Traditional Patchouli Essential Oil modulates the host's immune responses and gut microbiota and exhibits potent anti-cancer effects in ApcMin/+ mice

Targeting the STAT3/IL-36G signaling pathway can be a promising approach to treat rosacea

BACKGROUND

Rosacea is an inflammatory skin disorder characterized by the release of inflammatory mediators from keratinocytes, which are thought to play a crucial role in its pathogenesis. Despite an incidence of approximately 5.5%, rosacea is associated with a poor quality of life. However, as the pathogenesis of rosacea remains enigmatic, treatment options are limited.

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the pathogenesis of rosacea and explore new therapeutic strategies.

METHODS

Transcriptome data from rosacea patients combined with immunohistochemical staining were used to investigate the activation of STAT3 in rosacea. The role of STAT3 activation in rosacea was subsequently explored by inhibiting STAT3 activation both in vivo and in vitro. The key molecules downstream of STAT3 activation were identified through data analysis and experiments. Dual-luciferase assay and ChIP-qPCR analysis were used to validate the direct binding of STAT3 to the IL-36G promoter. DARTS, in combination with experimental screening, was employed to identify effective drugs targeting STAT3 for rosacea treatment.

RESULTS

STAT3 signaling was hyperactivated in rosacea and served as a promoter of the keratinocyte-driven inflammatory response. Mechanistically, activated STAT3 directly bind to the IL-36G promoter region to amplify downstream inflammatory signals by promoting IL-36G transcription, and treatment with a neutralizing antibody (α-IL36γ) could mitigate rosacea-like inflammation. Notably, a natural plant extract (pogostone), which can interact with STAT3 directly to inhibit its activation and affect the STAT3/IL36G signaling pathway, was screened as a promising topical medication for rosacea treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study revealed a pivotal role for STAT3/IL36G signaling in the development of rosacea, suggesting that targeting this pathway might be a potential strategy for rosacea treatment.

A Spatially Stable Crystal-Particle Gel to Trap Patchouli Oil for Efficient Colonic Drug Delivery

Patchouli oil has exhibited remarkable efficacy in the treatment of colitis. However, its volatility and potential irritancy are often drawbacks when extensively used in clinical applications. Oil gel is a semisolid and thermoreversible system that has received extensive interest for its solubility enhancement, inhibition of bioactive component recrystallization, and the facilitation of controlled bioactive release. Therefore, we present a strategy to develop an oil gel formulation that addresses this multifaceted problem. Notably, a patchouli oil gel formulation was designed to solidify and trap patchouli oil into a spatially stable crystal-particle structure and colonic released delivery, which has an advantage of the stable structure and viscosity. The patchouli oil gel treatment of zebrafish with colitis improved goblet cells and decreased macrophages. Additionally, patchouli oil gel showed superior advantages for restoring the tissue barrier. Furthermore, our investigative efforts unveiled patchouli oil's influence on TRP channels, providing evidence for its potential role in mechanisms of anti-inflammatory action. While the journey continues, these preliminary revelations provide a robust foundation for considering the adoption of patchouli oil gel as a pragmatic intervention for managing colitis.

The interactions between traditional Chinese medicine and gut microbiota in cancers: Current status and future perspectives

The gut microbiota, known as the "forgotten organ" and "human second genome," comprises a complex microecosystem. It significantly influences the development of various tumors, including colorectal, liver, stomach, breast, and lung cancers, through both direct and indirect mechanisms. These mechanisms include the "gut-liver" axis, the "lung-intestine" axis, and interactions with the immune system. The intestinal flora exhibits dual roles in cancer, both promoting and suppressing its progression. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) can alter cancer progression by regulating the intestinal flora. It modifies the intestinal flora's composition and structure, along with the levels of endogenous metabolites, thus affecting the intestinal barrier, immune system, and overall body metabolism. These actions contribute to TCM's significant antitumor effects. Moreover, the gut microbiota metabolizes TCM components, enhancing their antitumor properties. Therefore, exploring the interaction between TCM and the intestinal flora offers a novel perspective in understanding TCM's antitumor mechanisms. This paper succinctly reviews the association between gut flora and the development of tumors, including colorectal, liver, gastric, breast, and lung cancers. It further examines current research on the interaction between TCM and intestinal flora, with a focus on its antitumor efficacy. It identifies limitations in existing studies and suggests recommendations, providing insights into antitumor drug research and exploring TCM's antitumor effectiveness. Additionally, this paper aims to guide future research on TCM and the gut microbiota in antitumor studies.

Gut-immunity-joint axis: a new therapeutic target for gouty arthritis

Gouty arthritis (GA) is an inflammatory disease characterized by pain. The primary goal of current treatment strategies during GA flares remains the reduction of inflammation and pain. Research suggests that the gut microbiota and microbial metabolites contribute to the modulation of the inflammatory mechanism associated with GA, particularly through their effect on macrophage polarization. The increasing understanding of the gut-joint axis emphasizes the importance of this interaction. The primary objective of this review is to summarize existing research on the gut-immune-joint axis in GA, aiming to enhance understanding of the intricate processes and pathogenic pathways associated with pain and inflammation in GA, as documented in the published literature. The refined comprehension of the gut-joint axis may potentially contribute to the future development of analgesic drugs targeting gut microbes for GA.

Potential Therapeutic Effects of Short-Chain Fatty Acids on Chronic Pain

The intestinal homeostasis maintained by the gut microbiome and relevant metabolites is essential for health, and its disturbance leads to various intestinal or extraintestinal diseases. Recent studies suggest that gut microbiome-derived metabolites short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) are involved in different neurological disorders (such as chronic pain). SCFAs are produced by bacterial fermentation of dietary fibers in the gut and contribute to multiple host processes, including gastrointestinal regulation, cardiovascular modulation, and neuroendocrine-immune homeostasis. Although SCFAs have been implicated in the modulation of chronic pain, the detailed mechanisms that underlie such roles of SCFAs remain to be further investigated. In this review, we summarize currently available research data regarding SCFAs as a potential therapeutic target for chronic pain treatment and discuss several possible mechanisms by which SCFAs modulate chronic pain.

Efficacy and safety of Gutong Patch compared with NSAIDs for knee osteoarthritis: A real-world multicenter, prospective cohort study in China

The Gutong Patch (GTP) is common in clinical practice for bone diseases. This study compared the efficacy and safety of GTP and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) for KOA patients from 35 medical centers assigned to GTP, selective COX-2 inhibitor (SCI), GTP + SCI, non-selective COX-2 inhibitor (NSCI), and GTP + NSCI groups. The visual analog scale (VAS) pain score, EuroQol-VAS, EuroQol 5D-3 L, time to articular pain relief / disappearance, and joint motion recovery were the efficacy assessments. Safety assessments included contact dermatitis, gastrointestinal disorders, etc. The p-value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. After statistical analysis, the SCI and GTP + SCI groups showed better improvement of VAS than the GTP group; the time to articular pain relief in the NSCI group was shorter than that in GTP and SCI group; the time to joint motion recovery in the GTP + NSCI group was longer than that in the SCI group. Additionally, the improvement of the quality of life in all groups was significant after treatments. While the incidence of gastrointestinal adverse events in the NSAIDs group was higher than that in the GTP and GTP + NSAIDs groups. GTP and NSAIDs are effective for KOA patients, and GTP is more suitable for KOA patients with cardiovascular and gastrointestinal comorbidities. This study was approved by the Ethics Committee at Peking Union Medical College Hospital (HS-1766) and registered in the Chinese Clinical Trial Registry (ChiCTR2100046391).

Microextraction of essential oils: A review

Liquid phase microextraction (LPME) and solid phase microextraction (SPME) are popular extraction techniques for sample preparation due to their green and highly efficient single-step extraction efficiency. With the increasing attention to essential oils, their evaluation and analysis are significant in analytical sciences. In this review, starting from a brief description of the recent advances in the last decade, the attention has been focused on the up-to-date research works and applications based on liquid and solid phase microextraction for essential oil analyses. Particular attention has been given to the approaches using ionic liquids, eutectic solvents, gas flow assisted, and novel composite materials. In the end, the technological convergence of novel microextraction of essential oils in the future has been prospected.

Babao Dan alleviates gut immune and microbiota disorders while impacting the TLR4/MyD88/NF-кB pathway to attenuate 5-Fluorouracil-induced intestinal injury

Adjuvant chemotherapy based on 5-fluorouracil (5-FU), such as FOLFOX, is suggested as a treatment for gastrointestinal cancer. Yet, intestinal damage continues to be a prevalent side effect for which there are no practical prevention measures. We investigated whether Babao Dan (BBD), a Traditional Chinese Medicine, protects against intestinal damage induced by 5-FU by controlling immune response and gut microbiota. 5-FU was injected intraperitoneally to establish the mice model, then 250 mg/kg BBD was gavaged for five days straight. 5-FU led to marked weight loss, diarrhea, fecal blood, and histopathologic intestinal damage. Administration of BBD reduced these symptoms, inhibited proinflammatory cytokine (IL-6, IL-1β, IFN-γ, TNF-α) secretion, and upregulated the ratio of CD3(+) T cells and the CD4(+)/CD8(+) ratio. According to 16S rRNA sequencing, BBD dramatically repaired the disruption of the gut microbiota caused in a time-dependent way, and increased the Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes (F/B) ratio. Transcriptomic results showed that the mechanism is mainly concentrated on the NF-κB pathway, and we found that BBD reduced the concentration of LPS in the fecal suspension and serum, and inhibited TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB pathway activation. Furthermore, at the genus level on the fifth day, BBD upregulated the abundance of unidentified_Corynebacteriaceae, Aerococcus, Blautia, Jeotgalicoccus, Odoribacter, Roseburia, Rikenella, Intestinimonas, unidentified_Lachnospiraceae, Enterorhabdus, Ruminiclostridium, and downregulated the abundance of Bacteroides, Parabacteroides, Parasutterella, Erysipelatoclostridium, which were highly correlated with intestinal injury or the TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB pathway. In conclusion, we established a network involving 5-FU, BBD, the immune response, gut microbiota, and key pathways to explain the pharmacology of oral BBD in preventing 5-FU-induced intestinal injury.

Effects of dietary essential oil supplementation on growth performance, carcass yield, meat quality, and intestinal tight junctions of broilers with or without Eimeria challenge

The effects of dietary supplementation of essential oil on growth performance, carcass yield, meat quality, serum antioxidant capacity, and intestinal tight junctions of broilers with or without Eimeria challenge were investigated. A total of 576 one-day-old male broilers were randomly separated into 8 treatments (6 replication floor-pens per treatment, 12 broilers per pen) in a 4 × 2 factorial design. The 4 diets consisted of 1) a corn and soybean meal basal diet, 2) an anticoccidial diet (60 g nicarbazin and 60 g narasin per ton of feed), 3) an oregano oil diet (500 ppm oregano oil), and 4) a clove oil diet (500 ppm clove oil). On d 10, half chicks were challenged with 1 × 104 sporulated oocysts of E. tenella, E. acervulina, and E. maxima per chick, whereas the others were inoculated with an equal amount of dilution (0.5 mL). The Eimeria challenge induced a higher fecal oocyst output on d 18, a lower duodenum Occludin expression level on d 28, a lower serum catalase level, and a higher cook loss and protein loss in thigh muscle on d 42. The anticoccidial diet lowered fecal Eimeria output and increased d 1 to 42 BW gain as compared to the control diet. The clove oil treatment enhanced duodenum ZO-1 expression level in nonchallenged birds, increased BW gain from d 1 to 14 and breast yield on d 42. The oregano oil treatment enhanced ZO-1 expression of challenged birds, reduced feed intake from 15 to 28 d, and helped broilers gain more tender meat. For those Eimeria-challenged broilers, both clove and oregano oil treatments recovered drip loss in breast muscle. Our results suggested that Eimeria challenge in broiler early age could interrupt later serum antioxidant capacity and damage meat quality. The dietary supplementation of clove or oregano essential oils could improve broiler growth performance and partially relieve the coccidial damage in gut integrity and meat quality.

Pogostone attenuates osteolysis in breast cancer by inhibiting the NF-kB and JNK signaling pathways of osteoclast

AIMS

Breast cancer is the most prevalent cancer in females, and approximately 70 % of all patients have evidence of metastatic bone disease, which substantially affects the quality of life and survival rate of breast cancer patients. Osteoporosis has become a global public health problem, and the abnormal activation of osteoclasts is the key to the progression of osteoporosis and the key to both diseases lies in the osteoclasts. Effective drug treatments are lacking and there is an urgent need to explore new drugs.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We observed the effects of pogostone (PO) on osteoclast differentiation, bone resorption function and other indicators, and F-actin ring formation by using Trap staining, SEM and immunofluorescence, and further explored the targets of pogostone in regulating osteoclast differentiation and function using qPCR and Western Blot. In addition, we used CCK 8, Transwell, and flow cytometry to study the effects of pogostone on proliferation, invasion, migration, and apoptosis of MDA-MB-231 cells. Animal models were also constructed for in vivo validation.

KEY FINDINGS

Pogostone inhibits osteoclast differentiation, bone resorption, formation of F-actin ring, and the expression of specific genes by attenuated NF-kB degradation and phosphorylation of JNK. In vitro, pogostone suppresses invasion of breast cancer cells, migration, and promotes their apoptosis. In mouse models, pogostone attenuated osteoclast formation and bone resorption, blocked breast cancer cells migration, and supprsed breast cancer-induced osteolysis and ovariectomized (OVX)-mediated osteoporosis.

SIGNIFICANCE

These biological functions of pogostone make it a potential drug for treatment of breast cancer-associated bone metastasis in the future.

How to Naturally Support the Immune System in Inflammation-Essential Oils as Immune Boosters

Efficient functionality of the immune system is needed to fight against the development of infectious diseases, including, among others, serious recurrent chronic infections. Research has shown that many modern common diseases, such as inflammatory bowel diseases and cardiovascular diseases, e.g., thromboembolism, cancer, obesity, or depression, are connected with inflammatory processes. Therefore, new, good stimulators of the immune system's response are sought. They include synthetic compounds as well as biological preparations such as lipopolysaccharides, enzymes, bacterial metabolites, and secondary metabolites of plants, demonstrating a multidirectional effect. Essential oils are characterized by many invaluable activities, including antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immunostimulating. Essential oils may stimulate the immune system via the utilization of their constituents, such as antibodies, cytokines, and dendritic cells. Some essential oils may stimulate the proliferation of immune-competent cells, including polymorphonuclear leukocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells, natural killer cells, and B and T lymphocytes. This review is focused on the ability of essential oils to affect the immune system. It is also possible that essential oil components positively interact with recommended anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial drugs. Thus, there is a need to explore possible synergies between essential oils and their active ingredients for medical use.

Garlic essential oil supplementation modulates colonic microbiota compositions and regulates immune response in weaned piglets

The objective of this study was to investigate the colonic microbiome compositions and immune response and reveal their correlations in weaned piglets fed with garlic essential oil (GEO). Twelve 21-day-old crossbred piglets with the same parity and similar weight (BW = 7.07 ± 0.37 Kg) were randomly divided into control and experimental groups based on BW and sex, which fed either a basal diet (CON group), or a basal diet supplemented with 1.5 g/kg GEO (GEO group). UHPLC-QE-MS showed the main component of GEO were belonged to carbohydrates, organic acid, flavonoids, phenylpropanoids and terpenoids. GEO decreased serum IL-1β, IL-8 content and the down-regulated mRNA expression of IFN-γ, TLR2 in jejunal mucosa but increased serum IgG, IL-4 content and up-regulated the mRNA expression of IL-4, IL-1β, TNF-α in ileal mucosa. What's more, the metagenomic analysis demonstrated that GEO increased the abundance of Bacteroidetes, Euryarchaeota and Spirochaetes, while decreased the abundance of Firmicutes and Actinobacteria at Phylum level and Selenomonas_boris, Selenomonadaceae_bacterium_DSM_108025, Clostridiales_bacterium and Phascolarctobacterium_succinatutens at species level. Notably, the main function pathway of virulence factor (VFDB) enriched in GEO group were Fibronection-binding protein, Zn++ metallophrotease and Capsular polysaccharide, while the main function pathway of VFDB enriched in CON group were heme biosynthesis, Lap and FeoAB. Spearman correlation analysis indicated the Spirochaetes had a positive association with IL-6 and IL-4. Acinobacteria was positively correlated with IL-1β, while negative with the IL-6; In addition, Euryarchaeota had a positive correlation with IL-4, but a negative correlation with IL-1β; Tenericutes was negative with IL-8; Phascolarcolarctobacterium_succinatutens and was negative with IL-6; Ruminococcaceae_bacterium was negative with TNF-α. While Selenomonadaceae_bacterium_DSM_108025 had a positive correlation with IL-8. In conclusion, our results uncovered that immune regulation effects of GEO may be associated with the microbiome compositions in response to GEO.

Sodium butyrate ameliorates diabetic retinopathy in mice via the regulation of gut microbiota and related short-chain fatty acids

BACKGROUND

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) development is associated with disturbances in the gut microbiota and related metabolites. Butyric acid is one of the short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), which has been found to possess a potential antidiabetic effect. However, whether butyrate has a role in DR remains elusive. This study aimed to investigate the effect and mechanism of sodium butyrate supplementation on DR.

METHODS

C57BL/6J mice were divided into three groups: Control group, diabetic group, and diabetic with butyrate supplementation group. Type 1 diabetic mouse model was induced by streptozotocin. Sodium butyrate was administered by gavage to the experimental group daily for 12 weeks. Optic coherence tomography, hematoxylin-eosin, and immunostaining of whole-mount retina were used to value the changes in retinal structure. Electroretinography was performed to assess the retinal visual function. The tight junction proteins in intestinal tissue were evaluated using immunohistochemistry. 16S rRNA sequencing and LC-MS/MS were performed to determine the alteration and correlation of the gut microbiota and systemic SCFAs.

RESULTS

Butyrate decreased blood glucose, food, and water consumption. Meanwhile, it alleviated retinal thinning and activated microglial cells but improved electroretinography visual function. Additionally, butyrate effectively enhanced the expression of ZO-1 and Occludin proteins in the small intestine. Crucially, only butyric acid, 4-methylvaleric acid, and caproic acid were significantly decreased in the plasma of diabetic mice and improved after butyrate supplementation. The deeper correlation analysis revealed nine genera strongly positively or negatively correlated with the above three SCFAs. Of note, all three positively correlated genera, including norank_f_Muribaculaceae, Ileibacterium, and Dubosiella, were significantly decreased in the diabetic mice with or without butyrate treatment. Interestingly, among the six negatively correlated genera, Escherichia-Shigella and Enterococcus were increased, while Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium, Lachnospiraceae_NK4A136_group, and unclassified_f_Lachnospiraceae were decreased after butyrate supplementation.

CONCLUSION

Together, these findings demonstrate the microbiota regulating and diabetic therapeutic effects of butyrate, which can be used as a potential food supplement alternative to DR medicine.

Patchouli alcohol against renal fibrosis of spontaneously hypertensive rats via Ras/Raf-1/ERK1/2 signalling pathway

OBJECTIVES

The present study was designed to obverse the protection of patchouli alcohol (PA) ameliorates hypertensive nephropathy in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) and reveals potential mechanism.

METHODS

Briefly, the adult spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) or Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) rats (half male and half female) were intragastric gavaged or not with PA (80, 40 and 20 mg/kg) for 8 weeks. Body weight, blood pressure (BP), renal weight, renal function and renal morphology were measured. Further, western blotting and immunohistochemical analysis were used to study the underlying mechanism.

KEY FINDINGS

Compared with the WKY group, plasmatic levels of renin, angiotensin II (Ang-II), transforming growth factor beta 1(TGF-β1), plasminogen activator inhibitor-1(PAI-1), creatinine (Cr), blood urea nitrogen (BUN), renal index, mRNA levels of ERK1/2 and α-SMA were significantly increased in SHR. Histology results showed that renal tubular injury and tubulointerstitial fibrosis occurred in SHR. After administration, SBP of captopril group decreased at each week after administration, especially at 3, 5, 6 7 and 8 weeks (P < 0.05 or P < 0.01). There is no significant effect was assessed in the olive oil group. Decreased plasma Cr, Renin, Ang-II, TGF-β1, PAI-1, SCFAs and Renin, TGF-β1, PAI-1 in renal tissues were observed significantly in captopril (P <0.05 or P < 0.01). Plasma BUN, Ang-II, TGF-β1 and PAI-1 in renal tissues decreased in the olive oil group significantly (P <0.05 or P < 0.01). PA (80, 40 and 20 mg/kg) lowered BP and plasmatic levels of Renin, Ang-II, TGF-β1 and PAI-1. Treatment with PA (40, 20 mg/kg) decreased levels of Cr, BUN and suppressed of activation of pro-fibrosis cytokines including TGF-β1 in kidney. There is no ameliorative change in the olive oil group and the captopril group (P > 0.05) while PA treatment alleviated renal tubular injury and produced dramatic collagen fibre area reductions in mesangial membrane, basement membrane, and renal interstitium obviously (P < 0.05 or P < 0.01). Treatment of SHR with PA-inhibited MFB activation and downregulated mRNA of α-SMA. Treatment with PA suppressed excessive production of the extracellular matrix (ECM) via decreasing Col I, III and FN, downregulating mRNA of tissue inhibitor of TIMP-1 along with upregulating mRNA of MMP-9. The expression of Col III and MMP-9 mRNA-reduced in the captopril group (P < 0.05). In addition, the expression of ERK1/2 and pERK1/2 also reduced in the captopril group significantly (P < 0.05 or P < 0.01). Treatment with PA (20 mg/kg) downregulated proteins expression of Raf-1, ERK1/2 and pERK1/2 and mRNA expression of Ras, Raf-1 and ERK1/2.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, PA restored normal BP, alleviated renal dysfunction and renal fibrosis, possibly by suppressing Ang II and TGF-β1-mediated Ras/Raf-1/ERK1/2 signalling pathway.

Genetic heterogeneity of colorectal cancer and the microbiome

In 2020, the International Agency for Research on Cancer and the World Health Organization's GLOBOCAN database ranked colorectal cancer (CRC) as the third most common cancer in the world. Most cases of CRC (> 95%) are sporadic and develop from colorectal polyps that can progress to intramucosal carcinoma and CRC. Increasing evidence is accumulating that the gut microbiota can play a key role in the initiation and progression of CRC, as well as in the treatment of CRC, acting as an important metabolic and immunological regulator. Factors that may determine the microbiota role in CRC carcinogenesis include inflammation, changes in intestinal stem cell function, impact of bacterial metabolites on gut mucosa, accumulation of genetic mutations and other factors. In this review, I discuss the major mechanisms of the development of sporadic CRC, provide detailed characteristics of the bacteria that are most often associated with CRC, and analyze the role of the microbiome and microbial metabolites in inflammation initiation, activation of proliferative activity in intestinal epithelial and stem cells, and the development of genetic and epigenetic changes in CRC. I consider long-term studies in this direction to be very important, as they open up new opportunities for the treatment and prevention of CRC.

The gut-lung axis in severe acute Pancreatitis-associated lung injury: The protection by the gut microbiota through short-chain fatty acids

The role of gut microbiota in regulating the intestinal homeostasis, as well as the pathogenesis of severe acute pancreatitis-associated lung injury (PALI) is widely recognized. The bioactive functions of metabolites with small molecule weight and the detail molecular mechanisms of PALI mediated by "gut-lung axis" have gradually raised the attentions of researchers. Several studies have proved that short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) produced by gut microbiome play crucial roles and varied activities in the process of PALI. However, relevant reviews reporting SCFAs in the involvement of PALI is lacking. In this review, we firstly introduced the synthetic and metabolic pathways of SCFAs, as well as the transport and signal transduction routes in brief. Afterwards, we focused on the possible mechanisms and clues of SCFAs to participate in the fight against PALI which referred to the inhibition of pathogen proliferation, anti-inflammatory effects, enhancement of intestinal barrier functions, and the maintenance and regulation of immune homeostasis via pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs). In addition, the latest reported pathological and physiological mechanisms of the gut-lung axis involved in PALI were reviewed. Finally, we summarized the potential therapeutic interventions of PALI by targeting SCFAs, including dietary fiber supplementation, direct supplementation of SCFAs/prebiotics/probiotics, and drugs administration, which is expected to provide new sights for clinical use in the future.