Anti-rheumatoid arthritic activity of flavonoids from Daphne genkwa

Chemometric profiling and anti-arthritic activity of aerial parts of Glinus oppositifolius (L.) Aug. DC

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Glinus oppositifolius (L.) Aug. DC. belongs to the family Molluginaceae, an annual prostrate herb traditionally used to treat inflammations, arthritis, malarial, wounds, fevers, diarrhoea, cancer, stomach discomfort, jaundice, and intestinal parasites. However, the anti-arthritic activity of the aerial part has still not been reported.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To investigate the antioxidant and anti-arthritic activity of G. oppositifolius in Complete Freund's Adjuvant (CFA) induced rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The dried aerial parts of this plant material were defatted with n-hexane and extracted by methanol using a soxhlet apparatus. The in vitro anti-arthritic activity of methanolic extract of G. oppositifolius (MEGO) was evaluated in protein denaturation, membrane stabilization, and inhibition of proteinase assay at 25, 50, 100, 200, and 400 μg/ml concentrations. Female Wistar rats were immunized sub-dermally into the right hind paw with 0.1 ml of CFA. Rats were administered with MEGO at doses of 200 and 400 mg/kg once daily for fourteen days after arthritis induction. Assessment of arthritis was performed by measuring paw diameter, arthritic index, arthritic score, body weight, organ weight, and hematological and biochemical parameters, followed by the analysis of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin 6 (IL-6), interleukin-1-beta (IL-1β), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), interleukin 13 (IL-13) and interleukin 10 (IL-10) and histopathological study. In vivo antioxidant effect was investigated in enzymatic assays. The presence of phytoconstituents was analyzed by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) and Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS), respectively. In silico molecular docking study of the compounds was carried out against COX-2, IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α using AutoDock 4.2 and BIOVIA-Discovery Studio Visualizer software.

RESULTS

MEGO's in vitro anti-arthritic activity showed dose-dependent inhibition of protein denaturation, membrane stabilization, and proteinase inhibition, followed by significant in vivo anti-arthritic activity. The rats treated with MEGO showed tremendous potential in managing arthritis-like symptoms by restoring hematological, biochemical, and histological changes in CFA-induced rats. MEGO (200 and 400 mg/kg) showed a significant alleviation in the levels of hyper expressed inflammatory mediators (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6) and oxidative stress (SOD, CAT, GSH, and LPO) in CFA-induced rats. Spergulagenin-A as identified by LC-MS analysis, exhibited the highest binding affinity against COX-2 (-8.6), IL-1β (7.2 kcal/mol), IL-6 (-7.4 kcal/mol), and TNF-α (-6.5 kcal/mol).

CONCLUSIONS

Provided with the comprehensive investigation, methanolic extract of G. oppositifolius against arthritic-like condition is a proof of concept that revalidates its ethnic claim. The presence of Spergulagenin-A might be responsible for the anti-arthritic activity.

Daphne genkwa: Ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry and pharmacology of an important traditional Chinese medicine

Daphne genkwa, as a traditional medicine, is widely distributed in China, Korea and Vietnam. In China, the dried flower buds of this plant are named "Yuanhua". It has the ability to effectively promote urination, eliminate phlegm and alleviate cough, eliminate parasites and cure of scabies, with a broad spectrum of pharmacological effects and considerable clinical efficacy. This paper provides a summary and classification of the main chemical constituents of D. genkwa based on a review of relevant domestic and foreign literature. It also outlines the current research status of traditional clinical usage, pharmacological effects, and toxicity of D. genkwa. The aim is to provide a theoretical basis for further study of D. genkwa and its potential new clinical applications.

The dual face of microglia (M1/M2) as a potential target in the protective effect of nutraceuticals against neurodegenerative diseases

The pathophysiology of different neurodegenerative illnesses is significantly influenced by the polarization regulation of microglia and macrophages. Traditional classifications of macrophage phenotypes include the pro-inflammatory M1 and the anti-inflammatory M2 phenotypes. Numerous studies demonstrated dynamic non-coding RNA modifications, which are catalyzed by microglia-induced neuroinflammation. Different nutraceuticals focus on the polarization of M1/M2 phenotypes of microglia and macrophages, offering a potent defense against neurodegeneration. Caeminaxin A, curcumin, aromatic-turmerone, myricetin, aurantiamide, 3,6'-disinapoylsucrose, and resveratrol reduced M1 microglial inflammatory markers while increased M2 indicators in Alzheimer's disease. Amyloid beta-induced microglial M1 activation was suppressed by andrographolide, sulforaphane, triptolide, xanthoceraside, piperlongumine, and novel plant extracts which also prevented microglia-mediated necroptosis and apoptosis. Asarone, galangin, baicalein, and a-mangostin reduced oxidative stress and pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin (IL)-1, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha in M1-activated microglia in Parkinson's disease. Additionally, myrcene, icariin, and tenuigenin prevented the nod-like receptor family pyrin domain-containing 3 inflammasome and microglial neurotoxicity, while a-cyperone, citronellol, nobiletin, and taurine prevented NADPH oxidase 2 and nuclear factor kappa B activation. Furthermore, other nutraceuticals like plantamajoside, swertiamarin, urolithin A, kurarinone, Daphne genkwa flower, and Boswellia serrata extracts showed promising neuroprotection in treating Parkinson's disease. In Huntington's disease, elderberry, curcumin, iresine celosia, Schisandra chinensis, gintonin, and pomiferin showed promising results against microglial activation and improved patient symptoms. Meanwhile, linolenic acid, resveratrol, Huperzia serrata, icariin, and baicalein protected against activated macrophages and microglia in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis and multiple sclerosis. Additionally, emodin, esters of gallic and rosmarinic acids, Agathisflavone, and sinomenine offered promising multiple sclerosis treatments. This review highlights the therapeutic potential of using nutraceuticals to treat neurodegenerative diseases involving microglial-related pathways.

Metabolomic profiling combined with network analysis of serum pharmacochemistry to reveal the therapeutic mechanism of Ardisiae Japonicae Herba against acute lung injury

Introduction: Acute lung injury (ALI) is a common and devastating respiratory disease associated with uncontrolled inflammatory response and transepithelial neutrophil migration. In recent years, a growing number of studies have found that Ardisiae Japonicae Herba (AJH) has a favorable anti-inflammatory effect. However, its serum material basis and molecular mechanism are still unknown in ALI treatment. In this study, metabolomics and network analysis of serum pharmacochemistry were used to explore the therapeutic effect and molecular mechanism of AJH against lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced ALI. Methods: A total of 12 rats for serum pharmacochemistry analysis were randomly divided into the LPS group and LPS + AJH-treated group (treated with AJH extract 20 g/kg/d), which were administered LPS (2 mg/kg) by intratracheal instillation and then continuously administered for 7 days. Moreover, 36 rats for metabolomic research were divided into control, LPS, LPS + AJH-treated (5, 10, and 20 g/kg/d), and LPS + dexamethasone (Dex) (2.3 × 10-4 g/kg/d) groups. After 1 h of the seventh administration, the LPS, LPS + AJH-treated, and LPS + Dex groups were administered LPS by intratracheal instillation to induce ALI. The serum pharmacochemistry profiling was performed by UPLC-Orbitrap Fusion MS to identify serum components, which further explore the molecular mechanism of AJH against ALI by network analysis. Meanwhile, metabolomics was used to select the potential biomarkers and related metabolic pathways and to analyze the therapeutic mechanism of AJH against ALI. Results: The results showed that 71 serum components and 18 related metabolites were identified in ALI rat serum. We found that 81 overlapping targets were frequently involved in AGE-RAGE, PI3K-AKT, and JAK-STAT signaling pathways in network analysis. The LPS + AJH-treated groups exerted protective effects against ALI by reducing the infiltration of inflammatory cells and achieved anti-inflammatory efficacy by significantly regulating the interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-10 levels. Metabolomics analysis shows that the therapeutic effect of AJH on ALI involves 43 potential biomarkers and 14 metabolic pathways, especially phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan biosynthesis and linoleic acid metabolism pathways, to be influenced, which implied the potential mechanism of AJH in ALI treatment. Discussion: Our study initially elucidated the material basis and effective mechanism of AJH against ALI, which provided a solid basis for AJH application.

A Novel Hydroxyapatite/Vitamin B12 Nanoformula for Treatment of Bone Damage: Preparation, Characterization, and Anti-Arthritic, Anti-Inflammatory, and Antioxidant Activities in Chemically Induced Arthritic Rats

The usage of nanomaterials for rheumatoid arthritis (RA) treatment can improve bioavailability and enable selective targeting. The current study prepares and evaluates the in vivo biological effects of a novel hydroxyapatite/vitamin B₁₂ nanoformula in Complete Freund's adjuvant-induced arthritis in rats. The synthesized nanoformula was characterized using XRD, FTIR, BET analysis, HERTEM, SEM, particle size, and zeta potential. We synthesized pure HAP NPs with 71.01% loading weight percentages of Vit B12 and 49 mg/g loading capacity. Loading of vitamin B₁₂ on hydroxyapatite was modeled by Monte Carlo simulation. Anti-arthritic, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant effects of the prepared nanoformula were assessed. Treated arthritic rats showed lower levels of RF and CRP, IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-17, and ADAMTS-5, but higher IL-4 and TIMP-3 levels. In addition, the prepared nanoformula increased GSH content and GST antioxidant activity while decreasing LPO levels. Furthermore, it reduced the expression of TGF-β mRNA. Histopathological examinations revealed an improvement in joint injuries through the reduction of inflammatory cell infiltration, cartilage deterioration, and bone damage caused by Complete Freund's adjuvant. These findings indicate that the anti-arthritic, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties of the prepared nanoformula could be useful for the development of new anti-arthritic treatments.

Daphne genkwa flower extract promotes the neuroprotective effects of microglia

BACKGROUND

Microglia are innate immune cells in the central nervous system that play a crucial role in neuroprotection by releasing neurotrophic factors, removing pathogens through phagocytosis, and regulating brain homeostasis. The constituents extracted from the roots and stems of the Daphne genkwa plant have shown neuroprotective effects in an animal model of Parkinson's disease. However, the effect of Daphne genkwa plant extract on microglia has yet to be demonstrated.

PURPOSE

To study the anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects of Daphne genkwa flower extract (GFE) in microglia and explore the underlying mechanisms.

METHODS

In-vitro mRNA expression levels of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), inducible nitric oxide synthase, Arginase1, and brain derived neurotropic factor (BDNF) were analyzed by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction in microglia cells. Nitric oxide (NO) and TNF-α protein were respectively analyzed by Griess reagent and Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay. Immunoreactivity of Iba-1, Neu-N, and BDNF in mouse brain were analyzed by immunofluorescence staining. Phagocytosis capacity of microglia was examined using fluorescent zymosan-red particles.

RESULTS

GFE significantly inhibited lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced neuroinflammation and promoted neuroprotection both in vitro and in vivo. First, GFE inhibited the LPS-induced inflammatory factors NO, iNOS, and TNF-α in microglial cell lines and primary glial cells, thus demonstrating anti-inflammatory effects. Arginase1 and BDNF mRNA levels were increased in primary glial cells treated with GFE. Phagocytosis was also increased in microglia treated with GFE, suggesting a neuroprotective effect of GFE. In vivo, neuroprotective and anti-neuroinflammatory effects of GFE were also found in the mouse brain, as oral administration of GFE significantly inhibited LPS-induced neuronal loss and inflammatory activation of microglia.

CONCLUSION

GFE has anti-inflammatory effects and promotes microglial neuroprotective effects. GFE inhibited the pro-inflammatory mediators and enhanced neuroprotective microglia activity by increasing BDNF expression and phagocytosis. These novel findings of the GFE effect on microglia show an innovative approach that can potentially promote neuroprotection for the prevention of neurodegenerative diseases.

Cannabis for Rheumatic Disease Pain: a Review of Current Literature

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Changing attitudes about marijuana have led to an increase in use of medicinal marijuana, especially for painful chronic conditions. Patients ask rheumatologists for guidance on this topic. This review provides up-to-date information on the safety and efficacy of medicinal cannabis for rheumatic disease pain.

RECENT FINDINGS

The number of publications related to rheumatic disease and cannabis has increased, but recent literature skews heavily toward reviews vs primary research. Data supporting a role for cannabinoids in rheumatic disease continue to grow. Observational and survey studies show increased use of medicinal cannabis, both by people with rheumatic disease and the general population, and suggest that patients find these treatments beneficial. Prospective studies, however, including randomized controlled clinical trials, are rare and sorely needed. As medicinal cannabis use for rheumatic diseases rises, despite lack of evidence, we review the sparse data available and provide tips for conversations about medicinal cannabis for rheumatologists.

Effect of sakuranin on carbohydrate-metabolizing enzyme activity modifications in streptozotocin-nicotinamide-induced diabetic wistar rats

This study is to assess the glucose lowering activity of sakuranin in diabetes induced rats by streptozotocin (STZ) and nicotinamide (NA). Diabetic rats were treated sakuranin for 45 days (20, 40, 80 mg/kg) by orally. Sakuranin (80 mg/kg body weight) was normalized the changes of abnormal blood glucose plasma glucose and plasma insulin levels. Hence, we have continued the further research with this active dose of 80 mg/kg sakuranin. The plasma glucose and glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA₁c) reduced and insulin, glycogen and hemoglobin levels increased by Sakuranin administration in diabetic rats. Additionally, hexokinase and glucose-6-phophate dehydrogenase activities increased and glucose-6-phosphatase and fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase activities decreased in diabetic condition while administration of treated compound. In this observed result signified that sakuranin may have potential role of diabetic condition rats by evidenced with reducing glucose and increasing insulin and also protect the carbohydrate metabolic changes.

Jintiange Capsule Alleviates Rheumatoid Arthritis and Reverses Changes of Serum Metabolic Profile in Collagen-Induced Arthritic Rats

Purpose

Jintiange capsule (JTG), an approved drug developed as a substitute for tiger bone (TB), has been clinically applied for osteoporosis therapy since 2003. The drug is composed of bionic TB powder, in which peptides and proteins are primarily enriched from other bone extracts. However, as a precious material of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), TB has been mainly understood and used in TCM to relieve osteoporosis, rheumatoid arthritis and bone injury. Inspired by those, the purpose of this study was to investigate whether JTG also had an effect on relieving rheumatoid arthritis in collagen-induced arthritic (CIA) rats and explore potential mechanism from the perspective of serum metabolic profile changes.

Methods

JTG was analyzed using Nano LC-MS/MS and orally administered in CIA rats for 6 weeks. After administration, intervention effects of JTG on synovial inflammation, bone micro-architecture and bone metabolism were studied, and the impact of JTG on serum metabolic profiles in CIA rats was investigated by metabolomics.

Results

Nine bioactive peptides were identified in JTG. In animal treatments, JTG alleviated paw swelling (P < 0.01), arthritic severity (P < 0.01) and synovial tissue proliferation, as well as inflammatory cell infiltration of ankle joint, decreased bone loss, improved microstructure of bone in CIA rats by regulating bone absorption and formation, specifically increasing bone mineral density (BMD) (P < 0.05), bone volume fraction (BVF) (P < 0.05), trabecular number (Tb.N) (P < 0.05) and decreasing trabecular separation (Tb.Sp) (P < 0.05). Besides, serum IL-6 was down-regulated remarkably in CIA rats (P < 0.05). Furthermore, metabolomics analysis revealed that 32 metabolites were regulated significantly (P < 0.05) by comparison between CIA model and JTG in 360 mg/kg dose. The pathway analysis implied that JTG was involved in regulation of biosynthesis of phenylalanine.

Conclusion

JTG alleviates rheumatoid arthritis and reverses changes in serum metabolic profile in CIA rats.

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Effects of hydroxysafflor yellow A on rats with collagen-induced arthritis

Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) from safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) possesses several medicinal properties. However, it is unknown whether HSYA is effective in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Hence, we investigated the effects of HSYA on the inflammation and synovial damage in rats with collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) by subjecting them to treatment with different doses of HSYA. Our results revealed that HSYA could significantly reduce paw swelling, pathological manifestations, and serum cytokine levels in rats with CIA. The HSYA-treated groups showed increased antioxidant enzyme activity in the serum and decreased expression of inflammatory mediators in the synovial tissues. Furthermore, HSYA treatment inhibited extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) signalling pathway activation. Notably, the highest dose of HSYA (20 mg/kg) exhibited the best effects against RA symptoms. Therefore, our findings suggest that HSYA alleviates the inflammatory response and synovial damage in rats with CIA by inhibiting the ERK signalling pathway.

Flavonoids, alkaloids and saponins: are these plant-derived compounds an alternative to the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis? A literature review

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic inflammatory disease characterized by synovial inflammation leading to progressive joint erosion and, eventually, joint deformities. RA treatment includes anti-inflammatories, corticosteroids, synthetic disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs), and immunosuppressants. Drug administration is associated with adverse reactions, as gastrointestinal ulcers, cardiovascular complications, and opportunistic infections. Wherefore, different plant-derived phytochemical compounds are studied like new therapeutic approach to treatment of RA. Among the phytochemical compounds of plants for treatment of RA, flavonoids, alkaloids and saponins are related for present anti-inflammatory activity and act as physiological and metabolic regulators. They have low toxicity compared to other active plant compounds, so their therapeutic properties are widely studied. The intention of the review is to present an overview of the therapeutics of flavonoids, alkaloids, and saponins for RA. An extensive literature survey was undertaken through different online platforms:

PubMed, SciELO, and Virtual Health Library databases, to identify phytochemical compounds used in RA treatment and the descriptors used were medicinal plants, herbal medicines, and rheumatoid arthritis. Seventy-five research and review articles were found to be apt for inclusion into the review. The present study summarizes the phytochemicals isolated from plants that have therapeutic effects on RA models, in vitro and in vivo. The studied substances exerted anti-inflammatory, chondroprotective, immunoregulatory, anti-angiogenic, and antioxidant activities and the most compounds possess good therapeutic properties, valuable for further research for treatment of RA.

Comprehensive evaluation on anti-inflammatory and anti-angiogenic activities in vitro of fourteen flavonoids from Daphne Genkwa based on the combination of efficacy coefficient method and principal component analysis

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Genkwa flos, as a traditional herb, is the dried flower buds of Daphne genkwa Sieb.et Zucc. It is used in traditional medicine for the treatment of cough, sore throats, edema.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The study aimed to explore a new mathematical method for multivariate evaluation, investigate the anti-inflammatory and anti-angiogenic activities of flavonoids in Daphne Genkwa under ex vivo conditions.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The flavonoids monomers in Daphne Genkwa were separated by preparative liquid chromatography and identified by HPLC-ESI-ITMS. An in vitro inflammatory model of macrophage RAW264.7 induced by LPS and an angiogenesis model of human umbilical vein endothelial cells induced by TNF-α were established. Flavonoids were extracted and prepared for intervention to detect the amount of secretion after drug intervention to reflect the anti-inflammatory and anti-angiogenic activities of each component. In addition, a new mathematical method, which combined principal component analysis and efficacy coefficient method, was adopted in pharmacodynamic evaluation.

RESULTS

Fourteen flavonoids monomers were separated by preparative liquid chromatography and identified by HPLC-ESI-ITMS including H1 (hydroxygenkwanin-5-O-β-D-glucoside), H2 (apigenin-7-O-β-D-glucoside), H3 (kaempferol-3-O-β-D-glucoside), H4 (hydroxygenkwanin-5-O-β-D-primeveroside), H5 (apigenin-5-O-β-D-primeveroside), H6 (apigenin-7-O-β-D-glucuronide), H7 (luteolin-5-O-β-D-glucopyranoside), H8 (genkwain-5-O-β-D- glucoside), H9 (luteolin), H10 (Daphnodorin G), H11 (tiliroside), H12 (apigenin), H13 (3'- hydroxygenkwain) and H14 (genkwanin). We found that most of flavonoids down-regulated VCAM and MMP-3, while H1, H8, H9, H14 reduced VEGF and ICAM was only decreased by H14.

CONCLUSION

Genkwanin may be the most active anti-rheumatoid arthritis flavonoids in Daphne genkwa. Meanwhile, the new mathematical method used in the study provided a new direction for solving the problem of multi-index pharmacodynamic evaluation.

The genus Daphne: A review of its traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology

The genus Daphne belongs to the Thymeleaceae family and contains over 90 species that are distributed in Asia, Europe and parts of North Africa. The species of the genus Daphne are used in the traditional medicine of China, Tibet, Korea, and the Middle East for the treatment of various conditions. A broad range of studies has shown the significant biological potential of these species as sources of biologically and pharmacologically active compounds. Daphne species are a source of several classes of valuable phytochemicals such as coumarins, flavonoids, lignans, steroids and different classes of terpenes. The phytochemical diversity of this genus is demonstrated by over 350 secondary metabolites isolated from various species. The genus possesses a broad spectrum of biological activities including antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, cytotoxic, antiviral, abortive and haemostatic effects. A variety of bioactive secondary metabolites found in this genus may have potential use in pharmaceutical, cosmetic and food industries. Thus, species belonging to the genus Daphne can be considered an important source both for the treatment of various disorders, due to the presence of a plethora of bioactive constituents with potent bioactivities, and as possible leads in the discovery and synthesis of new medications.

Hesperidin methyl chalcone interacts with NFκB Ser276 and inhibits zymosan-induced joint pain and inflammation, and RAW 264.7 macrophage activation

Arthritis can be defined as a painful musculoskeletal disorder that affects the joints. Hesperidin methyl chalcone (HMC) is a flavonoid with analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant effects. However, its effects on a specific cell type and in the zymosan-induced inflammation are unknown. We aimed at evaluating the effects of HMC in a zymosan-induced arthritis model. A dose-response curve of HMC (10, 30, or 100 mg/kg) was performed to determine the most effective analgesic dose after intra-articular zymosan stimuli. Knee joint oedema was determined using a calliper. Leukocyte recruitment was performed by cell counting on knee joint wash as well as histopathological analysis. Oxidative stress was measured by colorimetric assays (GSH, FRAP, ABTS and NBT) and RT-qPCR (gp91^phox and HO-1 mRNA expression) performed. In vitro, oxidative stress was assessed by DCFDA assay using RAW 264.7 macrophages. Cytokine production was evaluated in vivo and in vitro by ELISA. In vitro NF-κB activation was analysed by immunofluorescence. We observed HMC reduced mechanical hypersensitivity and knee joint oedema, leukocyte recruitment, and pro-inflammatory cytokine levels. We also observed a reduction in zymosan-induced oxidative stress as per increase in total antioxidant capacity and reduction in gp91^phox and increase in HO-1 mRNA expression. Accordingly, total ROS production and macrophage NFκB activation were diminished. HMC interaction with NFκB p65 at Ser276 was revealed using molecular docking analysis. Thus, data presented in this work suggest the usefulness of HMC as an analgesic and anti-inflammatory in a zymosan-induced arthritis model, possibly by targeting NFκB activation in macrophages.

Rapid Recognition and Targeted Isolation of Anti-HIV Daphnane Diterpenes from Daphne genkwa Guided by UPLC-MSn

Daphnane diterpenes with a 5/7/6-tricyclic ring system exhibit potent anti-HIV activity but are found in low abundance as plant natural products. In this study, an effective approach based on mass spectrometric fragmentation pathways was conducted to specifically recognize and isolate anti-HIV compounds of this type from Daphne genkwa. Briefly, the fragmentation pathways of reference analogues were elucidated based on characteristic ion fragments of m/z 323 → 295 → 267 or m/z 253 → 238 → 197 by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-ion trap tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-IT-MSⁿ) and then applied to the differentiations of substances with or without an oxygenated group at C-12. Twenty-seven daphnane diterpenes were successfully recognized from a petroleum ether extract of D. genkwa, including some potential new compounds and isomers that could not be identified accurately only from the ion fragments. Further separation of these target compounds using high-speed countercurrent chromatography (HSCCC) and preparative HPLC led to the isolation of three new (11, 25, and 27) and 14 known compounds, whose structures were identified and confirmed based on MS, NMR, and electronic circular dichroism (ECD) spectroscopy. The isolates exhibited anti-HIV activities at nanomolar concentrations. The results demonstrated that this strategy is feasible and reliable to rapidly recognize and isolate daphnane diterpenes from D. genkwa.

Protective effects of a polyphenol-enriched fraction of the fruit peel of Annona crassiflora Mart. on acute and persistent inflammatory pain

Different parts of Annona crassiflora Mart., a native species from Brazilian savanna, were traditionally used for the treatment of a wide variety of ailments including arthritis. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the possible antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory properties of a polyphenol-enriched fraction of the fruit peel of A. crassiflora, named here as EtOAc, in mice. Pro-inflammatory cytokines and nitric oxide (NO) production were evaluated in LPS-activated macrophages. Then, EtOAc fraction was administered by oral route in male C57BL/6/J mice, and the animals were submitted to glutamate-induced nociception and complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA)-induced monoarthritis tests to assess nociception (mechanical, spontaneous and cold pain) and inflammation (edema and neutrophil infiltration), and to the open-field and rotarod tests for motor performance analysis. EtOAc fraction inhibited the production of IL-6 and NO in the LPS-induced macrophages, and reduced spontaneous nociception induced by glutamate, without altering the animals' locomotor activity. In addition, the polyphenol-enriched fraction was able to revert the early and late hyperalgesia induced by CFA, as well as edema at the acute phase. Reduction of myeloperoxidase activity and inflammatory cell infiltration was observed in the paw tissue of mice injected with CFA and treated with EtOAc fraction. Together, our results support the antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects of the polyphenol-enriched fraction of A. crassiflora fruit peel and suggest that these effects are triggered, at least in part, by suppressing pro-inflammatory cytokines and neutrophils infiltration.

Magnesium oil enriched transdermal nanogel of methotrexate for improved arthritic joint mobility, repair, and reduced inflammation

Aim: Methotrexate (Mtx) is prescribed to reduce pain and inflammation in arthritis patients; however, improved repair and mobility of joints still are the major concerns. Magnesium oil (MO) improves joint mobility and repair; therefore, MO-assisted transdermal delivery of Mtx was aimed.Methods: MO integrated Mtx nanoemulsion (Mtx-MONE) was prepared with uniform size (175 ± 35.4 nm), pH (6.15 ± 0.3) near to skin pH, and high entrapment efficiency (65 ± 8.6%). Mtx-MONE was transformed to nanogel (Mtx-MONEG) with semisolid consistency (43,408 ± 77.72 cP) and good spreadability (3.63 ± 0.033 mJ).Results: Mtx-MONEG showed significant reduction in oedema, arthritic scores, level of inflammatory cytokines, and improved walking as compared to diseased control. MO offered additional improvements in joints, mobility, and repair.Conclusion: Transdermal delivery of Mtx has been successfully achieved by Mtx-MONEG. Tremendous recovery from inflammation, improved joints mobility and repair, and reduced pain strongly support the use of MO as an adjutant of Mtx for improved transdermal application.

Genkwanin ameliorates adjuvant-induced arthritis in rats through inhibiting JAK/STAT and NF-κB signaling pathways

BACKGROUND

Genkwanin is a flavone isolated from the traditional Chinese herb Daphne genkwa. Our previous work proved that four flavonoids (including genkwanin) isolated from D. genkwa (FFD) significantly improved the symptoms of arthritis in rat models. Recent studies have revealed that genkwanin exhibited anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory activities, both of which were closely related to the pathology of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Therefore, studying the anti-RA effects and mechanisms of genkwanin may give us insight into FFD's therapeutic effects on RA.

PURPOSE

This study aimed to investigate the anti-rheumatoid arthritis activity of genkwanin on adjuvant-induced arthritis (AIA) model in rats and explore the underlying mechanisms.

METHODS

The anti-rheumatoid arthritis activity of genkwanin was evaluated on AIA rat model by determining the paw swelling degrees and arthritis index scores, along with histopathological analysis of joint tissues. The serum cytokine levels were measured by ELISA method, and serum NO levels were measured by Griess method. The expression and phosphorylation levels of proteins in JAK/STAT and NF-κB signaling pathways were determined by western blot analysis and immunohistochemistry analysis.

RESULTS

Genkwanin significantly decreased the paw swelling and arthritis index in AIA rats and also decreased the inflammation and bone destruction in joint tissues. The serum TNF-α, IL-6, and NO concentrations were markedly reduced while the IL-10 concentration was markedly increased with the treatment of genkwanin. Genkwanin inhibited the activation of JAK/STAT and NF-κB signaling pathways in synovial tissues of AIA rats.

CONCLUSION

Genkwanin exerted anti-rheumatoid arthritis effects on AIA rats through inhibiting the activation of JAK/STAT and NF-κB signaling pathways. The results obtained in this work lead us to suggest that Genkwanin could play a crucial role on the previously demonstrated anti-rheumatoid arthritis activity of flavonoid extract of D. genkwa (namely FFD).

Identification of the metabolites in normal and AA rat plasma, urine and feces after oral administration of Daphne genkwa flavonoids by LC-Q-TOF-MS spectrometry

Daphne genkwa Sieb. et Zucc., as a traditional oriental herb, has been widely distributed and employed in China. The major bioactive components in D. genkwa are flavonoid compounds, which showed pharmacological activities such as anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anti-tumor and immunomodulatory activities. In this study, we analyzed total flavonoids in D. genkwa and their metabolites in normal and adjuvant arthritis (AA) rat plasma, urine and feces samples by liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-Q-TOF-MS). A total of 4 metabolites in plasma, 9 metabolites in urine and 15 metabolites in feces were characterized respectively by LC-Q-TOF-MS technology in normal rat. And 9 of the metabolites were observed in the AA rat urine, while there was no prototype drug or its metabolites detected in plasma and fecal samples. The metabolic pathway mainly involves hydroxylation, methylation, glucuronide, sulfate conjugation, oxidation and reduction, during the phase I and phase II biotransformation pathway. All the information gained here will be greatly helpful in elucidating the potential biological and pharmacological mechanism of flavonoid in D. genkwa, thus providing new ideas for drug development.

Cannabinoids for the treatment of rheumatic diseases - where do we stand?

As medical use of cannabis is increasingly legalized worldwide, a better understanding of the medical and hazardous effects of this drug is imperative. The pain associated with rheumatic diseases is considered a prevalent indication for medicinal cannabis in various countries. Thus far, preliminary clinical trials have explored the effects of cannabis on rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis and fibromyalgia; preliminary evidence has also found an association between the cannabinoid system and other rheumatic conditions, including systemic sclerosis and juvenile idiopathic arthritis. The potential medicinal effects of cannabis could be attributable to its influence on the immune system, as it exerts an immunomodulatory effect on various immune cells, including T cells, B cells and macrophages. However, the available evidence is not yet sufficient to support the recommendation of cannabinoid treatment for rheumatic diseases.

Guaiane-Type Sesquiterpenoids from the Roots of Daphne genkwa and Evaluation of Their Neuroprotective Effects

Chromatographic purification of the roots of Daphne genkwa led to 11 new guaiane-type sesquiterpenoids (1-11), named genkwanoids A-K, and six known analogues (12-17). A comprehensive set of spectroscopic methods including IR, UV, HRESIMS, and 1D/2D NMR were used to elucidate the structures and relative configurations of 1-11. The absolute configurations were determined by the optical rotation calculations and the modified Mosher's method. The possible biosynthetic pathways for 1-11 are proposed. Furthermore, the neuroprotective effects of 1-17 on H₂O₂-induced damage in human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells were screened using an MTT assay. Compounds 9, 10, and 16 exhibited moderate neuroprotective effects, with survival rates of 79.34%, 79.94%, and 75.64% after treatment with 12.5 μM, values that were comparable to the positive control, Trolox (78.65%). Furthermore, annexin V-FITC/PI staining of cells treated with 9, 10, and 16 showed that the neuroprotective effects of these compounds may arise from inhibiting cell apoptosis.

Tibetan medicine Kuan-Jin-Teng exerts anti-arthritic effects on collagen-induced arthritis rats via inhibition the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and down-regulation of MAPK signaling pathway

BACKGROUND

The stems of Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr commonly named "Kuan-Jin-Teng" in Chinese, have been used to treat rheumatoid arthritis as a Tibetan medicine.

PURPOSE

The effects of the EtOAc fraction of ethanolic extract from the stems of T. sinensis (KJT) on the pro-inflammatory cytokines and MAPK pathway were studied in collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) model.

STUDY DESIGN

Anti-arthritic activity of KJT was investigated in CIA model.

METHODS

The chemical constituents of KJT were analyzed by LC-MS and HPLC. The CIA model was established with injecting the bovine CII emulsified in Freund's adjuvant in Wistar rats. Several doses of KJT (50.0, 100.0 and 200.0 mg/kg) were administrated via oral gavage to CIA rats daily for 4 weeks. The anti-arthritic activity of KJT was investigated by clinical arthritis scoring, paw swelling inspection and hyperalgesia measurement, as well as radiological and histological analysis in CIA rats. The impacts of KJT on the activation of MAPK pathway, production of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-17) in ankle joints, serum, and spleen in CIA rats were examined by western blot, immunohistochemical staining, ELISA, and quantitative real-time PCR respectively. Lastly, the effects of KJT on production of the nitric oxide (NO) and pro-inflammatory cytokines as well as the regulation of the phosphorylation of p38 and Erk were detected in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 murine macrophage cells.

RESULTS

KJT significantly alleviated the paw swelling, hyperalgesia and arthritic severity, and reduced the synovial tissue proliferation and inflammatory cell infiltration in the CIA rats. Moreover, KJT suppressed the production of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-17 in ankle joints, serum, and spleen and reversed the up-regulation of the phosphorylation of p38 and Erk in CIA rats. KJT was also demonstrated to inhibit the production of NO and pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6), and phosphorylation of p38 and Erk in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest the mechanisms of KJT performing its anti-arthritis effect may be attributed to inhibiting the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and down-regulating the MAPK signaling pathway.

Apoptosis Effects of Dihydrokaempferol Isolated from Bauhinia championii on Synoviocytes

Bauhinia championii (Benth.) Benth. is a traditional medicinal plant used in China to treat rheumatoid arthritis (RA), especially in She ethnic minority group. This study focused on the active constituents from the rattan of B. championii (Benth.) Benth., which possess potential apoptosis effects. A conventional phytochemical separation method for the isolation of compounds from the ethyl acetate extract of B. championii was developed. The procedure involved extraction, liquid–liquid partitioning with ethyl acetate, and subsequent compound purification, respectively. Additionally, cell viability of dihydrokaempferol found abundantly in it was evaluated in vitro by MTS, and the antiapoptosis effect was evaluated by annexin V/PI staining (Flow Cytometry Analysis) and western blot. The results showed that nine flavonoids, and five other compounds, were isolated from the ethyl acetate extract of B. championii and were identified as β-sitosterol (1), 5,6,7,3',4',5'-hexamethoxyflavone (2), 3',4',5,7-tetrahydroxyflavone (3), 5,7,3',4',5'-pentamethoxyflavone (4), 4'-hydroxy-5,7,3',5'-pentamethoxyflavone (5), apigenin (6), liquiritigenin (7), 5, 7-dihydroxylcoumarin (8), 3',4',5,7, -pentamethoxyflavone (9), n-octadecanoate (10), lupine ketone (11), dibutylphthalate (12), dihydrokaempferol (13), and 5,7,3′,5′-tetrahydroxy-6-methylflavanone (14). Among these compounds, 5-14 were isolated for the first time from B. championii. In addition, apoptosis effects of abundant dihydrokaempferol were evaluated in vitro. Dihydrokaempferol exhibited inhibitory effects on the proliferation of synoviocytes. Furthermore, dihydrokaempferol promoted Bax and Bad expression, as well as the cleavage of caspase-9, caspase-3, and PARP. Meanwhile, it inhibited Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL expression. These findings indicate that dihydrokaempferol isolated from the ethyl acetate extract of B. championii effectively promotes apoptosis, which is an important process through suppression of apoptotic activity. The results are encouraging for further studies on the use of B. championii in the treatment of RA.

Systemic treatment with resveratrol reduces the progression of experimental periodontitis and arthritis in rats

Rheumatoid arthritis and periodontitis are chronic inflammatory diseases which has been closely associated due to the nature of immune-inflammatory imbalance response. Resveratrol is a naturall product with biological proprieties that may promote immunomodulatory effects on host response. This study investigated resveratrol continuous administration effect on experimental periodontitis and arthritis progression in rats. Thirty-five rats were assigned to the following groups: 1-experimental arthritis + experimental periodontitis + placebo (RA+EP +PL) (n = 12); 2 -RA+EP+ ibuprofen (RA+PE+IB) (n = 11); 3-RA+EP+ resveratrol (RA+PE+RSV) (n = 11). After euthanasia, the specimens were processed for morphometric analysis of bone loss, and the gingival tissue surrounding the first molar was collected for quantification of inflammatory markers using a Luminex/MAGpix assay and anti-citrullinated protein antibody (ACCPA) levels were measured by ELISA assay. Serum level of rheumatoid factor (RF) was measured by ELISA assay. Paw edema was analyzed using a plethysmometer. Higher bone loss was observed in PL group, when compared to IB and RSV groups. RSV group presented higher IL-4 concentration than PL and IB groups. Resveratrol reduced RF serum levels and both IB and RSV decreased ACCPA gingival levels. Besides, paw swelling level was significantly lower in IB and RSV groups in the 21th day and only in RSV group in the 28th day. Histological analyzes showed smooth articular surface and higher width of the subchondral cortical in RSV group. Resveratrol showed modulatory effect and seems to reduce the inflammatory signs of arthritis and articular damage throughout the time.

Ipomoea batatas L. Lam. ameliorates acute and chronic inflammations by suppressing inflammatory mediators, a comprehensive exploration using in vitro and in vivo models

BACKGROUND

Ipomoea batatas L. Lam. is a functional food and belongs to family Convolvulaceae. It is used as an antiinflammatory, aphrodisiac, antiasthmatic, anticonvalescent, antitumor, antanemic and antidiabetic agent by local communities. This study has been planned to evaluate its antiinflammatory and antiarthritic potentials.

METHODS

Dry powder of I. batatas tuber and roots were extracted with ethyl acetate (IPT-EA, IPR-EA) and methanol (IPT-M, IPR-M), respectively. These extracts were tested for total phenolic and flavonoid contents (TPC and TFC), HPLC finger printing, multidimensional in vitro and in vivo antioxidant potential and albumin denaturation inhibition. Carrageenan-induced paw edema, croton oil-induced ear and anal edema inhibition and Complete Freund's Adjuvant (CFA)-induced antiarthritic assays were executed at a dose of 300 mg/kg body weight on Sprague-Dawley rats. Serum levels of interleukins IL-1β and IL-6 and nitric oxide (NO) were assessed to measure the inhibition of inflammation.

RESULTS

Maximal TPC (319.81 ± 14.20 μg GAE/mg dry extract) and TFC (208.77 ± 9.09 μg QE/mg DE) were estimated in IPR-EA extract. IPT-EA and IPR-EA yielded the maximum amounts of rutin (7.3 ± 1.12 and 4.5 ± 0.55), caffeic acid (1.60 ± 0.25 and 2.17 ± 0.26) and myricetin (2.7 ± 0.14 and 1.01 ± 0.08 μg/mg DE), respectively in HPLC-DAD analysis. All extracts showed dose dependent response in in vitro antioxidant assays. Best inhibition (76.92 ± 3.07%) of albumin denaturation was shown by IPT-EA in comparison to ibuprofen (79.48 ± 4.71%). IPR-EA exhibited highest edema inhibition in models of carrageenan-induced paw edema (79.11 ± 5.47%) and croton oil-induced ear and anal edema (72.01 ± 7.80% and 70.80 ± 4.94%, respectively). Significant inhibition of CFA-induced arthritic edema and arthritic score were observed by IPR-EA as compared to ibuprofen. Suppression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6) and NO levels was shown by IPR-EA and IPT-EA, respectively.

CONCLUSION

These results depict that richness of polyphenols and phytoconstituents in I. batatas ameliorates oxidative stress and inflammation of acute and chronic nature. Dose dependent antioxidant potential and inhibition of inflammatory edema, pro-inflammatory cytokines and hematological, biochemical and histological changes prove I. batatas therapeutic potential as an antiinflammatory and antiarthritic agent.

Simultaneous determination of three flavonoids and one coumarin by LC-MS/MS: Application to a comparative pharmacokinetic study in normal and arthritic rats after oral administration of Daphne genkwa extract

A selective and sensitive liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method was developed and validated for investigating the pharmacokinetics of umbelliferone, apigenin, genkwanin and hydroxygenkwanin after oral administration of Daphne genkwa extract. Plasma samples were treated by protein precipitation with acetonitrile. Analytes were detected by triple-quadrupole MS/MS with an ESI source in negative selection reaction monitoring mode. The transitions of m/z 161 → 133 for umbelliferone, m/z 269 → 117 for apigenin, m/z 283 → 268 for genkwanin and m/z 299 → 284 for hydroxygenkwanin were confirmed for quantification. Chromatographic separation was conducted using an Eclipse XDB-C₁₈ column, and the applied isocratic elution program allowed for simultaneous determination of the four analytes for a total run time of 2.5 min. The linearity was validated over the plasma concentration ranges of 1.421-1421 ng/mL for umbelliferone, 0.845-845 ng/mL for apigenin, 1.025-1025 ng/mL for genkwanin and 0.845-845 ng/mL for hydroxygenkwanin. The extraction recovery rate was >82.7% for each analyte. No apparent matrix effect was observed during the bioanalysis. After full validation, the proposed method was successfully applied to compare the pharmacokinetics of these analytes between normal and arthritic rats.

Anti-inflammatory and anti-angiogenic activities in vitro of eight diterpenes from Daphne genkwa based on hierarchical cluster and principal component analysis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is one of the most prevalent chronic inflammatory and angiogenic diseases. The aim of this study was to evaluate the anti-inflammatory and anti-angiogenic activities in vitro of eight diterpenoids isolated from Daphne genkwa. LC-MS was used to identify diterpenes isolated from D. genkwa. The anti-inflammatory and anti-angiogenic activities of eight diterpenoids were evaluated on LPS-induced macrophage RAW264.7 cells and TNF-α-stimulated human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) using hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) and principal component analysis (PCA). The eight diterpenes isolated from D. genkwa were identified as yuanhuaphnin, isoyuanhuacine, 12-O-(2'E,4'E-decadienoyl)-4-hydroxyphorbol-13-acetyl, yuanhuagine, isoyuanhuadine, yuanhuadine, yuanhuaoate C and yuanhuacine. All the eight diterpenes significantly down-regulated the excessive secretion of TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β and NO in LPS-induced RAW264.7 macrophages. However, only 12-O-(2'E,4'E-decadienoyl)-4-hydroxyphorbol-13-acetyl markedly reduced production of VEGF, MMP-3, ICAM and VCAM in TNF-α-stimulated HUVECs. HCA obtained 4 clusters, containing 12-O-(2'E,4'E-decadienoyl)-4-hydroxyphorbol-13-acetyl, isoyuanhuacine, isoyuanhuadine and five other compounds. PCA showed that the ranking of diterpenes sorted by efficacy from highest to lowest was 12-O-(2'E,4'E-decadienoyl)-4-hydroxyphorbol-13-acetyl, yuanhuaphnin, isoyuanhuacine, yuanhuacine, yuanhuaoate C, yuanhuagine, isoyuanhuadine, yuanhuadine. In conclusion, eight diterpenes isolated from D. genkwa showed different levels of activity in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells and TNF-α-stimulated HUVECs. The comprehensive evaluation of activity by HCA and PCA indicated that of the eight diterpenes, 12-O-(2'E,4'E-decadienoyl)-4-hydroxyphorbol-13-acetyl was the best, and can be developed as a new drug for RA therapy.

Absorption Properties of Luteolin and Apigenin in Genkwa Flos Using In Situ Single-Pass Intestinal Perfusion System in the Rat

The flower bud of Daphne genkwa (Genkwa Flos) is a commonly used herbal medicine in Asian countries. Luteolin and apigenin are two recognized active flavonoids in Genkwa Flos. The aim of this study was to investigate the intestinal absorption mechanisms of Genkwa Flos flavonoids using in situ single-pass intestinal perfusion rat model. Using HPLC, we determined its major effective flavonoids luteolin, apigenin, as well as, hydroxygenkwanin and genkwanin in biological samples. The intestinal absorption mechanisms of the total flavonoids in Genkwa Flos (TFG) were investigated using in situ single-pass intestinal perfusion rat model. Comparing the TFG absorption rate in different intestinal segments, data showed that the small intestine absorption was significantly higher than that of the colon ([Formula: see text]). Compared with duodenum and ileum, the jejunum was the best small intestinal site for TFG absorption. The high TFG concentration (61.48[Formula: see text][Formula: see text]g/ml) yielded the highest permeability ([Formula: see text]). Subsequently, three membrane protein inhibitors (verapamil, pantoprazole and probenecid) were used to explore the TFG absorption pathways. Data showed probenecid, a multidrug resistance protein (or MRP) inhibitor, effectively enhanced the TFG absorption ([Formula: see text]). Furthermore, by comparing commonly used natural absorption enhancers on TFG, it was observed that camphor was the most effective. In Situ single-pass intestinal perfusion experiment shows that TFG absorption is much higher in the small intestine than in the colon, and the TFG is absorbed mainly via an active transport pathway with MRP-mediated efflux mechanism. Camphor obviously enhanced the TFG absorption, and this could be an effective TFG formulation preparation method to increase clinical effectiveness after Genkwa Flos administration. Our study elucidated the TFG absorption mechanisms, and provided new information for its formulation preparation.

Bee Venom and Hesperidin Effectively Mitigate Complete Freund's Adjuvant-Induced Arthritis Via Immunomodulation and Enhancement of Antioxidant Defense System

Objectives

This study aims to assess the antirheumatic activity of bee venom (BV) and/or hesperidin as natural products in complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA)-induced arthritis in male Wistar rats.

Material and methods

Rheumatoid arthritis was induced in 30 male Wistar rats (weight 130 g to 150 g; age 10 to 12 weeks) by subcutaneous injection of CFA into the right hind paw of the rats. The rats were divided into five groups of six rats in each and administered the following regimens for 21 days: Normal group (given the equivalent volume of saline and carboxymethylcellulose), arthritic group (given the equivalent volume of saline and carboxymethylcellulose), arthritic group treated with BV (treated with BV along with carboxymethylcellulose), arthritic group treated with hesperidin (treated with hesperidin along with saline), and arthritic group treated with BV and hesperidin (treated with BV and hesperidin concurrently).

Results

Bee venom and/or hesperidin successfully reversed the CFA-arthritis-induced increases in right hind leg paw swelling, leukocytes' count, liver lipid peroxidation, serum inflammatory cytokine interleukin (IL-2 and IL-12) levels and spleen tumor necrosis factor-alpha messenger ribonucleic acid expression. Moreover, the CFA-induced down-regulation in serum IL-10 level and spleen IL-4 messenger ribonucleic acid expression as well as the deterioration in the antioxidant defense system were significantly improved as a result of BV and hesperidin administration. Both treatments also markedly counteracted the severe inflammatory changes and leukocytic infiltration in the periarticular tissue of the ankle joints. In addition, BV and hesperidin obviously amended the lymphoid hyperplasia in white pulps of spleen as well as the widening of the medulla and mononuclear cell infiltration found in thymus.

Conclusion

Bee venom and hesperidin administration produced their ameliorative effects on rheumatoid arthritis via their antioxidant, antiinflammatory and immunomodulatory potentials. BV plus hesperidin particularly seemed to be the most potent in improving rheumatoid arthritis in Wistar rats.

The Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Toonaciliatin K against Adjuvant Arthritis

Toonaciliatin K is a natural limonoid purified from the Toona ciliata Roem. var. ciliata (Meliaceae). This study is to reveal the inflammatory suppression effect of toonaciliatin K and further the intrinsic mechanism. Firstly, anti-inflammatory effect of toonaciliatin K was evaluated in lipopolysaccharide- (LPS-) induced RAW264.7 cells. RT-PCR results indicated that the mRNA expressions of TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β were downregulated by toonaciliatin K. The toonaciliatin K inhibited TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β levels stimulated by LPS. Furthermore, LPS elicited the excess iNOS and COX-2 mRNA and protein production and toonaciliatin K attenuated the excess production. Western blot assay demonstrated that MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathways play critical roles in the toonaciliatin K's anti-inflammatory activity. Secondly, toonaciliatin K inhibited carrageenan-induced paw edema in rats. Thirdly, toonaciliatin K alleviated the paw swelling and improved arthritis clinical scores in the adjuvant arthritis rats. Toonaciliatin K decreased the proinflammatory cytokines levels and Mankin scores in adjuvant arthritis rats. The HE staining, safranin O-fast green, and toluidine blue staining results demonstrated that toonaciliatin K alleviated the histological changes of paw, for example, pannus formation, focal loss of cartilage, bone erosion, and presence of extra-articular inflammation. Hence, toonaciliatin K is a promising agent for treatment of arthritis.

Development of Albumin Coupled, Cholesterol Stabilized, Lipid Nanoemulsion of Methotrexate, and TNF-α Inhibitor for Improved In Vivo Efficacy Against Rheumatoid Arthritis

Methotrexate (MTX; an anti-folate) and etanercept (ET; a TNF-α inhibitor) are used against arthritis; however, limitations like short biological half-life, low cutaneous absorption, and acidic instability limit their clinical relevance. Therefore, the aim of the investigation was to develop albumin coupled lipid nanoemulsion of MTX and ET for improved efficacy by virtue of their controlled release and specificity at the arthritic site. This emulsion was prepared by high-speed homogenization and stabilized using cholesterol. Lipid nanoemulsion of MTX and ET (MTX+ET-LNE) was coupled with albumin (MTX+ET-ALNE). MTX+ET-ALNE was characterized on the basis of particle size (410 ± 25.4 nm), PDI (0.160), and zeta potential (+38.6 ± 5.6 mV) and evaluated for pH (6.15), drug content (97.7 ± 2.17%), entrapment efficiency (76 ± 4.6%), in vitro release, and in vitro cytotoxicity. About 82.6 ± 9.60% release of MTX+ET was observed in 24 h from the developed MTX+ET-ALNE which may help maintain therapeutic level of drugs in blood at least for one day. No toxicity was observed when Raw 264.7 cells were treated with MTX+ET-ALNE, and no causalities of mice were observed at experimental in vivo dose (10 mg/kg BW) of MTX+ET in MTX+ET-ALNE-treated group. MTX+ET-ALNE treatment has alleviated arthritic scores and inflammatory cytokines level in a very significant manner when compared with MTX+ET-LNE and MTX+ET solutions. MTX+ET-ALNE-treated group restored histological alterations (cartilage/bone erosion, inflammatory cell infiltration, synovial hyperplasia, and narrower joint space) as observed in diseased treated groups. In conclusion, MTX+ET-ALNE can be opted as efficacious and clinically pertinent option to the current medication systems of arthritis.

Relationship between the UPLC-Q-TOF-MS fingerprinted constituents from Daphne genkwa and their anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant activities

Daphne genkwa Sieb.et Zucc. is a well-known medicinal plant. This study was designed to apply the ultra-high performance liquid chromatography system to establish a quality control method for D. genkwa. Data revealed that there were 15 common peaks in 10 batches of D. genkwa Sieb. Et Zucc. (Thymelaeaceae) from different provinces of China. On this basis, the fingerprint chromatogram was established to provide references for quality control. Afterwards, the chemical constitutions of these common peaks were analyzed using the UPLC-Q-TOF-MS system and nine of them were identified. In addition, LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 murine macrophages and DPPH assay were used to study the anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidation effects of D. genkwa. Then the fingerprint-efficacy relationships between UPLC fingerprints and pharmacodynamic data were studied with canonical correlation analysis. Analysis results indicated that the anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidation effects differed among the 10 D. genkwa samples owing to their inherent differences of chemical compositions. Taken together, this research established a fingerprint-efficacy relationship model of D. genkwa plant by combining the UPLC analytic technique and pharmacological research, which provided references for the detection of the principal components of traditional Chinese medicine on bioactivity.

How impaired efficacy happened between Gancao and Yuanhua: Compounds, targets and pathways

As recorded in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) theory, Gancao (Glycyrrhizae Radix et Rhizoma) could weaken the pharmacological effect or increase the toxicity of Yuanhua (Genkwa Flos). However, the theory has been suspected due to lack of evidence. Here, we investigate whether Gancao could weaken Yuanhua’s diuretic effect, if so, which chemicals and which targets may be involved. Results showed that Yuanhua exerted diuretic effect through down-regulating renal AQP 2, without electrolyte disturbances such as K⁺ loss which has been observed as side-effect of most diuretics. Gancao had no diuretic effect, but could impair Yuanhua’s diuretic effect through up-regulating renal AQP 2. Glycyrrhetinic acid (GRA) in Gancao could up-regulate AQP 2 and counteract the AQP 2 regulation effect of Yuanhuacine (YHC) and Ginkwanin (GKW) in Yuanhua. Network pharmacology method suggested that YHC, GKW and GRA could bind to MEK1/FGFR1 protein and influence ERK-MAPK pathway, which was verified by Western blotting. This study supports TCM theory and reminds that more attention should be paid to the safety and efficacy problems induced by improper combination between herbs. Moreover, we suggested that promising diuretics with less side effects can be developed from Chinese Medicines such as Yuanhua.

In vitro and in vivo evaluation of anti-arthritic, antioxidant efficacy of fucoidan from Undaria pinnatifida (Harvey) Suringar

Seaweed and their constituents have been traditionally employed for the management of various human pathologic conditions such as edema, urinary disorders and inflammatory anomalies. The current study was performed to investigate the antioxidant and anti-arthritic effects of fucoidan from Undaria pinnatifida. A noteworthy in vitro antioxidant potential at 500μg/ml in 2, 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl scavenging assay (80% inhibition), nitrogen oxide inhibition assay (71.83%), hydroxyl scavenging assay (71.92%), iron chelating assay (73.55%) and a substantial ascorbic acid equivalent reducing power (399.35μg/mg ascorbic acid equivalent) and total antioxidant capacity (402.29μg/mg AAE) suggested fucoidan a good antioxidant agent. Down regulation of COX-2 expression in rabbit articular chondrocytes in a dose (0-100μg) and time (0-48h) dependent manner, unveiled its in vitro anti-inflammatory significance. In vivo carrageenan induced inflammatory rat model demonstrated a 68.19% inhibition of inflammation whereas an inflammation inhibition potential of 79.38% was recorded in anti-arthritic complete Freund's adjuvant-induced arthritic rat model. A substantial ameliorating effect on altered hematological and biochemical parameters in arthritic rats was also observed. Therefore, findings of the present study prospects fucoidan as a potential antioxidant that can effectively abrogate oxidative stress, edema and arthritis-mediated inflammation and mechanistic studies are recommended for observed activities.

Anti-rheumatic activity of Ananas comosus fruit peel extract in a complete Freund's adjuvant rat model

CONTEXT

Rheumatoid arthritis is a chronic, autoimmune and systemic inflammatory disease, which targets synovial joints leading to joint destruction mediated in part by migration of inflammatory cells into the synovial tissue.

OBJECTIVE

The present study evaluates the anti-rheumatic effect of a methanol extract of Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. (Bromeliaceae) peel in rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Anti-rheumatic activity of crude extract of peels of A. comosus in complete Freund's induced arthritis model in rats was studied at doses of 50, 100, 250 and 500 mg/kg b.w. for 21 days. Parameters such as paw size, levels of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), C-reactive proteins (CRP) and prostaglandins (PGE₂) were analysed.

RESULTS

Oral administration of the extract significantly reduced the swelling in the paw of rats (EC₅₀ 65.1 ± 2.95 mg/kg b.w.) with a maximal inhibition of 77.01 ± 10.53% on 21st day at 500 mg/kg b.w. The extract also significantly reduced the levels of SOD, CAT and GPx in liver (EC₅₀ 26.84 ± 16.37, 68.37 ± 19.22, 106.54 ± 34.81 mg/kg b.w., respectively), kidney (EC₅₀ 261.75 ± 81.5, 176.38 ± 8.08, 14.32 ± 6.64, mg/kg b.w., respectively) and spleen (EC₅₀ 152.14 ± 39.57, 83.97 ± 14.6, 47.1 ± 10.45 mg/kg b.w., respectively); and CRP (EC₅₀ 36.37 ± 12.4 mg/kg b.w.) and PGE₂ (EC₅₀ 191.06 ± 71.54 mg/kg b.w.) in tissue homogenate and serum, respectively, at 500 mg/kg b.w. as compared to arthritic control group.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

These results suggest that A. comosus fruit peel extract exerts anti-rheumatic activity.

Iridoid glycosides from the flowers of Gentiana macrophylla Pall. ameliorate collagen-induced arthritis in rats

BACKGROUND

The flowers of Gentiana macrophylla have been usually applied to cure the joint inflammation and rheumatoid arthritis in Traditional Chinese Medicine.

HYPOTHESIS/PURPOSE

This work aimed to investigate the anti-rheumatoid arthritic effect and possible mechanism of iridoid glycosides from G. macrophylla (GMI) using an animal model of collagen-induced rheumatoid arthritis (CIA) in rats.

STUDY DESIGN

All rats were randomly divided into five groups: normal control, CIA, dexamethasone, 15mg/kg and 30mg/kg GMI.

METHODS

CIA was induced (day 0) in male Sprague-Dawley rats by intradermal injection of complete Bovine CII at the base of the tail. Dexamethasone was chosen as the positive drug. The administration of different drugs started from day 1 and continued for 28 days. Paw swelling, arthritis score and histopathological changes were examined to assess the severity of arthritis. In addition, the serum levels of tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expressions in joint synovial tissues were detected.

RESULTS

GMI reduced paw edema, arthritis scores and the index of spleen and thymus from day 7 to 21 after CIA compared with those in the CIA group. Our data also demonstrated that GMI inhibited pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6, regulated the expression of iNOS and COX-2 compared with those in the CIA group. We also obtained four major components from GMI, identified as loganic acid, swertamarin, gentiopicroside and sweroside, and the contents of them were also calculated respectively.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, our results shed light on the therapeutic efficacy of GMI in rats rheumatoid arthritis model by reducing the levels of IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α in serum as well as down-regulating the levels of iNOS and COX-2. Therefore, GMI may be an effective therapy for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis.

(7R,8S)-9-acetyl-dehydrodiconiferyl alcohol inhibits inflammation and migration in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated macrophages

BACKGROUND

(7R, 8S)-9-Acetyl-dehydrodiconiferyl alcohol (ADDA), a novel lignan compound isolated from Clematis armandii Franch (Ranunculaceae) stems, has been found to exert potential anti-inflammatory activities in vitro.

PURPOSE

To investigate the pharmacological effects and molecular mechanisms of ADDA on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced activation and migration of macrophages.

STUDY DESIGN/METHODS

Macrophages were stimulated with LPS in the presence or absence of ADDA. Expression of inflammatory mediators, including cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and nitric oxide (NO) were measured by Western blot and commercial NO detection kit. Cellular viability and chemotactic properties of macrophages were investigated using MTT and transwell migration assays. The activation and expression of mitogen activated protein kinases, nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), protein kinase B (Akt), Src, and focal adhesion kinase (FAK) were analyzed by Western blot.

RESULTS

Non-toxic concentrations (12.5-50 µM) of ADDA concentration-dependently inhibited expression/release of inflammatory mediators (COX-2, iNOS, and NO), suppressed Akt and c-jun N-terminal kinase 1/2 (JNK) phosphorylation, and NF-κB activation in LPS-stimulated macrophages. In addition, ADDA blocked LPS-mediated macrophage migration and this was associated with inhibition of LPS-induced Src and FAK phosphorylation as well as Src expression in a concentration dependent manner. Notably, the inhibitory effects of ADDA on iNOS, NO, and Src could be mimicked by a Src inhibitor PP2 or an iNOS inhibitor l-NMMA.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggested that ADDA attenuated LPS-induced inflammatory responses in macrophages and cell migration, at least in part, through inhibition of NF-κB activation and modulation of iNOS/Src/FAK axis.

Antitumor Activity of Total Flavonoids from Daphne genkwa in Colorectal Cancer

Daphne genkwa Sieb.et Zucc. is a well-known medicinal plant. This study was designed to investigate the anticancer effects of total flavonoids in D. genkwa (TFDG) in vitro and in vivo. HT-29 and SW-480 human colorectal cancer cells were cultured to investigate the anticancer activity of TFDG. In addition, the Apc(Min/+) mouse model was applied in the in vivo experiment. Results of the cell experiment revealed that TFDG possessed significant inhibitory effects on HT-29 and SW-480 human colorectal cancer cells (both p < 0.01). Furthermore, our in vivo data showed that after treatment with TFDG, there was a significant increase in life span (both p < 0.01) and tumor numbers were reduced in the colon (both p < 0.01), which was supported by the data of tumor distribution, body weight changes and organ index. Our results also indicated that expressions of interleukin (IL)-1α, IL-1β, IL-6, granulocyte colony-stimulating factor and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor in gut tissue were downregulated by treatments of TFDG, and immunity cytokine secretions in the serum were regulated after oral administration of TFDG. Taken together, these findings suggested that TFDG has a potential clinical utility in colorectal cancer therapeutics, and TFDG's action is likely linked to its ability to regulate immune function and inhibit the production of inflammatory cytokines.

Antitumor and immunomodulatory activity of genkwanin on colorectal cancer in the APC(Min/+) mice

Colorectal cancer is the third most common malignant tumor with high morbidity and mortality. To evaluate the antitumor effect of genkwanin on colorectal cancer enhanced by western high-fat diet, we investigated the activity of genkwanin on HT-29 and SW-480 human colorectal cancer lines in vitro and on the APC(Min/+) mice in vivo. In a cell culture system, six different inflammatory cytokines obviously stimulated two cancer cells growth in a concentration-dependent manner, while genkwanin significantly inhibited HT-29 and SW-480 human colorectal cancer cells proliferation and inflammatory cytokine IL-8 secretion. In the APC(Min/+) mice, the body weights, spleen and thymus indexes and immunity cytokine secretions were significantly improved after oral administration 12.5 and 25mg/kg/day of genkwanin. Besides, the tumor multiplicity changes and inflammatory cytokine levels were markedly reduced in two genkwanin-treated groups. The dysplastic adenomatous changes were also obviously ameliorated in gut histopathology. Taken together, our results indicated that genkwanin had a better antitumor activity partly via enhancing host immunity and decreasing the inflammatory cytokine levels. Genkwanin may be an effective chemotherapeutic agent for the treatment of colorectal cancer.