabetes model in human periodontal ligament stem cells

OBJECTIVES

Type 2 diabetes (T2DM), a recognized risk factor for periodontitis, is characterized by insulin resistance. However, the molecular mechanisms concerning the role of insulin resistance in linking T2DM and periodontitis remain poorly elucidated due to the absence of an appropriate T2DM cell model. We aimed to explore an appropriate model of T2DM in human periodontal ligament stem cells (hPDLSCs) and uncover the involved mechanisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

hPDLSCs were incubated with common reagents for recapitulating insulin resistance state including high glucose (HG) (15, 25, 35, 45 mM), glucosamine (0.8, 8, 18, 28, 38 mM), or palmitic acid (PA; 100, 200, 400, 800 μM), combined with LPS for 48 h. The insulin signaling pathway, inflammation, and pyroptosis were detected by western blots and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). The effects on osteogenesis were evaluated by alkaline phosphatase staining, alizarin red S staining, RT-qPCR, and western blots.

RESULTS

HG failed to recapitulate insulin resistance. Glucosamine was sufficient to induce insulin resistance but failed to trigger inflammation. In total, 100 and 200 μM PA exhibited the most proinflammatory, insulin resistance, and pyroptosis induced role, and inhibited the osteogenic differentiation of hPDLSCs.

CONCLUSION

Palmitic acid is a promising candidate for developing T2DM model in hPDLSCs.

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and MSC-derived exosomes in animal models of central nervous system diseases: Targeting the NLRP3 inflammasome

The NLRP3 (NOD-, LRR-, and pyrin domain-containing protein 3) inflammasome is a multimeric protein complex that is engaged in the innate immune system and plays a vital role in inflammatory reactions. Activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome and subsequent release of proinflammatory cytokines can be triggered by microbial infection or cellular injury. The NLRP3 inflammasome has been implicated in the pathogenesis of many disorders affecting the central nervous system (CNS), ranging from stroke, traumatic brain injury, and spinal cord injury to Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, epilepsy, multiple sclerosis, and depression. Furthermore, emerging evidence has suggested that mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and their exosomes may modulate NLRP3 inflammasome activation in a way that might be promising for the therapeutic management of CNS diseases. In the present review, particular focus is placed on highlighting and discussing recent scientific evidence regarding the regulatory effects of MSC-based therapies on the NLRP3 inflammasome activation and their potential to counteract proinflammatory responses and pyroptotic cell death in the CNS, thereby achieving neuroprotective impacts and improvement in behavioral impairments.

Inhibition of AIM2 inflammasome activation by SOX/ORF37 promotes lytic replication of Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus

Inflammasomes are one kind of important innate immune defense against viral and bacterial infections. Several inflammasome-forming sensors detect molecular patterns of invading pathogens and then trigger inflammasome activation and/or pyroptosis in infected cells, and viruses employ unique strategies to hijack or subvert inflammasome activation. Infection with herpesviruses induces the activation of diverse inflammasomes, including AIM2 and IFI16 inflammasomes; however, how Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) counteracts inflammasome activation largely remains unclear. Here, we reveal that the KSHV ORF37-encoded SOX protein suppresses AIM2 inflammasome activation independent of its viral DNA exonuclease activity and host mRNA turnover. SOX interacts with the AIM2 HIN domain through the C-terminal Motif VII region and disrupts AIM2:dsDNA polymerization and ASC recruitment and oligomerization. The Y443A or F444A mutation of SOX abolishes the inhibition of AIM2 inflammasome without disrupting SOX nuclease activity, and a short SOX peptide is capable of inhibiting AIM2 inflammasome activation; consequently, infection with SOX-null, Y443A, or F444A Bac16 recombinant viruses results in robust inflammasome activation, suppressed lytic replication, and increased pyroptosis in human lymphatic endothelial cells in an AIM2-dependent manner. These results reveal that KSHV SOX suppresses AIM2 inflammasome activation to promote KSHV lytic replication and inhibit pyroptosis, representing a unique mechanism for evasion of inflammasome activation during KSHV lytic cycle.

S1P/S1PR1 axis promotes macrophage M1 polarization through NLRP3 inflammasome activation in Lupus nephritis

Lupus nephritis (LN) is a common complication of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) as well as the leading cause of mortality in patients. Previous studies revealed that S1P level is elevated in plasma samples of SLE patients and murine lupus models. FTY720, targeting S1P receptors, exhibited therapeutic effects in improving the nephritis symptoms of lupus mouse models. However, few studies have discussed the potential relevance of S1P/S1PR to the pathogenesis of LN. Macrophages have been shown to be an important causative agent of renal inflammation, while the pro-inflammatory M1-type promotes kidney injury and inflammation during LN. Importantly, macrophages express various S1P receptors, and how they respond to S1P in the setting of LN remains unclear. Therefore, we examined the level of S1P in the lupus MRL/lpr mice and explored the ensuing interaction of macrophages and S1P. We found that S1P level was elevated in the MRL/lpr mice with a subsequent enhancement of the S1PR1 expression, and blocking S1PR1 by FTY720, the nephritis symptoms of MRL/lpr mice were improved. Mechanistically, we demonstrated that elevated S1P level increase the M1-type macrophage accumulation. And the in-vitro studies proved that S1P/S1PR1 was involved in the promotion of macrophage polarization towards M1 type through activation of NLRP3 inflammasome. These findings confer a novel role to macrophage S1PR1 and provide a new perspective for targeting S1P during LN.

Inflammatory Mediators of Endothelial Dysfunction

Endothelial dysfunction (ED) is characterized by imbalanced vasodilation and vasoconstriction, elevated reactive oxygen species (ROS), and inflammatory factors, as well as deficiency of nitric oxide (NO) bioavailability. It has been reported that the maintenance of endothelial cell integrity serves a significant role in human health and disease due to the involvement of the endothelium in several processes, such as regulation of vascular tone, regulation of hemostasis and thrombosis, cell adhesion, smooth muscle cell proliferation, and vascular inflammation. Inflammatory modulators/biomarkers, such as IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-12, IL-15, IL-18, and tumor necrosis factor α, or alternative anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10, and adhesion molecules (ICAM-1, VCAM-1), involved in atherosclerosis progression have been shown to predict cardiovascular diseases. Furthermore, several signaling pathways, such as NLRP3 inflammasome, that are associated with the inflammatory response and the disrupted H2S bioavailability are postulated to be new indicators for endothelial cell inflammation and its associated endothelial dysfunction. In this review, we summarize the knowledge of a plethora of reviews, research articles, and clinical trials concerning the key inflammatory modulators and signaling pathways in atherosclerosis due to endothelial dysfunction.

Dysregulation of miRNA-30e-3p targeting IL-1β in an international cohort of systemic autoinflammatory disease patients

Autoinflammation is the standard mechanism seen in systemic autoinflammatory disease (SAID) patients. This study aimed to investigate the effect of a candidate miRNA, miR-30e-3p, which was identified in our previous study, on the autoinflammation phenotype seen in SAID patients and to analyze its expression in a larger group of European SAID patients. We examined the potential anti-inflammatory effect of miR-30e-3p, which we had defined as one of the differentially expressed miRNAs in microarray analysis involved in inflammation-related pathways. This study validated our previous microarray results of miR-30e-3p in a cohort involving European SAID patients. We performed cell culture transfection assays for miR-30e-3p. Then, in transfected cells, we analyzed expression levels of pro-inflammatory genes; IL-1β, TNF-α, TGF-β, and MEFV. We also performed functional experiments, caspase-1 activation by fluorometric assay kit, apoptosis assay by flow cytometry, and cell migration assays by wound healing and filter system to understand the possible effect of miR-30e-3p on inflammation. Following these functional assays, 3'UTR luciferase activity assay and western blotting were carried out to identify the target gene of the aforementioned miRNA. MiR-30e-3p was decreased in severe European SAID patients like the Turkish patients. The functional assays associated with inflammation suggested that miR-30e-3p has an anti-inflammatory effect. 3'UTR luciferase activity assay demonstrated that miR-30e-3p directly binds to interleukin-1-beta (IL-1β), one of the critical molecules of inflammatory pathways, and reduces both RNA and protein levels of IL-1β. miR-30e-3p, which has been associated with IL-1β, a principal component of inflammation, might be of potential diagnostic and therapeutic value for SAIDs. KEY MESSAGES: miR-30e-3p, which targets IL-1β, could have a role in the pathogenesis of SAID patients. miR-30e-3p has a role in regulating inflammatory pathways like migration, caspase-1 activation. miR-30e-3p has the potential to be used for future diagnostic and therapeutic approaches.

Hesperidin may improve depressive symptoms by binding NLRP3 and influencing the pyroptosis pathway in a rat model

OBJECTIVE

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a debilitating psychiatric disorder which is common and endangers human physical and mental health. Studies have shown that hesperidin could improve the symptoms of depression with unclear mechanisms.

METHOD

In this study, hesperidin was administered to chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS) depressed mice before behavioral test, network pharmacology analysis, RNA expression microarray analysis, pathway validation and molecular docking experiments.

RESULTS

we found that hesperidin intervention could significantly improve the depressive symptoms and downregulate the expression level of pyroptosis pathway including caspase 1 (Casp1), interleukin 18 (IL18), interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and NOD-like receptor thermal protein domain associated protein 3 (NLRP3). In addition, we found that hesperidin could possibly bind to NLRP3.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study demonstrated that hesperidin had huge potential as anti-depressive neuroprotectant, and may play a role in treating MDD by regulating NLRP3-mediated pyroptosis.

Renal involvement in monogenic autoinflammatory diseases: A narrative review

Autoinflammatory diseases (AIDs) are mostly caused by dysfunctions in single genes encoding for proteins with a prominent role in the regulation of innate immunity, such as complement factors, inflammasome components, tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α, and proteins belonging to type I-interferon (IFN) signalling pathways. Due to the deposition of amyloid A (AA) fibrils in the glomeruli, unprovoked inflammation in AIDs frequently affects renal health. In fact, secondary AA amyloidosis is the most common form of amyloidosis in children. It is caused by the extracellular deposition of fibrillar low-molecular weight protein subunits resulting from the degradation and accumulation of serum amyloid A (SAA) in numerous tissues and organs, primarily the kidneys. The molecular mechanisms underlying AA amyloidosis in AIDs are the elevated levels of SAA, produced by the liver in response to pro-inflammatory cytokines, and a genetic predisposition due to specific SAA isoforms. Despite the prevalence of amyloid kidney disease, non-amyloid kidney diseases may also be responsible for chronic renal damage in children with AIDs, albeit with distinct characteristics. Glomerular damage can result in various forms of glomerulonephritis with distinct histologic characteristics and a different underlying pathophysiology. This review aims to describe the potential renal implications in patients with inflammasomopathies, type-I interferonopathies, and other rare AIDs in an effort to improve the clinical course and quality of life in paediatric patients with renal involvement.

Discovery of alantolactone as a naturally occurring NLRP3 inhibitor to alleviate NLRP3-driven inflammatory diseases in mice

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

The NLR family pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome is activated in many inflammatory conditions. So far, no low MW compounds inhibiting NLRP3 have entered clinical use. Identification of naturally occurring NLRP3 inhibitors may be beneficial to the design and development of compounds targeting NLRP3. Alantolactone is a phytochemical from a traditional Chinese medicinal plant with anti-inflammatory activity, but its precise target remains unclear.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

A bank of phytochemicals was screened for inhibitors of NLRP3-driven production of IL-1β in cultures of bone-marrow-derived macrophages from female C57BL/6 mice. Models of gouty arthritis and acute lung injury in male C57BL/6J mice were used to determine the in vivo effects of the most potent compound.

KEY RESULTS

Among the 150 compounds screened in vitro, alantolactone exhibited the highest inhibitory activity against LPS + ATP-induced production of IL-1β in macrophages, suppressing IL-1β secretion, caspase-1 activation and pyroptosis. Alantolactone directly bound to the NACHT domain of NLRP3 to inhibit activation and assembly of NLRP3 inflammasomes. Molecular simulation analysis suggested that Arg335 in NLRP3 was a critical residue for alantolactone binding, leading to suppression of NLRP3-NEK7 interaction. In vivo studies confirmed significant alleviation by alantolactone of two NLRP3-driven inflammatory conditions, acute lung injury and gouty arthritis.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

The phytochemical alantolactone inhibited activity of NLRP3 inflammasomes by directly targeting the NACHT domain of NLRP3. Alantolactone shows great potential in the treatment of NLRP3-driven diseases and could lead to the development of novel NLRP3 inhibitors.

Caspase-1-responsive fluorescence biosensors for monitoring endogenous inflammasome activation

The activation of inflammasome leads to secretion of inflammatory factors and cell pyroptosis that are critical in the pathogenesis of various chronic and acute inflammatory diseases. Recruitment and activation of caspase-1 is a marker of inflammasome activation. However, there is still lack of real-time and efficient methods to detect the activation of inflammasome, especially in vivo. Herein, we developed two activatable caspase-1-responsive fluorescence biosensors, WEHD-HCy and YVAD-HCy, to specifically monitor the activation of inflammasome in vivo. Our in vitro study demonstrated that WEHD-HCy and YVAD-HCy can sensitively and specifically respond to caspase-1 activation. Moreover, these biosensors can efficiency and specifically activated in the common inflammatory disease model, including inflammatory bowel disease, Salmonella infection, and acute arthritis. In particular, WEHD-HCy is more advantageous than YVAD-HCy to specifically image of caspase-1 activity both in vitro and in vivo. These caspase-1-responsive fluorescence biosensors provide an efficient, rapid, and in situ tool for monitoring inflammasome activation, and have the potential to be suitable for clinical diagnosis of various inflammatory diseases associated with inflammasome activation.

AIM2 and Psoriasis

Psoriasis is a chronic inflammatory skin disease occurring worldwide, with multiple systemic complications, which seriously affect the quality of life and physical and mental health of patients. The pathogenesis of psoriasis is related to the environment, genetics, epigenetics, and dysregulation of immune cells such as T cells, dendritic cells (DCs), and nonimmune cells such as keratinocytes. Absent in melanoma 2 (AIM2), a susceptibility gene locus for psoriasis, has been strongly linked to the genetic and epigenetic aspects of psoriasis and increased in expression in psoriatic keratinocytes. AIM2 was found to be activated in an inflammasome-dependent way to release IL-1β and IL-18 to mediate inflammation, and to participate in immune regulation in psoriasis, or in an inflammasome-independent way by regulating the function of regulatory T(Treg) cells or programming cell death in keratinocytes as well as controlling the proliferative state of different cells. AIM2 may also play a role in the recurrence of psoriasis by trained immunity. In this review, we will elaborate on the characteristics of AIM2 and how AIM2 mediates the development of psoriasis.

NLRP3: A Promising Therapeutic Target for Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), which includes Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, is an intestinal disease with complicated pathological mechanisms. The incidence of IBD has been increasing in recent years, which has a significant negative impact on the lives of patients. Therefore, it is particularly important to find new therapeutic targets and innovative drugs for the development of IBD. Recent studies have revealed that NLRP3 inflammatory vesicles can play an important role in maintaining intestinal homeostasis and sustaining the intestinal immune response in IBD. On the one hand, aberrant activation of NLRP3 inflammatory vesicles may cause excessive immune response by converting caspase-1, proIL-18, and proIL-1β to their active forms and releasing pro-inflammatory cytokines to stimulate the development and progression of IBD, and we can improve IBD by targeting blockade of NLRP3 activation. On the other hand, NLRP3 may also play an enter protective role by maintaining the homeostasis of the intestinal immune system. In this paper, we reviewed the activation mechanism of NLRP3 inflammasome, and the effects of NLRP3 inflammasome activation on IBD are discussed from two different perspectives: pathology and protection. At the same time, we listed the effects of direct inhibitors, indirect inhibitors, and natural inhibitors of NLRP3 inflammasome on IBD in combination with cutting-edge advances and clinical practice results, providing new targets and new ideas for the clinical treatment of IBD.

Paeoniflorin alleviates inflammatory response in IBS-D mouse model via downregulation of the NLRP3 inflammasome pathway with involvement of miR-29a

Paeoniflorin has been traditionally used to treat pain and immunologic derangement in China. However, its detailed mechanism remains to be illuminated. We investigated the mechanism by which paeoniflorin alleviates the inflammatory response in a mouse model of irritable bowel syndrome with predominant diarrhea (IBS-D). C57BL/6 wild type (WT) and miR-29a knockout (KO) mice were randomly divided into control, model, rifaximin, and paeoniflorin groups (n = 7). IBS-D model was induced by single intracolonic instillation of 0.1 mL trinitro-benzene-sulfonic acid (TNBS, 50 mg/mL) combined with restraint stress for seven consecutive days. The treatment groups received rifaximin (100 mg/kg) and paeoniflorin (50 mg/kg) via intragastric administration for seven days, respectively. The results showed that the fecal water content, fecal pellet output, visceral sensitivity, and histopathological score after paeoniflorin treatment were lower than those of the model group in both WT and miR-29a KO mice (P < 0.05). In both lineage mice, damage was observed in the colon tissues of model group, while paeoniflorin treatment partially ameliorated the tissue damage. Serum levels of DAO, DLA, IL-1β, IL-18, TNF-α, and MPO were decreased after paeoniflorin treatment (P < 0.05), with miR-29a KO mice in a lower level compared with that of WT mice. RT-PCR showed that the relative expression of miR-29a, NF-κB (p65), NLRP3, ASC, caspase-1, IL-1β, and TNF-α was downregulated while NKRF was upregulated after paeoniflorin treatment (P < 0.05). Immunohistochemistry showed that intestinal epithelial protein levels of NLRP3, ASC, and caspase-1 decreased while those of Claudin-1 and ZO-1 increased in the paeoniflorin treatment group (P < 0.05). In general, compared with WT mice, NLRP3 inflammasome pathway targets was in much lower expression level than miR-29a KO mice. In conclusion, paeoniflorin could inhibit abnormal activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome pathway by inhibiting miR-29a in IBS-D, thereby relieving the inflammatory response of the intestinal mucosa and reconstructing the intestinal epithelial barrier.

Gene expression changes implicate specific peripheral immune responses to Deep and Lobar Intracerebral Hemorrhages in humans

The peripheral immune system response to Intracerebral Hemorrhage (ICH) may differ with ICH in different brain locations. Thus, we investigated peripheral blood mRNA expression of Deep ICH, Lobar ICH, and vascular risk factor-matched control subjects (n = 59). Deep ICH subjects usually had hypertension. Some Lobar ICH subjects had cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA). Genes and gene networks in Deep ICH and Lobar ICH were compared to controls. We found 774 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and 2 co-expressed gene modules associated with Deep ICH, and 441 DEGs and 5 modules associated with Lobar ICH. Pathway enrichment showed some common immune/inflammatory responses between locations including Autophagy, T Cell Receptor, Inflammasome, and Neuroinflammation Signaling. Th2, Interferon, GP6, and BEX2 Signaling were unique to Deep ICH. Necroptosis Signaling, Protein Ubiquitination, Amyloid Processing, and various RNA Processing terms were unique to Lobar ICH. Finding amyloid processing pathways in blood of Lobar ICH patients suggests peripheral immune cells may participate in processes leading to perivascular/vascular amyloid in CAA vessels and/or are involved in its removal. This study identifies distinct peripheral blood transcriptome architectures in Deep and Lobar ICH, emphasizes the need for considering location in ICH studies/clinical trials, and presents potential location-specific treatment targets.

Inflammasome and Inflammatory Programmed Cell Death in Chromoblastomycosis

Chromoblastomycosis (CBM) is a chronic, progressive fungal disease of the skin and subcutaneous tissue caused by a group of dematiaceous fungi. Verrucous lesions present parasite-rich granulomas and predominance of a Th2 patterns of cytokines. The inflammasome constitutes a macromolecular protein complex that play a role in the activation of caspase 1 that cleaves pro-IL1β and pro-IL18, essential mediators of inflammation, and also activates pyroptosis. We intended to explore the presence and a possible role of inflammasome elements in cutaneous human lesions in CBM, considering the expression of IL1β, IL18, caspase 1, NLRP1, and also RIPK3, a key downstream component of necroptosis signaling. 35 skin biopsies of cutaneous lesions of verrucous form of CBM and 10 biopsies from normal skin were selected. The diagnosis was based on histological and clinical analysis. An immunohistochemical protocol was performed. The histopathological analysis evidenced epidermis with hyperkeratosis, irregular acanthosis, and micro abscesses. The dermis presented suppurative granulomas and inflammatory infiltrate composed by giant cells, macrophages, epithelioid cells, lymphocytes, and some eosinophils. Positive cells were distributed in the inflammatory infiltrate, with an increased number of cells expressing caspase 1, IL1β and IL18. Cells expressing RIPK3 and NLRP1 were less frequent. The intense presence of caspase 1, IL1β and IL18, allied to NLRP1 expression, suggest that inflammasome and pyroptosis could play a role in the immune response against fungal agents of CBM. Our results, allied to data from literature, could suggest that inflammasome-mediated response and pyroptosis could be a target to be explored to decrease CBM lesions.

Pan-cancer analysis of AIM2 inflammasomes with potential implications for immunotherapy in human cancer: A bulk omics research and single cell sequencing validation

Background

The absent in melanoma 2 (AIM2) inflammasome is a multi-protein platform that recognizes aberrant cytoplasmic double-stranded DNA(dsDNA) and induces cytokine maturation, release, and pyroptosis. Some studies found that the AIM2 inflammasome was a double-edged sword in many cancers. However, there have been fewer studies on AIM2 inflammasomes in pan-cancer.

Methods

Gene expression was analyzed using The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database and The Genotype-Tissue Expression (GTEx) database. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) was used to validate the expression of the AIM2. We used the survival curve to explore the prognostic significance of the AIM2 inflammasomes in pan-cancer. Mutations and methylation of AIM2 inflammasome-related genes (AIM2i-RGs) were also comprehensively analyzed. Single sample gene set enrichment analysis was used to calculate the AIM2 inflammasomes score and explore the correlation of the AIM2 inflammasomes score with immune-related genes and immune infiltrations. The function of AIM2 inflammasomes in pan-cancer was analyzed at the single-cell level. Single-cell transcriptome sequencing (scRNA-seq) data was used to assess the activation state of the AIM2 inflammasomes in the tumor microenvironment.

Results

We found that AIM2i-RGs were aberrantly expressed in tumors and were strongly associated with prognosis. In pan-cancer, the expression of AIM2i-RGs was positively associated with copy number variation and negatively associated with methylation. In AIM2i-RGs, missense mutations were the predominant type of single nucleotide polymorphism. Moreover, we found that the drugs dimethyloxallyl glycine (DMOG) and Z-LNle-CHO may be sensitive to the AIM2 inflammasomes. The AIM2 inflammasomes score was significantly and positively correlated with the tumor immunity score and the stroma score. In most tumors, the AIM2 inflammasomes score was significantly and positively correlated with CD8+ T cell abundance in the tumor microenvironment. Additionally, the AIM2 inflammasomes score was significantly correlated with immune checkpoint genes in pan-cancer as well as immune checkpoint therapy-related markers including tumor mutational burden (TMB), microsatellite instability(MSI), and tumor immune dysfunction and exclusion(TIDE). scRNA-seq analysis suggested that AIM2 inflammasomes differ significantly among different cells in the tumor microenvironment. IHC confirmed low expression of AIM2 in colorectal cancer.

Discussion

AIM2 inflammasomes may be a new target for future tumor therapy It is likely involved in tumor development, and its high expression may serve as a predictor of tumor immunotherapy efficacy.

NF-κB and its crosstalk with endoplasmic reticulum stress in atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis (AS) is a common cardiovascular disease with complex pathogenesis, in which multiple pathways and their interweaving regulatory mechanism remain unclear. The primary transcription factor NF-κB plays a critical role in AS via modulating the expression of a series of inflammatory mediators under various stimuli such as cytokines, microbial antigens, and intracellular stresses. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, caused by the disrupted synthesis and secretion of protein, links inflammation, metabolic signals, and other cellular processes via the unfolded protein response (UPR). Both NF-κB and ER stress share the intersection regarding their molecular regulation and function and are regarded as critical individual contributors to AS. In this review, we summarize the multiple interactions between NF-κB and ER stress activation, including the UPR, NLRP3 inflammasome, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, which have been ignored in the pathogenesis of AS. Given the multiple links between NF-κB and ER stress, we speculate that the integrated network contributes to the understanding of molecular mechanisms of AS. This review aims to provide an insight into these interactions and their underlying roles in the progression of AS, highlighting potential pharmacological targets against the atherosclerotic inflammatory process.

NLRP3 Inflammasome/Pyroptosis: A Key Driving Force in Diabetic Cardiomyopathy

Diabetic cardiomyopathy (DCM), a serious diabetic complication, is a kind of low-grade inflammatory cardiovascular disorder. Due to the high risk of morbidity and mortality, DCM has demanded the attention of medical researchers worldwide. The pathophysiological nature of DCM is intricate, and the genesis and development of which are a consequence of the coaction of many factors. However, the exact pathogenesis mechanism of DCM remains unclear. Pyroptosis is a newly identified programmed cell death (PCD) that is directly related to gasdermin D(GSDMD). It is characterized by pore formation on the cell plasma membrane, the release of inflammatory mediators, and cell lysis. The initiation of pyroptosis is closely correlated with NOD-like receptor 3 (NLRP3) activation, which activates caspase-1 and promotes the cleaving of GSDMD. In addition to adjusting the host’s immune defense, NLRP3 inflammasome/pyroptosis plays a critical role in controlling the systemic inflammatory response. Recent evidence has indicated that NLRP3 inflammasome/pyroptosis has a strong link with DCM. Targeting the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome or pyroptosis may be a hopeful therapeutic strategy for DCM. The focus of this review is to summarize the relevant mechanisms of pyroptosis and the relative contributions in DCM, highlighting the potential therapeutic targets in this field.

MicroRNA-223 downregulation promotes HBx-induced podocyte pyroptosis by targeting the NLRP3 inflammasome

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) and its related protein, HBV X (HBx), play an important role in podocyte injury in HBV-associated glomerulonephritis (HBV-GN). The microRNA MiR-223 is expressed in several diseases, including HBV-associated disease, while the nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome plays a major role in pyroptosis. In this study, we investigated the function and mechanism of action of miR-223 in HBx-induced podocyte pyroptosis. A quantitative real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) assay showed that miR-223 was downregulated in HBx-transfected podocytes. Transfection with an miR-223 mimic abolished the expression of the NLRP3 inflammasome and the cytokines that are released as a result of NLRP3 overexpression. Moreover, transfection with HBx and NLRP3 overexpression plasmids increased the expression of pyroptosis-related proteins, especially in the presence of miR-223 inhibitors. Thus, miR-223 downregulation plays an important role in HBx-induced podocyte pyroptosis by targeting the NLRP3 inflammasome, suggesting that miR-223 is a potential therapeutic target for alleviating HBV-GN inflammation.

miR-181a-5p Inhibits Pyroptosis in Sepsis-Induced Acute Kidney Injury through Downregulation of NEK7

Sepsis is a life-threatening organ dysfunction caused by the uncontrolled inflammation, easily affecting the kidney. Sepsis-induced acute kidney injury (S-AKI) has high morbidity and mortality, of which the pathophysiological mechanisms have not been completely illuminated, leading to nonspecific therapies. Specific microRNAs were related with the pathogenesis of AKI. However, only limited studies focused on the pyroptosis in the context of S-AKI. The in vitro LPS-induced HK-2 cell model and in vivo CLP-induced mouse model were established. qRT-PCR, Western blot, ELISA, and RNA pulldown were used for expression examination. Multiple biological databases were used for miRNA screening. H&E staining and IHC staining were performed. The LPS-induced HK-2 cells showed significantly increased (P < 0.01) fluorescence intensity of N-GSDMD and ASC compared with the HK-2 cells. The expression of NLRP3, NEK7, ASC, active caspase-1, and N-GSDMD was significantly enhanced (P < 0.05) and the inflammatory factors including IL-18, IL-1β, and THF-α were all increased in LPS-induced HK-2 cells and CLP-induced mice. Renal edema, serum Cr and BUN, and expression of KIM-1 and NGAL were significantly higher (P < 0.05) in CLP-induced S-AKI mice than the sham group. miR-101-3p, miR-144-3p, miR-181a-5p, miR-4262, and miR-513b-5p could inhibit NEK7. NEK7 is an interacting protein of miRNA-181a-5p. miR-181a-5p inhibits pyroptosis of the LPS-induced HK-2 cells through downregulation of NEK7. Pyroptosis of HK-2 cells promotes inflammation. miR-181a-5p inhibits pyroptosis through downregulation of NEK7 in LPS-induced HK-2 cells and CLP-induced mice. Our study indicated miR-181a-5p as a new potential therapeutic target for S-AKI therapy.

Therapeutic potential of MCC950, a specific inhibitor of NLRP3 inflammasome

NOD-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3), an important intracellular pattern recognition receptor, is a component of the NLRP3 inflammasome along with apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a caspase-recruitment domain (ASC) and pro-caspase-1. Previous studies have shown that dysregulation of NLRP3 inflammasome may be associated with several human diseases, and therefore blocking NLRP3 inflammasome activation may represent a therapeutic strategy for various diseases. MCC950 is a specific small-molecule inhibitor that selectively blocks activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome. In recent years, research on MCC950 has expanded; its targets are gradually being elucidated, and its metabolism and toxicity have been a focus of study. Preclinical research of MCC950 has yielded promising findings, and MCC950 has shown good efficacy in the treatment of autoimmune diseases, cardiovascular diseases, metabolic diseases and other diseases. Furthermore, clinical trials of MCC950 and other inhibitors of NLRP3 inflammasome have also been conducted. In this review, we discuss the drug targets, metabolism, toxicity and preclinical and clinical research advances of MCC950. We further discuss the clinical therapeutic potential of MCC950 to provide insights for the further study and application of MCC950.

Focus on the Role of the NLRP3 Inflammasome in Multiple Sclerosis: Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Therapeutics

Neuroinflammation is initiated with an aberrant innate immune response in the central nervous system (CNS) and is involved in many neurological diseases. Inflammasomes are intracellular multiprotein complexes that can be used as platforms to induce the maturation and secretion of proinflammatory cytokines and pyroptosis, thus playing a pivotal role in neuroinflammation. Among the inflammasomes, the nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-, leucine-rich repeat- and pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome is well-characterized and contributes to many neurological diseases, such as multiple sclerosis (MS), Alzheimer's disease (AD), and ischemic stroke. MS is a chronic autoimmune disease of the CNS, and its hallmarks include chronic inflammation, demyelination, and neurodegeneration. Studies have demonstrated a relationship between MS and the NLRP3 inflammasome. To date, the pathogenesis of MS is not fully understood, and clinical studies on novel therapies are still underway. Here, we review the activation mechanism of the NLRP3 inflammasome, its role in MS, and therapies targeting related molecules, which may be beneficial in MS.

Insights into inflammasome regulation: cellular, molecular, and pathogenic control of inflammasome activation

Maintenance of immune homeostasis is an intricate process wherein inflammasomes play a pivotal role by contributing to innate and adaptive immune responses. Inflammasomes are ensembles of adaptor proteins that can trigger a signal following innate sensing of pathogens or non-pathogens eventuating in the inductions of IL-1β and IL-18. These inflammatory cytokines substantially influence the antigen-presenting cell's costimulatory functions and T helper cell differentiation, contributing to adaptive immunity. As acute and chronic disease conditions may accompany parallel tissue damage, we analyze the critical role of extracellular factors such as cytokines, amyloids, cholesterol crystals, etc., intracellular metabolites, and signaling molecules regulating inflammasome activation/inhibition. We develop an operative framework for inflammasome function and regulation by host cell factors and pathogens. While inflammasomes influence the innate and adaptive immune components' interplay modulating the anti-pathogen adaptive immune response, pathogens may target inflammasome inhibition as a survival strategy. As trapped between health and diseases, inflammasomes serve as promising therapeutic targets and their modus operandi serves as a scientific rationale for devising better therapeutic strategies.

A Pro-Inflammatory Signature Constitutively Activated in Monogenic Autoinflammatory Diseases

Autoinflammatory diseases (AIDs) are disorders characterised by recurrent inflammatory episodes in charge of different organs with no apparent involvement of autoantibodies or antigen-specific T lymphocytes. Few common clinical features have been identified among all monogenic AIDs (mAIDs), while the search for a common molecular pattern is still ongoing. The aim of this study was to increase knowledge on the inflammatory pathways in the development of mAIDs in order to identify possible predictive or diagnostic biomarkers for each disease and to develop future preventive and therapeutic strategies. Using protein array-based systems, we evaluated two signalling pathways known to be involved in inflammation and a wide range of inflammatory mediators (pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines) in a cohort of 23 patients affected by different mAIDs, as FMF, TRAPS, MKD, Blau syndrome (BS), and NLRP12D. Overall, we observed upregulation of multiple signalling pathway intermediates at protein levels in mAIDs patients’ PBMCs, compared with healthy controls, with significant differences also between patients. FMF, TRAPS, and BS presented also peculiar activations of inflammatory pathways that can distinguish them. MAPK pathway activation, however, seems to be a common feature. The serum level of cytokines and chemokines produced clear differences between patients with distinct diseases, which can help distinguish each autoinflammatory disease. The FMF cytokine production profile appears broader than that of TRAPS, which, in turn, has higher cytokine levels than BS. Our findings suggest an ongoing subclinical inflammation related to the abnormal and constitutive signalling pathways and define an elevated inflammatory cytokine signature. Moreover, the upregulation of Th17-related cytokines emphasises the important role for Th17 and/or Th17-like cells also in monogenic AIDs.

Panaxadiol inhibits IL-1β secretion by suppressing zinc finger protein 91-regulated activation of non-canonical caspase-8 inflammasome and MAPKs in macrophages

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The use of Panax ginseng C.A.Mey. in traditional Chinese medicine dates back to about 5000 years ago thanks to its several beneficial and healing properties. Panaxadiol is a triterpenoid sapogenin monomer found in the roots of Panax ginseng C.A.Mey. and has been proven to have various bio-activities such as anti-inflammatory, anti-tumour and neuroprotective effects.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The present study focuses on investigating the inflammation inhibitory effect and mechanism of panaxadiol by regulating zinc finger protein 91-regulated activation of non-canonical caspase-8 inflammasome and MAPKs in macrophages.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In vitro, the underlying mechanisms by which panaxadiol inhibits ZFP91-regulated IL-1β expression were investigated using molecular docking, western blotting, RT-PCR, ELISA, immunofluorescence, and immunoprecipitation assays. In vivo, colitis was induced by oral administration of DSS in drinking water, and peritonitis was induced by an intraperitoneal injection of alum. Recombinant adeno-associated virus (AAV serotype 9) vector was used to establish ZFP91 knockdown mouse.

RESULTS

We confirmed that panaxadiol inhibited IL-1β secretion by suppressing ZFP91 in macrophages. Further analysis revealed that panaxadiol inhibited IL-1β secretion by suppressing ZFP91-regulated activation of non-canonical caspase-8 inflammasome. Meanwhile, panaxadiol inhibited IL-1β secretion by suppressing ZFP91-regulated activation of MAPKs. In vivo, prominent anti-inflammatory effects of panaxadiol were demonstrated in a DSS induced acute colitis mouse model and in an alum-induced peritonitis model by suppressing ZFP91-regulated secretion of inflammatory mediators, consistent with the results of the AAV-ZFP91 knockdown in mice.

CONCLUSIONS

We report for the first time that panaxadiol inhibited IL-1β secretion by suppressing ZFP91-regulated activation of non-canonical caspase-8 inflammasome and MAPKs, providing evidence for anti-inflammation mechanism of panaxadiol treatment for inflammatory diseases.

Inflammasome activation leads to cDC1-independent cross-priming of CD8 T cells by epithelial cell-derived antigen

The innate immune system detects pathogens and initiates adaptive immune responses. Inflammasomes are central components of the innate immune system, but whether inflammasomes provide sufficient signals to activate adaptive immunity is unclear. In intestinal epithelial cells (IECs), inflammasomes activate a lytic form of cell death called pyroptosis, leading to epithelial cell expulsion and the release of cytokines. Here, we employed a genetic system to show that simultaneous antigen expression and inflammasome activation specifically in IECs is sufficient to activate CD8+ T cells. By genetic elimination of direct T cell priming by IECs, we found that IEC-derived antigens were cross-presented to CD8+ T cells. However, cross-presentation of IEC-derived antigen to CD8+ T cells only partially depended on IEC pyroptosis. In the absence of inflammasome activation, cross-priming of CD8+ T cells required Batf3+ dendritic cells (conventional type one dendritic cells [cDC1]), whereas cross-priming in the presence of inflammasome activation required a Zbtb46+ but Batf3-independent cDC population. These data suggest the existence of parallel inflammasome-dependent and inflammasome-independent pathways for cross-presentation of IEC-derived antigens.

Comparative analysis of aneurysm subtypes associated genes based on protein-protein interaction network

The arterial aneurysm refers to localized dilation of blood vessel wall and is common in general population. The majority of aneurysm cases remains asymptomatic until a sudden rupture which is usually fatal and of extremely high mortality (~ 50-60%). Therefore, early diagnosis, prevention and management of aneurysm are in urgent need. Unfortunately, current understanding of disease driver genes of various aneurysm subtypes is still limited, and without appropriate biomarkers and drug targets no specialized drug has been developed for aneurysm treatment. In this research, aneurysm subtypes were analyzed based on protein-protein interaction network to better understand aneurysm pathogenesis. By measuring network-based proximity of aneurysm subtypes, we identified a relevant closest relationship between aortic aneurysm and aortic dissection. An improved random walk method was performed to prioritize candidate driver genes of each aneurysm subtype. Thereafter, transcriptomes of 6 human aneurysm subtypes were collected and differential expression genes were identified to further filter potential driver genes. Functional enrichment of above driver genes indicated a general role of ubiquitination and programmed cell death in aneurysm pathogenesis. Especially, we further observed participation of BCL-2-mediated apoptosis pathway and caspase-1 related pyroptosis in the development of cerebral aneurysm and aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage in corresponding transcriptomes.

Inhibitory Role of Berberine, an Isoquinoline Alkaloid, on NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation for the Treatment of Inflammatory Diseases

The pyrin domain-containing multiprotein complex NLRP3 inflammasome, consisting of the NLRP3 protein, ASC adaptor, and procaspase-1, plays a vital role in the pathophysiology of several inflammatory disorders, including neurological and metabolic disorders, chronic inflammatory diseases, and cancer. Several phytochemicals act as promising anti-inflammatory agents and are usually regarded to have potential applications as complementary or alternative therapeutic agents against chronic inflammatory disorders. Various in vitro and in vivo studies have reported the anti-inflammatory role of berberine (BRB), an organic heteropentacyclic phytochemical and natural isoquinoline, in inhibiting NLRP3 inflammasome-dependent inflammation against many disorders. This review summarizes the mechanism and regulation of NLRP3 inflammasome activation and its involvement in inflammatory diseases, and discusses the current scientific evidence on the repressive role of BRB on NLRP3 inflammasome pathways along with the possible mechanism(s) and their potential in counteracting various inflammatory diseases.

Activation of CB2 receptor inhibits pyroptosis and subsequently ameliorates cecal ligation and puncture-induced sepsis

BACKGROUND

Cannabinoid receptor 2 (CB2), whose activities are upregulated during sepsis, may be related to the regulation of inflammatory programmed cell death called pyroptosis. The aim of this study is to investigate the role of CB2 activation in attenuation of inflammation through inhibiting pyroptosis in cecal ligation puncture (CLP)-induced sepsis andlipopolysaccharide (LPS) + ATP-stimulated macrophages.

METHODS

C57BL/6 mice were subjected to CLP procedure and treated with CB2 agonist HU308 and CB2 antagonist AM630. Lung tissues were collected for analyses of lung W/D ratio, inflammatory factors levels, and pyroptosis-related protein expression. Murine bone-marrow-derived macrophages (BMDM) were treated with LPS and ATP to construct a septic model in vitro in the presence of HU308 and AM630 for assessment of cell injury, cytokine levels and pyroptosis-related protein expression accordingly. To verify the relationship between CB2 receptors and pyroptosis in the process of inflammatory response, BMDM were transduced with CB2 receptors knockdown lentiviral vectors in the presence of HU308 and AM630 for assessment of pyroptosis-related protein expression.

RESULTS

CB2 activation ameliorated the release of inflammatory mediators. The results showed that CLP-induced pyroptosis was elevated, and CB2 agonist HU308 treatment inhibited the pyroptosis activity through a decrease of the protein levels of NLRP3 as well as caspase-1 and GSDMD activation. Similar results were obtained in BMDM after LPS and ATP treatment. Treatment with CB2 knockdown lentiviral particles prevented the HU308-induced decreases in cell pyroptosis, demonstrating that endogenous CB2 receptors are required for the cannabinoid-induced cell protection.

CONCLUSIONS

CB2 receptors activation plays a protective role in sepsis through inhibition of pyroptosis. The effect of CB2 receptors against pyroptosis depends on the existence of endogenous CB2 receptors.

Therapeutic potential of ginger against COVID-19: Is there enough evidence?

In addition to the respiratory system, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) strikes other systems, including the digestive, circulatory, urogenital, and even the central nervous system, as its receptor angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) is expressed in various organs, such as lungs, intestine, heart, esophagus, kidneys, bladder, testis, liver, and brain. Different mechanisms, in particular, massive virus replication, extensive apoptosis and necrosis of the lung-related epithelial and endothelial cells, vascular leakage, hyper-inflammatory responses, overproduction of pro-inflammatory mediators, cytokine storm, oxidative stress, downregulation of ACE2, and impairment of the renin-angiotensin system contribute to the COVID-19 pathogenesis. Currently, COVID-19 is a global pandemic with no specific anti-viral treatment. The favorable capabilities of the ginger were indicated in patients suffering from osteoarthritis, neurodegenerative disorders, rheumatoid arthritis, type 2 diabetes, respiratory distress, liver diseases and primary dysmenorrheal. Ginger or its compounds exhibited strong anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative influences in numerous animal models. This review provides evidence regarding the potential effects of ginger against SARS-CoV-2 infection and highlights its antiviral, anti-inflammatory, antioxidative, and immunomodulatory impacts in an attempt to consider this plant as an alternative therapeutic agent for COVID-19 treatment.

Inflammasomes and Colorectal Cancer

Inflammasomes are important intracellular multiprotein signaling complexes that modulate the activation of caspase-1 and induce levels of the proinflammatory cytokines interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and IL-18 in response to pathogenic microorganisms and molecules that originated from host proteins. Inflammasomes play contradictory roles in the development of inflammation-induced cancers. Based on several findings, inflammasomes can initiate and promote carcinogenesis. On the contrary, inflammasomes also exhibit anticancer effects by triggering pyroptosis and immunoregulatory functions. Herein, we review extant studies delving into different functions of inflammasomes in colorectal cancer development.

hucMSC-derived exosomes attenuate colitis by regulating macrophage pyroptosis via the miR-378a-5p/NLRP3 axis

Background

Human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cell (hucMSC)-derived exosomes are recognized as novel cell-free therapeutic agents for inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), a condition caused by dysregulated intestinal mucosal immunity. In this event, macrophage pyroptosis, a process of cell death following the activation of NLRP3 (NOD-like receptor family, pyrin domain-containing 3) inflammasomes, is believed to partially account for inflammatory reactions. However, the role of macrophage pyroptosis in the process of hucMSC-derived exosomes alleviating colitis remains unknown. This study aimed at exploring the therapeutic effect and mechanism of hucMSC-derived exosomes on colitis repair.

Methods

In vivo, we used BALB/c mice to establish a dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis model and administrated hucMSC-derived exosomes intravenously to estimate its curative effect. Human myeloid leukemia mononuclear (THP-1) cells and mouse peritoneal macrophages (MPMs) were stimulated with lipopolysaccharides (LPS) and Nigericin to activate NLRP3 inflammasomes, which simulated an inflammation environment in vitro. A microRNA mimic was used to verify the role of miR-378a-5p/NLRP3 axis in the colitis repair.

Results

hucMSC-derived exosomes inhibited the activation of NLRP3 inflammasomes in the mouse colon. The secretion of interleukin (IL)-18, IL-1β, and Caspase-1 cleavage was suppressed, resulting in reduced cell pyroptosis. The same outcome was observed in the in vitro cell experiments, where the co-culture of THP-1 cells and MPMs with hucMSC-derived exosomes caused decreased expression of NLRP3 inflammasomes and increased cell survival. Furthermore, miR-378a-5p was highly expressed in hucMSC-derived exosomes and played a vital function in colitis repair.

Conclusion

hucMSC-derived exosomes carrying miR-378a-5p inhibited NLRP3 inflammasomes and abrogated cell pyroptosis to protect against DSS-induced colitis.

Monogenic Autoinflammatory Diseases: State of the Art and Future Perspectives

Systemic autoinflammatory diseases are a heterogeneous family of disorders characterized by a dysregulation of the innate immune system, in which sterile inflammation primarily develops through antigen-independent hyperactivation of immune pathways. In most cases, they have a strong genetic background, with mutations in single genes involved in inflammation. Therefore, they can derive from different pathogenic mechanisms at any level, such as dysregulated inflammasome-mediated production of cytokines, intracellular stress, defective regulatory pathways, altered protein folding, enhanced NF-kappaB signalling, ubiquitination disorders, interferon pathway upregulation and complement activation. Since the discover of pathogenic mutations of the pyrin-encoding gene MEFV in Familial Mediterranean Fever, more than 50 monogenic autoinflammatory diseases have been discovered thanks to the advances in genetic sequencing: the advent of new genetic analysis techniques and the discovery of genes involved in autoinflammatory diseases have allowed a better understanding of the underlying innate immunologic pathways and pathogenetic mechanisms, thus opening new perspectives in targeted therapies. Moreover, this field of research has become of great interest, since more than a hundred clinical trials for autoinflammatory diseases are currently active or recently concluded, allowing us to hope for considerable acquisitions for the next few years. General paediatricians need to be aware of the importance of this group of diseases and they should consider autoinflammatory diseases in patients with clinical hallmarks, in order to guide further examinations and refer the patient to a specialist rheumatologist. Here we resume the pathogenesis, clinical aspects and diagnosis of the most important autoinflammatory diseases in children.

The Effect of Porphyromonas gingivalis Lipopolysaccharide on the Pyroptosis of Gingival Fibroblasts

Periodontitis is a chronic inflammatory disease induced by Porphyromonas gingivalis (P. gingivalis) and other pathogens. P. gingivalis release various virulence factors including lipopolysaccharide (LPS). However, whether P. gingivalis-LPS inducing pyroptosis in human gingival fibroblasts (HGFs) remains unknown. In present study, P. gingivalis-LPS decreased the membrane integrity of HGFs, and pyroptosis-associated cytokines were upregulated at the mRNA level. In addition, pyroptosis proteins were highly expressed in gingival tissues of periodontitis. P. gingivalis-LPS induced gingivitis in the rat model, and the expression level of pyroptosis-associated proteins increased. Together, P. gingivalis-LPS can activate the pyroptosis reaction, which may be a pro-pyroptosis status in a relative low concentration.

PYRIN inflammasome activation abrogates IL1Ra expression providing a new mechanism underlying FMF pathogenesis

OBJECTIVE

Aberrant PYRIN inflammasome activity triggers FMF pathogenesis but the exact mechanism remains elusive and an obstacle to efficient treatment. Herein, we sought to identify PYRIN inflammasome specific mechanisms to improve FMF treatment and diagnostics in the future.

METHODS

PYRIN-specific protein secretion was assessed by proteome analysis in U937 derived macrophages, and specific findings were confirmed in PYRIN inflammasome activated monocytes from healthy blood donors (HD) and FMF patients, stratified by MEFV genotype categories corresponding to a suspected increasing FMF disease severity.

RESULTS

Proteome data revealed differential secretion pattern of IL1Rα from PYRIN and NLRP3 activated U937 derived macrophages, which was verified by ELISA and qPCR. Moreover, PYRIN activation significantly reduced IL1RN mRNA expression (p<0.001) and IL1Rα secretion (p<0.01) in healthy donor- and FMF monocytes, respectively. Independent of MEFV genotype, unstimulated FMF monocytes from colchicine treated patients secreted lower amounts of IL1Rα as compared to healthy donors (p<0.05) and displayed decreased ratios of IL1Rα/IL1β (p<0.05), suggesting a reduced anti-inflammatory capacity.

CONCLUSION

Our data show an inherent lack of IL-1 receptor antagonist expression specific to PYRIN inflammasome activation, providing a new mechanism underlying FMF pathogenesis. The reduced IL1Rα levels in FMF monocytes suggest a diminished anti-inflammatory capacity potentially leaving FMF patient monocytes more sensitive to pro-inflammatory stimuli, regardless of being in colchicine therapy. Thus, considering the potential clinical consequence of reduced monocyte IL1Rα secretion in FMF patients, we suggest further investigations into IL1Rα dynamics and its potential implications for FMF treatment in the future.

Mast Cells as a Double Edged Sword in Immunity: Disorders of Mast Cell Activation and Therapeutic Management. Second of Two Parts

Mast cells (MCs) bear many receptors that allow them to respond to a variety of exogenous and endogenous stimuli. However, MC function is dual since they can initiate pathological events or protect the host against infectious challenges. The role of MCs in disease will be analyzed in a broad sense, describing cellular and molecular mechanisms related to their involvement in auto-inflammatory diseases, asthma, autoimmune diseases and cancer. On the other hand, their protective role in the course of bacterial, fungal and parasitic infections will also be illustrated. As far as treatment of MC-derived diseases is concerned, allergen immunotherapy as well as other attempts to reduce MC-activation will be outlined according to the recent data. Finally, in agreement with current literature and our own data polyphenols have been demonstrated to attenuate type I allergic reactions and contact dermatitis in response to nickel. The use of polyphenols in these diseases will be discussed also in view of MC involvement.