Ginsenoside Rb2 inhibits epithelial-mesenchymal transition of colorectal cancer cells by suppressing TGF-β/Smad signaling

Traditional Chinese Medicine JianPiHuaTan formula improving quality of life and survival in patients with colorectal cancer through RAS/RAF downstream signaling pathways

Objective

JianPiHuaTan Formula (JPHTF), a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), has been utilized as an adjunctive therapy for colorectal cancer (CRC). The study aims to evaluate the potential clinical benefits of JPHTF and its effectiveness in inhibiting tumor growth.

Methods

300 stage II/III CRC patients and 412 advanced CRC patients were enrolled to verify the clinical value of JPHTF in CRC treatment. Furthermore, CRC patient-derived xenograft (PDX) mice were utilized to investigate the regulatory mechanisms of JPHTF.

Results

JPHTF significantly improved abdominal distension, shortness of breath, drowsiness, loss of appetite, sleep, and tiredness in stage II/III CRC patients, thereby improving their quality of life. Simultaneously, JPHTF served as a supportive therapy in extending the overall survival (OS) of stage IV CRC patients with RAS/RAF mutations undergoing chemotherapy. Additionally, JPHTF effectively impeded tumor progression in CRC PDX models with RAS mutation, accompanied by a reduction in tumor cell content in the JPHTF group. Transcriptomic analysis revealed the involvement of the Hippo and Hedgehog signaling pathways in JPHTF-mediated CRC inhibition. Furthermore, mice in the JPHTF group exhibited increased immune cell infiltration.

Conclusion

These findings suggested that JPHTF may inhibits tumor growth in CRC with RAS mutation by modulating RAS/RAF downstream signaling pathways, specifically the Hippo and Hedgehog signaling, leading to increased immune cell infiltration.

Ginsenosides: an immunomodulator for the treatment of colorectal cancer

Ginsenosides, the primary bioactive ingredients derived from the root of Panax ginseng, are eagerly in demand for tumor patients as a complementary and alternative drug. Ginsenosides have increasingly become a "hot topic" in recent years due to their multifunctional role in treating colorectal cancer (CRC) and regulating tumor microenvironment (TME). Emerging experimental research on ginsenosides in the treatment and immune regulation of CRC has been published, while no review sums up its specific role in the CRC microenvironment. Therefore, this paper systematically introduces how ginsenosides affect the TME, specifically by enhancing immune response, inhibiting the activation of stromal cells, and altering the hallmarks of CRC cells. In addition, we discuss their impact on the physicochemical properties of the tumor microenvironment. Furthermore, we discuss the application of ginsenosides in clinical treatment as their efficacy in enhancing tumor patient immunity and prolonging survival. The future perspectives of ginsenoside as a complementary and alternative drug of CRC are also provided. This review hopes to open up a new horizon for the cancer treatment of Traditional Chinese Medicine monomers.

TGF-β in correlation with tumor progression, immunosuppression and targeted therapy in colorectal cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a complex malignancy responsible for the second-highest cancer deaths worldwide. TGF-β maintains normal cellular homeostasis by inhibiting the cell cycle and inducing apoptosis, but its elevated level is correlated with colorectal cancer progression, as TGF-β is a master regulator of the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, a critical step of metastasis. Tumors, including CRC, use elevated TGF-β levels to avoid immune surveillance by modulating immune cell differentiation, proliferation, and effector function. Presently, the treatment of advanced CRC is mainly based on chemotherapy, with multiple adverse effects. Thus, there is a need to develop alternate tactics because CRC continue to be mostly resistant to the present therapeutic regimen. TGF-β blockade has emerged as a promising therapeutic target in cancer therapy. Blocking TGF-β with phytochemicals and other molecules, such as antisense oligonucleotides, monoclonal antibodies, and bifunctional traps, alone or in combination, may be a safer and more effective way to treat CRC. Furthermore, combination immunotherapy comprising TGF-β blockers and immune checkpoint inhibitors is gaining popularity because both molecules work synergistically to suppress the immune system. Here, we summarize the current understanding of TGF-β as a therapeutic target for managing CRC and its context-dependent tumor-promoting or tumor-suppressing nature.

Ferroptosis and EMT: key targets for combating cancer progression and therapy resistance

Iron-dependent lipid peroxidation causes ferroptosis, a form of regulated cell death. Crucial steps in the formation of ferroptosis include the accumulation of ferrous ions (Fe2+) and lipid peroxidation, of which are controlled by glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4). Its crucial role in stopping the spread of cancer has been shown by numerous studies undertaken in the last ten years. Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is the process by which epithelial cells acquire mesenchymal characteristics. EMT is connected to carcinogenesis, invasiveness, metastasis, and therapeutic resistance in cancer. It is controlled by a range of internal and external signals and changes the phenotype from epithelial to mesenchymal like. Studies have shown that mesenchymal cancer cells tend to be more ferroptotic than their epithelial counterparts. Drug-resistant cancer cells are more easily killed by inducers of ferroptosis when they undergo EMT. Therefore, understanding the interaction between ferroptosis and EMT will help identify novel cancer treatment targets. In-depth discussion is given to the regulation of ferroptosis, the potential application of EMT in the treatment of cancer, and the relationships between ferroptosis, EMT, and signaling pathways associated with tumors. Invasion, metastasis, and inflammation in cancer all include ferroptosis and EMT. The goal of this review is to provide suggestions for future research and practical guidance for applying ferroptosis and EMT in clinical practice.

Ginsenosides on stem cells fate specification-a novel perspective

Recent studies have demonstrated that stem cells have attracted much attention due to their special abilities of proliferation, differentiation and self-renewal, and are of great significance in regenerative medicine and anti-aging research. Hence, finding natural medicines that intervene the fate specification of stem cells has become a priority. Ginsenosides, the key components of natural botanical ginseng, have been extensively studied for versatile effects, such as regulating stem cells function and resisting aging. This review aims to summarize recent progression regarding the impact of ginsenosides on the behavior of adult stem cells, particularly from the perspective of proliferation, differentiation and self-renewal.

MPZL1 promotes LUAD progression by enhancing tumor proliferation, invasion, migration and suppressing immune function via TGF-β1

Lung cancer is the leading cause of death worldwide, and lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) is the most common form of lung cancer. The abnormally high expression of myelin protein zero-like 1 (MPZL1) promotes the malignant progression of various tumors. However, there is no relevant report on the functional role of MPZL1 in LUAU. In this study, we applied illumina sequencing to screen differentially expressed genes. Subsequently, MPZL1 was selected as hub gene for qRT-PCR and CCK8 assay. The expression level of MPZL1 was analyzed by immunohistochemistry, immunofluorescence, western blot and qRT-PCR. After silencing or overexpressing MPZL1, CCK8, EDU, clone formation, scratch healing, invasion, and nude mouse tumor-bearing experiments were performed to detect the abilities of cell proliferation, migration, invasion and tumorigenicity. Moreover, qRT-PCR, western blot, Co-IP and scratch healing assays were conducted to explore the transcriptional regulatory factors of MPZL1. Finally, the relationship between MPZL1 and immunotherapy was explored through public databases and validated in vivo. The results show that a total of 196 high-expressed genes and 496 low-expressed genes were screened. Differential genes are mainly enriched in cell proliferation and division, protein binding and other pathways and functions. MPZL1 was selected as the hub gene and upregulated in LUAD tissues and cells. Silencing MPZL1 inhibited the cell proliferation and cloning formation, and the growth of tumor. Conversely, overexpression of MPZL1 has the opposite effect. In addition, MPZL1 combines with the TGF-β1 to promote the progress of LUAD. Finally, we found that high expression of MPZL1 is negatively correlated with infiltration of CD8+ cells and may lead to immunotherapy resistance. In summary, this study revealed a new mechanism by which MPZL1 promotes LUAD progression by enhancing tumor proliferation, invasion, migration and suppressing immune function.

Processing technologies, phytochemistry, bioactivities and applications of black ginseng-a novel manufactured ginseng product: A comprehensive review

Black ginseng is a novel manufactured ginseng product, and the application of black ginseng products in market is increasing in recent years. Black ginseng is prepared by steaming and fermentation, but not as mature as processing red ginseng. Therefore, complete proposals for preparation techniques are firstly presented. Additionally, there are also abundant chemical components in black ginseng, including ginsenosides, polysaccharides, amino acids, polyphenols, flavonoids, etc. Among them, ginsenosides, polysaccharides and phenolic compounds are the main ingredients, making health benefits of black ginseng stronger than other ginseng products. Therefore, black ginseng as a functional food has come to the market in various forms, such as candies, tea, porridge, soup, etc. The improvement in nutrition, flavor, and safety has exhibited a broad prospect for black ginseng products in food industry. Accordingly, preparation technologies, phytochemistry, health benefits and application of black ginseng are comprehensively evaluated.

Sijunzi decoction granules in the prevention and treatment of recurrence of colorectal adenoma: Study protocol for a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial

Background: The recurrence of colorectal adenomas (CRAs) after endoscopy predisposes patients to a risk of colorectal cancer. Guided by the traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), patients with colorectal diseases usually manifest with spleen deficiency syndrome (SDS) and are treated with Sijunzi decoction (SJZD). Therefore, this trial aims to explore the efficacy and safety of SJZD in the prevention and treatment of CRAs recurrence.

Methods: SJZD on prevention and treatment of CRAs recurrence after resection: a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial was designed. Patients who undergo polypectomy of CRAs will be recruited and randomized into a SJZD group and a placebo group in a 1:1 ratio. The intervention phase will be 12 months. The follow-up period will last 24 months. The primary outcome is the CRA recurrence rate after intervention. The secondary outcomes include the CRA recurrence rate at the second year post-polypectomy, the pathological type of adenoma and the alterations in SDS scores after intervention.

Discussion: Previous clinical practice has observed the sound effect of SJZD in the context of gastrointestinal diseases. A number of experiments have also validated the active components in SJZD. This trial aims to provide tangible evidence for the usage of SJZD, hoping to reduce the recurrence of CRAs.

In silico analysis to identify miR-1271-5p/PLCB4 (phospholipase C Beta 4) axis mediated oxaliplatin resistance in metastatic colorectal cancer

Oxaliplatin (OXA) is the first-line chemotherapy drug for metastatic colorectal cancer (mCRC), and the emergence of drug resistance is a major clinical challenge. Although there have been numerous studies on OXA resistance, but its underlying molecular mechanisms are still unclear. This study aims to identify key regulatory genes and pathways associated with OXA resistance. The Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) GSE42387 dataset containing gene expression profiles of parental and OXA-resistant LoVo cells was applied to explore potential targets. GEO2R, STRING, CytoNCA (a plug-in of Cytoscape), and DAVID were used to analyze differentially expressed genes (DEGs), protein-protein interactions (PPIs), hub genes in PPIs, and gene ontology (GO)/Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analysis. R2 online platform was used to run a survival analysis of validated hub genes enriched in KEGG pathways. The ENCORI database predicted microRNAs for candidate genes. A survival analysis of those genes was performed, and validated using the OncoLnc database. In addition, the 'clusterProfiler' package in R was used to perform gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA). We identified 395 DEGs, among which 155 were upregulated and 240 were downregulated. In total, 95 DEGs were screened as hub genes after constructing the PPI networks. Twelve GO terms and three KEGG pathways (steroid hormone biosynthesis, malaria, and pathways in cancer) were identified as being significant in the enrichment analysis of hub genes. Twenty-one hub genes enriched in KEGG pathways were defined as key genes. Among them AKT3, phospholipase C Beta 4 (PLCB4), and TGFB1 were identified as OXA-resistance genes through the survival analysis. High expressions of AKT3 and TGFB1 were each associated with a poor prognosis, and lower expression of PLCB4 was correlated with worse survival. Further, high levels of hsa-miR-1271-5p, which potentially targets PLCB4, were associated with poor overall survival in patients with CRC. Finally, we found that PLCB4 low expression was associated with MAPK signaling pathway and VEGF signaling pathway in CRC. Our results demonstrated that hsa-miR-1271-5p/PLCB4 in the pathway in cancer could be a new potential therapeutic target for mCRC with OXA resistance.

Naringenin is a Potential Immunomodulator for Inhibiting Liver Fibrosis by Inhibiting the cGAS-STING Pathway

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Naringenin is an anti-inflammatory flavonoid that has been studied in chronic liver disease. The mechanism specific to its antifibrosis activity needs further investigation This study was to focused on the cyclic guanosine monophosphate-adenosine monophosphate synthase (cGAS) pathway in hepatic stellate cells and clarified the antifibrosis mechanism of naringenin.

METHODS

The relationship between the cGAS-stimulator of interferon genes (STING) pathway and liver fibrosis was analyzed using the Gene Expression Omnibus database. Histopathology, immunohistochemistry, fluorescence staining, Western blotting and polymerase chain reaction were performed to assess gene and protein expression levels associated with the cGAS pathway in clinical liver tissue samples and mouse livers. Molecular docking was performed to evaluate the relationship between naringenin and cGAS, and western blotting was performed to study the expression of inflammatory factors downstream of cGAS in vitro.

RESULTS

Clinical database analyses showed that the cGAS-STING pathway is involved in the occurrence of chronic liver disease. Naringenin ameliorated liver injury and liver fibrosis, decreased collagen deposition and cGAS expression, and inhibited inflammation in carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄)-treated mice. Molecular docking found that cGAS may be a direct target of naringenin. Consistent with the in vivo results, we verified the inhibitory effect of naringenin on activated hepatic stellate cells (HSCs). By using the cGAS-specific agonist double-stranded (ds)DNA, we showed that naringenin attenuated the activation of cGAS and its inflammatory factors affected by dsDNA. We verified that naringenin inhibited the cGAS-STING pathway, thereby reducing the secretion of inflammatory factors by HSCs to ameliorate liver fibrosis.

CONCLUSIONS

Interrupting the cGAS-STING pathway helped reverse the fibrosis process. Naringenin has potential as an antihepatic fibrosis drug.

Anticancer plant-derivatives: deciphering their oncopreventive and therapeutic potential in molecular terms

Background

Over the years, phytomedicines have been widely used as natural modalities for the treatment and prevention of various diseases by different ethnic groups across the globe. Although, 25% of drugs in the USA contain at least one plant-derived therapeutic compound, currently there is a paucity of plant-derived active medicinal ingredients in the pharmaceutical industry. Scientific evidence-based translation of plant-derived ethnomedicines for their clinical application is an urgent need. The anticancer and associated properties (antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, pro-apoptotic and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) inhibition) of various plant extracts and phytochemicals have been elucidated earlier. Several of the plant derivatives are already in use under prophylactic/therapeutic settings against cancer and many are being investigated under different phases of clinical trials.

Main body

The purpose of this study is to systematically comprehend the progress made in the area of prophylactic and therapeutic potential of the anticancerous plant derivatives. Besides, we aim to understand their anticancer potential in terms of specific sub-phenomena, such as anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory, pro-apoptotic and inhibition of EMT, with an insight of the molecules/pathways associated with them. The study also provides details of classes of anticancer compounds, their plant source(s) and the molecular pathway(s) targeted by them. In addition to the antioxidative and antiproliferative potentials of anticancer plant derivatives, this study emphasizes on their EMT-inhibition potential and other ‘anticancer related’ properties. The EMT is highlighted as a phenomenon of choice for targeting cancer due to its role in the induction of metastasis and drug resistance. Different phytochemicals in pre-clinical or clinical trials, with promising chemopreventive/anticancer activities have been enlisted and the plant compounds showing synergistic anticancer activity in combination with the existing drugs have been discussed. The review also unravels the need of carrying out pan-signalome studies for identifying the cardinal pathways modulated by phytomedicine(s), as in many cases, the molecular pathway(s) has/have been randomly studied.

Conclusion

This review systematically compiles the studies regarding the impact of various plant derivatives in different cancers and oncogenic processes, as tested in diverse experimental model systems. Availability of more comprehensive information on anticancer phyto-constituents, their relative abundance in crude drugs, pathways/molecules targeted by phytomedicines, their long-term toxicity data and information regarding their safe use under the combinatorial settings, would open greater avenues of their utilization in future against this dreaded disease.

Graphical Abstract

Variation of Saponins in Sanguisorba officinalis L. before and after Processing (Paozhi) and Its Effects on Colon Cancer Cells In Vitro

The incidence of colon cancer is increasing year over year, seriously affecting human health and quality of life in recent years. However, traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has been utilized for the treatment of colon cancer. S. officinalis Saponins (S-Saponins), the potential compound of TCM, displays multiple biological activities in colon cancer treatment. In our study, ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) combined with multivariate statistical analysis were performed to analyze and identify raw and processed saponins. Then, MTT and cell migration assays were used to preliminarily explore the effects of saponins in vitro on colon cancer cells. The results showed that 29 differential saponins compounds under Paozhi were identified by UHPLC-MS/MS. Moreover, in vitro validation showed that Sprocessed better inhibited the proliferation and migration of colon cancer cells than Sraw. This study provides a basis for the determination of the chemical fundamentals of the efficacy changes during Paozhi through inferring the changes in saponin components and its possible transformation mechanisms before and after processing S. officinalis. Meanwhile, it also provides new insights into potential bioactive ingredients for the treatment of colon cancer.

Relationship between Epithelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition and Tumor-Associated Macrophages in Colorectal Liver Metastases

The liver is the most common metastatic site in colorectal cancer (CRC) patients. Indeed, 25-30% of the cases develop colorectal liver metastasis (CLM), showing an extremely poor 5-year survival rate and resistance to conventional anticancer therapies. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) provide a nurturing microenvironment for CRC metastasis, promoting epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) through the TGF-β signaling pathway, thus driving tumor cells to acquire mesenchymal properties that allow them to migrate from the primary tumor and invade the new metastatic site. EMT is known to contribute to the disruption of blood vessel integrity and the generation of circulating tumor cells (CTCs), thus being closely related to high metastatic potential in numerous solid cancers. Despite the fact that it is well-recognized that the crosstalk between tumor cells and the inflammatory microenvironment is crucial in the EMT process, the association between the EMT and the role of TAMs is still poorly understood. In this review, we elaborated on the role that TAMs exert in the induction of EMT during CLM development. Since TAMs are the major source of TGF-β in the liver, we also focused on novel insights into their role in TGF-β-induced EMT.

Ginsenoside Rh1 regulates gastric cancer cell biological behaviours and transplanted tumour growth in nude mice via the TGF-β/Smad pathway

Gastric cancer (GC) is one of the most prevalent malignancies of the digestive tract. Ginsenoside Rh1 was reported to exert effects on GC. The current study set out to explore the mechanism underlying Ginsenoside Rh1 effects on GC. With oxaliplatin (OXA) serving as the positive control, human GC cells AGS were treated with 0, 10, 25, 50, 74, or 100 μM of ginsenoside Rh1 for 48 h. Proliferation, migration, invasion, and apoptosis were subsequently assessed by means of MTT, scratch test, Transwell, and TUNEL, respectively. AGS cells were further jointly treated with Rh1 and the TGF-β/Smad pathway activator Kartogenin, followed by detection of TGF-β/Smad pathway effects on AGS biological behaviours. Moreover, TGF-β/Smad pathway activation was detected with a Western blot assay. Furthermore, xenograft tumour models were established and tumour growth was recorded. Ki-67 expression patterns and apoptosis were detected with immunohistochemistry and TUNEL, respectively. In vitro, Ginsenoside Rh1 repressed AGS cell proliferation, migration, and invasion, and further promoted apoptosis, with a concentration of 50 μM Rh1 exerting the equivalent effects as OXA. In vivo, Ginsenoside Rh1 inhibited GC proliferation and induced tumour cell apoptosis. Mechanistically, Ginsenoside Rh1 reduced TGF-β1 and TGF-β2 levels and Smad2 and Smad3 phosphorylation levels. Collectively, our findings highlighted that ginsenoside Rh1 inhibited GC cell growth and tumour growth in xenograft tumour models via inhibition of the TGF-β/Smad pathway.

Ginsenosides: Allies of gastrointestinal tumor immunotherapy

In the past decade, immunotherapy has been the most promising treatment for gastrointestinal tumors. But the low response rate and drug resistance remain major concerns. It is therefore imperative to develop adjuvant therapies to increase the effectiveness of immunotherapy and prevent drug resistance. Ginseng has been used in Traditional Chinese medicine as a natural immune booster for thousands of years. The active components of ginseng, ginsenosides, have played an essential role in tumor treatment for decades and are candidates for anti-tumor adjuvant therapy. They are hypothesized to cooperate with immunotherapy drugs to improve the curative effect and reduce tumor resistance and adverse reactions. This review summarizes the research into the use of ginsenosides in immunotherapy of gastrointestinal tumors and discusses potential future applications.

Regulation of transforming growth factor-β signaling as a therapeutic approach to treating colorectal cancer

According to data from 2020, Slovakia has long been among the top five countries with the highest incidence rate of colorectal cancer (CRC) worldwide, and the rate is continuing to rise every year. In approximately 80% of CRC cases, allelic loss (loss of heterozygosity, LOH) occurs in the long arm of chromosome 18q. The most important genes that can be silenced by 18q LOH or mutations are small mothers against decapentaplegic homolog (SMAD) 2 and SMAD4, which are intracellular mediators of transforming growth factor (TGF)-β superfamily signals. TGF-β plays an important role in the pro-oncogenic processes, including such properties as invasion, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (commonly known as EMT), promotion of angiogenesis, and immunomodulatory effects. Several recent studies have reported that activation of TGF-β signaling is related to drug resistance in CRC. Because the mechanisms of drug resistance are different between patients in different stages of CRC, personalized treatment is more effective. Therefore, knowledge of the activation and inhibition of factors that affect the TGF-β signaling pathway is very important.

Targeted Protein Degradation to Overcome Resistance in Cancer Therapies: PROTAC and N-Degron Pathway

Extensive progress in understanding the molecular mechanisms of cancer growth and proliferation has led to the remarkable development of drugs that target cancer-driving molecules. Most target molecules are proteins such as kinases and kinase-associated receptors, which have enzymatic activities needed for the signaling cascades of cells. The small molecule inhibitors for these target molecules greatly improved therapeutic efficacy and lowered the systemic toxicity in cancer therapies. However, long-term and high-dosage treatment of small inhibitors for cancer has produced other obstacles, such as resistance to inhibitors. Among recent approaches to overcoming drug resistance to cancers, targeted protein degradation (TPD) such as proteolysis-targeting chimera (PROTAC) technology adopts a distinct mechanism of action by which a target protein is destroyed through the cellular proteolytic system, such as the ubiquitin-proteasome system or autophagy. Here, we review the currently developed PROTACs as the representative TPD molecules for cancer therapy and the N-degrons of the N-degron pathways as the potential TPD ligands.

Immunomodulatory Effect of Ginsenoside Rb2 Against Cyclophosphamide-Induced Immunosuppression in Mice

Ginsenoside Rb2 (Rb2), a fundamental saponin produced and isolated from ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer), has a wide range of biological actions. The objective of this investigation was to see if ginsenoside Rb2 has any immunomodulatory properties against cyclophosphamide (CTX)-induced immunosuppression. For the positive control group, levamisole hydrochloride (LD) was used. We discovered that intraperitoneal injection of Rb2 (5, 10, 20 mg/kg) could relieve CTX-induced immunosuppression by enhanced immune organ index, reduced the pathological characteristics of immunosuppression, promoted natural killer (NK) cells viability, improved cell-mediated immune response, boosted the IFN-γ (Interferon-gamma), TNF-α (Tumor necrosis factor-alpha), IL-2 (Interleukin-2), and IgG (Immunoglobulin G), as well as macrophage activity like carbon clearance and phagocytic index. Rb2 significantly elevated the mRNA expression of IL-4 (Interleukin-4), SYK (Tyrosine-protein kinase-SYK), IL-2, TNF-α, and IL-6 (Interleukin-6) in the spleen of CTX-injected animals. Molecular docking results showed that Rb2 had excellent binding properties with IL-4, SYK, IL-2, TNF, and IL-6, indicating the target protein might be strongly correlated with the immunomodulatory effect of Rb2. Taken together, ginsenoside Rb2 can improve the immune function that is declined in CTX-induced immunosuppressed mice, the efficacy maybe due to the regulation of related cytokine and mRNA expression.

Therapeutic effects of ginseng and ginsenosides on colorectal cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is among the most common malignant diseases with high morbidity and mortality rates. Ginseng and its major extracts, ginsenosides, have been used in medical fields for thousands of years. In particular, their huge anti-cancer potential has drawn a great deal of attention in recent years. There is a large body of evidence that has shown that ginseng and its extracts could significantly inhibit tumor development and progression by suppressing cell proliferation, tumor growth, invasion and metastasis, inducing tumor cell apoptosis, regulating tumor-associated immune responses, and improving the therapeutic effect of chemotherapy. Notably, different subtypes of ginsenosides, even those extracted from the same ginseng, have exhibited distinct anti-cancer functions through different mechanisms. Over the past few years, a large number of studies have focused on how ginseng or various ginsenosides influence CRC development. Therefore, the roles and the potential of ginseng and ginsenosides in the treatment of CRC are summarized in this review. In addition, the biochemical properties of ginseng and ginsenosides are also briefly described.

Bioactive components of Banxia Xiexin Decoction for the treatment of gastrointestinal diseases based on flavor-oriented analysis

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Banxia Xiexin Decoction (BXD) was first recorded in a Chinese medical classic, Treatise on Febrile Diseases and Miscellaneous Diseases, which was written in the Eastern Han dynasty of China. This ancient prescription consists of seven kinds of Chinese herbal medicine, namely, Pinellia ternata, Rhizoma Coptidis, Radix scutellariae, Rhizoma Zingiberis, Ginseng, Jujube, and Radix Glycyrrhizaepreparata. In clinic practice, its original application in China mainly has focused on the treatment of chronic gastritis for several hundred years. BXD is also effective in treating other gastrointestinal diseases (GIDs) in modern medical application. Despite available literature support and clinical experience, the treatment mechanisms or their relationships with the bioactive compounds in BXD responsible for its pharmacological actions, still need further explorations in more diversified channels. According to the analysis based on the five-flavor theory of TCM, BXD is traditionally viewed as the most representative prescription for pungent-dispersion, bitter-purgation and sweet-tonification. Consequently, based on the flavor-oriented analysis, the compositive herbs in BXD can be divided into three flavor groups, namely, the pungent, bitter, and sweet groups, each of which has specific active ingredients that are possibly relevant to GID treatment.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

This paper summarized recent literatures on BXD and its bioactive components used in GID treatment, and provided the pharmacological or chemical basis for the further exploration of the ancient prescription and the relative components.

METHOD

ology: Relevant literature was collected from various electronic databases such as Pubmed, Web of Science, and China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI). Citations were based on peer-reviewed articles published in English or Chinese during the last decade.

RESULTS

Multiple components were found in the pungent, bitter, and sweet groups in BXD. The corresponding bioactive components include gingerol, shogaol, stigmasterol, and β-sitosterol in the pungent group; berberine, palmatine, coptisine, baicalein, and baicalin in the bitter group; and ginsenosides, polysaccharides, liquiritin, and glycyrrhetinic acid in the sweet group. These components have been found directly or indirectly responsible for the remarkable effects of BXD on GID.

CONCLUSION

This review provided some valuable reference to further clarify BXD treatment for GID and their possible material basis, based on the perspective of the flavor-oriented analysis.

Targeting TGF-β signal transduction for fibrosis and cancer therapy

Transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) has long been identified with its intensive involvement in early embryonic development and organogenesis, immune supervision, tissue repair, and adult homeostasis. The role of TGF-β in fibrosis and cancer is complex and sometimes even contradictory, exhibiting either inhibitory or promoting effects depending on the stage of the disease. Under pathological conditions, overexpressed TGF-β causes epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), extracellular matrix (ECM) deposition, cancer-associated fibroblast (CAF) formation, which leads to fibrotic disease, and cancer. Given the critical role of TGF-β and its downstream molecules in the progression of fibrosis and cancers, therapeutics targeting TGF-β signaling appears to be a promising strategy. However, due to potential systemic cytotoxicity, the development of TGF-β therapeutics has lagged. In this review, we summarized the biological process of TGF-β, with its dual role in fibrosis and tumorigenesis, and the clinical application of TGF-β-targeting therapies.

Targeting transforming growth factor-β signalling for cancer prevention and intervention: Recent advances in developing small molecules of natural origin

BACKGROUND

Cancer is the world's second leading cause of death, but a significant advancement in cancer treatment has been achieved within the last few decades. However, major adverse effects and drug resistance associated with standard chemotherapy have led towards targeted treatment options.

OBJECTIVES

Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) signaling plays a key role in cell proliferation, differentiation, morphogenesis, regeneration, and tissue homeostasis. The prime objective of this review is to decipher the role of TGF-β in oncogenesis and to evaluate the potential of various natural and synthetic agents to target this dysregulated pathway to confer cancer preventive and anticancer therapeutic effects.

METHODS

Various authentic and scholarly databases were explored to search and obtain primary literature for this study. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) criteria was followed for the review.

RESULTS

Here we provide a comprehensive and critical review of recent advances on our understanding of the effect of various bioactive natural molecules on the TGF-β signaling pathway to evaluate their full potential for cancer prevention and therapy.

CONCLUSION

Based on emerging evidence as presented in this work, TGF-β-targeting bioactive compounds from natural sources can serve as potential therapeutic agents for prevention and treatment of various human malignancies.

Traditional Chinese Medicines as Effective Reversals of Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition Induced-Metastasis of Colorectal Cancer: Molecular Targets and Mechanisms

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most common type of cancer worldwide. Distant metastasis is the major cause of cancer-related mortality in patients with CRC. Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a critical process triggered during tumor metastasis, which is also the main impetus and the essential access within this duration. Therefore, targeting EMT-related molecular pathways has been considered a novel strategy to explore effective therapeutic agents against metastatic CRC. Traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) with unique properties multi-target and multi-link that exert their therapeutic efficacies holistically, which could inhibit the invasion and metastasis ability of CRC cells via inhibiting the EMT process by down-regulating transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β)/Smads, PI3K/Akt, NF-κB, Wnt/β-catenin, and Notch signaling pathways. The objective of this review is to summarize and assess the anti-metastatic effect of TCM-originated bioactive compounds and Chinese medicine formulas by mediating EMT-associated signaling pathways in CRC therapy, providing a foundation for further research on the exact mechanisms of action through which TCMs affect EMT transform in CRC.

Ginsenoside Rh4 Suppressed Metastasis of Lung Adenocarcinoma via Inhibiting JAK2/STAT3 Signaling

Lung adenocarcinoma (LAC) is a common lung cancer with a high malignancy that urgently needs to be treated with effective drugs. Ginsenoside Rh4 exhibits outstanding antitumor activities. However, few studies reported its effects on growth, metastasis and molecular mechanisms in LAC. Here, Rh4 is certified to show a strong anti-LAC efficiency in vitro and in vivo. Results of flow cytometry and Western blot are obtained to exhibited that Rh4 markedly restrained cellular proliferation and colony formation by arresting the cell cycle in the G1 phase. Results from a wound healing assay and transwell assays demonstrated that Rh4 is active in the antimigration and anti-invasion of LAC. The analysis of Western blot, immunofluorescence and RT-qPCR confirmed that Rh4 reverses the epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) through upregulating the gene expression of E-cadherin and downregulating that of snail, N-cadherin and vimentin. In vivo results from immunohistochemistry show consistent trends with cellular studies. Furthermore, Rh4 suppresses the Janus kinases2/signal transducer and activator of the transcription3 (JAK2/STAT3) signaling pathway stimulated by TGF-β1. Silencing the STAT3 signal or co-treating with AG490 both enhanced the EMT attenuation caused by Rh4, which revealed that Rh4 suppressed EMT via inhibiting the JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway. These findings explore the capacity and mechanism of Rh4 on the antimetastasis of LAC, providing evidence for Rh4 to LAC therapy.

Prolyl 4-hydroxylase subunit alpha 3 facilitates human colon cancer growth and metastasis through the TGF-β/Smad signaling pathway

Prolyl 4-hydroxylase subunit alpha 3 (P4HA3) has been known to be associated with a variety of human cancers. However, the role of P4HA3 on colon cancer growth and metastasis is unclear. In this study, we investigated the effect of P4HA3 on the growth and metastasis of colon cancer and its possible molecular mechanism. First of all, we demonstrated that P4HA3 expression was greatly higher in cells and tissues of colon cancer than that in non-tumor tissues and cells, and the prognosis of patients who had higher P4HA3 was distinctively poorer than patients who had lower level of P4HA3. Second, it was shown that P4HA3 knockdown strongly inhibited the migration, proliferation and invasion ability of colon cancer cells. However, P4HA3 over-expression accelerated the abilities. Meanwhile, P4HA3 could promote subcutaneous tumorigenesis in nude mice in vivo. In addition, P4HA3 knockdown significantly decreased mesenchymal markers Vimentin, N-cadherin and Snail expression and increased epithelial marker E-cadherin expression. And conversely, over-expression of P4HA3 produced the opposite effects. In the current study, there was further evidence that down-regulating P4HA3 significantly reduced both TGF-β and its following molecules including p-Smad2 as well as p-Smad3. However, overexpression of P4HA3 showed the opposite effect. In conclusion, this study shows that P4HA3 promotes the human colon cancer growth and metastasis by affecting TGF-β/Smad signaling pathway. P4HA3 may become a new target for early diagnosis, treatment and prognosis assessment of colon cancer.

Emodin exerts antitumor effects in ovarian cancer cell lines by preventing the development of cancer stem cells via epithelial mesenchymal transition

Ovarian cancer has the worst prognosis among all types of gynecological malignancies and patients are often diagnosed at an advanced stage with distant metastasis. In the present study, it was found that emodin, a small molecular chemical drug derived from natural plants, has antitumor effects on ovarian cancer cells. Emodin induced cytotoxicity and inhibited proliferation in the ovarian cancer cell lines, SK-OV-3, A2780 and PA-1. In addition, emodin inhibited the migration and invasion abilities of the ovarian cancer cells by inhibiting epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), which was evidenced by the downregulation of N-cadherin and vimentin, and the upregulation of E-cadherin protein expression levels. When a subcutaneous xenograft SK-OV-3 tumor mouse model was used, emodin notably reduced the tumor growth rate and inhibited tumor cell proliferation. Furthermore, mechanical analysis revealed that emodin markedly inhibited EMT and reduced the stemness of tumor cells, which was evidenced by the decrease in the protein expression of CD133 and Oct4. Pulmonary metastasis of the ovarian cancer cells was significantly suppressed in the tumor mouse model by the administration of emodin. In addition, flow cytometry analysis indicated that emodin significantly reduced the proportion of ovarian cancer stem-like cells in metastatic lung tissues. In conclusion, emodin, a potent inhibitor of EMT, could serve as a potential candidate for ovarian cancer therapy.

Functional Mechanism of Ginsenoside Compound K on Tumor Growth and Metastasis

Ginsenosides, as the most important constituents of ginseng, have been extensively investigated in cancer chemoprevention and therapeutics. Among the ginsenosides, Compound K (CK), a rare protopanaxadiol type of ginsenoside, has been most broadly used for cancer treatment due to its high anticancer bioactivity. However, the functional mechanism of CK in cancer is not well known. This review describes the structure, transformation and pharmacological activity of CK and discusses the functional mechanisms of CK and its metabolites, which regulate signaling pathways related to tumor growth and metastasis. CK inhibits tumor growth by inducing tumor apoptosis and tumor cell differentiation, regulates the tumor microenvironment by suppressing tumor angiogenesis-related proteins, and downregulates the roles of immunosuppressive cells, such as myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs). There is currently much research on the potential development of CK as a new strategy when administered alone or in combination with other compounds.

Regulatory role of the transforming growth factor-β signaling pathway in the drug resistance of gastrointestinal cancers

Gastrointestinal (GI) cancer, including esophageal, gastric, and colorectal cancer, is one of the most prevalent types of malignant carcinoma and the leading cause of cancer-related deaths. Despite significant advances in therapeutic strategies for GI cancers in recent decades, drug resistance with various mechanisms remains the prevailing cause of therapy failure in GI cancers. Accumulating evidence has demonstrated that the transforming growth factor (TGF)-β signaling pathway has crucial, complex roles in many cellular functions related to drug resistance. This review summarizes current knowledge regarding the role of the TGF-β signaling pathway in the resistance of GI cancers to conventional chemotherapy, targeted therapy, immunotherapy, and traditional medicine. Various processes, including epithelial-mesenchymal transition, cancer stem cell development, tumor microenvironment alteration, and microRNA biogenesis, are proposed as the main mechanisms of TGF-β-mediated drug resistance in GI cancers. Several studies have already indicated the benefit of combining antitumor drugs with agents that suppress the TGF-β signaling pathway, but this approach needs to be verified in additional clinical studies. Moreover, the identification of potential biological markers that can be used to predict the response to TGF-β signaling pathway inhibitors during anticancer treatments will have important clinical implications in the future.

Comprehensive review on signaling pathways of dietary saponins in cancer cells suppression

Nutrigenomics utilizes high-throughput genomic technologies to reveal changes in gene and protein levels. Excitingly, ever-growing body of scientific findings has provided sufficient evidence about the interplay between diet and genes. Cutting-edge research and advancements in genomics, epigenetics and metabolomics have deepened our understanding on the role of dietary factors in the inhibition of carcinogenesis and metastasis. Dietary saponins, a type of triterpene glycosides, are generally found in Platycodon grandifloras, Dioscorea oppositifolia, asparagus, legumes, and sea cucumber. Wealth of information has started to shed light on pleiotropic mechanistic roles of dietary saponins in cancer prevention and inhibition. In this review, we have attempted to summarize the in vitro research of dietary saponins in the last two decades by searching common databases such as Google Scholar, PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science. The results showed that dietary saponins exerted anti-cancer activities via regulation of apoptosis, autophagy, arrest cell cycle, anti-proliferation, anti-metastasis, and anti-angiogenesis, by regulation of several critical signaling pathways, including MAPK, PI3K/Akt/mTOR, NF-κB, and VEGF/VEGFR. However, there is no data about the dosage of dietary saponins for practical anti-cancer effects in human bodies. Extensive clinical studies are needed to confirm the effectiveness of dietary saponins for further commercial and medical applications.

Ginsenoside Rb2: A review of pharmacokinetics and pharmacological effects

Ginsenoside Rb2 is an active protopanaxadiol-type saponin, widely existing in the stem and leave of ginseng. Rb2 has recently been the focus of studies for pharmaceutical properties. This paper provides an overview of the preclinical and clinical pharmacokinetics for Rb2, which exhibit poor absorption, rapid tissue distribution and slow excretion through urine. Pharmacological studies indicate a beneficial role of Rb2 in the prevention and treatment of diabetes, obesity, tumor, photoaging, virus infection and cardiovascular problems. The underlying mechanism is involved in an inhibition of oxidative stress, ROS generation, inflammation and apoptosis via regulation of various cellular signaling pathways and molecules, including AKT/SHP, MAPK, EGFR/SOX2, TGF-β1/Smad, SIRT1, GPR120/AMPK/HO-1 and NF-κB. This work would provide a new insight into the understanding and application of Rb2. However, its therapeutic effects have not been clinically evaluated. Further studies should be aimed at the clinical treatment of Rb2.

A review of anti-tumour effects of ginsenoside in gastrointestinal cancer

OBJECTIVES

Gastrointestinal cancer, one of the major causes of cancer-related deaths in the world, refers to malignant conditions of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and other organs. Although conventional therapy has been successful to some extent in cancer treatment, drug resistance and cancer recurrence still limit the therapeutic efficacy. There is increasing evidence indicating that ginsenoside, as a kind of high nutritional value and widely used traditional Chinese medicine, could contribute to the promotion of treatment in GI cancer, which deserves further investigation.

KEY FINDINGS

Based on previous studies, the possible mechanisms mainly include regulation of autophagy, apoptosis, proliferation, migration and angiogenesis. However, no studies recently have conducted a more in-depth review of the anti-cancer effects of ginsenoside in GI cancer.

SUMMARY

Therefore, this review will summarise and analyse the latest developments in the anti-tumour effects of ginsenosides in GI cancer, thus may promote further research of the anti-tumour efficacy of ginsenoside.

Pharmacokinetic herb-drug interactions between Aidi injection and doxorubicin in rats with diethylnitrosamine-induced hepatocellular carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Aidi Injection (ADI), a Chinese herbal preparation with anti-cancer activity, is used for the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Several clinical studies have shown that co-administration of ADI with doxorubicin (DOX) is associated with reduced toxicity of chemotherapy, enhanced clinical efficacy and improved quality of life for patients. However, limited information is available about the herb-drug interactions between ADI and DOX. The study aimed to investigate the pharmacokinetic mechanism of herb-drug interactions between ADI and DOX in a rat model of HCC.

METHODS

Experimental HCC was induced in rats by oral administration of diethylnitrosamine. The HCC rats were pretreated with ADI (10 mL/kg, intraperitoneal injection) for 14 consecutive days prior to administration of DOX (7 mg/kg, intravenous injection) to investigate pharmacokinetic interactions. Plasma concentrations of DOX and its major metabolite, doxorubicinol (DOXol), were determined using ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS).

RESULTS

Preadministration of ADI significantly altered the pharmacokinetics of DOX in HCC rats, leading to increased plasma concentrations of both DOX and DOXol. The area under the plasma drug concentration-time curve (AUCs) of DOX and DOXol in rats pretreated with ADI were 3.79-fold and 2.92-fold higher, respectively, than those in control rats that did not receive ADI.

CONCLUSIONS

Increased levels of DOX and DOXol were found in the plasma of HCC rats pretreated with ADI.

Curcumin in combination with homoharringtonine suppresses lymphoma cell growth by inhibiting the TGF-β/Smad3 signaling pathway

Both homoharringtonine (HHT) and curcumin exhibit anti-proliferative effects on lymphoma cells, but the effects of combined HHT and curcumin treatment remain unclear. Here, we investigated the effects of HHT/curcumin combination on the proliferation, apoptosis, and invasion in lymphoma cells. CCK-8, flow cytometry, and transwell assays were used to assess proliferation, apoptosis, and invasion of U937 and Raji cells. p-Smad3, E-cadherin, and N-cadherin expression were also measured in Raji cells using Western blot assays. Combination of HHT and curcumin synergistically inhibited U937 and Raji cell proliferation and invasion. In addition, the combination treatment markedly increased apoptosis of Raji cells as evidenced by increased Bax, cleaved caspase 3, and cleaved caspase 9 expression. Meanwhile, the combination treatment promoted anti-tumor mechanisms in Raji cells as indicated by decreases in p-Smad3 and N-cadherin and increases in E-cadherin. In vivo experiments showed that the combination treatment suppressed tumor growth in a mouse Raji xenograft model. Our findings indicate that combination of HHT and curcumin inhibited lymphoma cell growth by downregulating the TGF-β/Smad3 pathway. These results suggest that HHT combined with curcumin might be a promising therapeutic approach for the treatment of lymphoma.

Prognostic role and clinicopathological features of SMAD4 gene mutation in colorectal cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Approximately 5.0-24.2% of colorectal cancers (CRCs) have inactivating mutations in SMAD4, making it one of the frequently mutated genes in CRC. We thus carried out a comprehensive system review and meta-analysis investigating the prognostic significance and clinicopathological features of SMAD4 gene mutation in CRC patients.

METHODS

A detailed literature search was conducted in PubMed, Web of Science and Embase databases to study the relationship between SMAD4 mutations and the demographic and clinicopathological characteristics in CRC patients. The hazard ratios (HRs) with 95% confidence intervals (CI) were used to evaluate the effect of SMAD4 mutations on overall survival (OS) and progression-free survival (PFS)/recurrence-free survival (RFS).

RESULTS

Ten studies enrolling 4394 patients were eligible for inclusion. Data on OS were available from 5 studies and data on PFS/RFS were available from 3 studies. Comparing SMAD4-mutated CRC patients with SMAD4 wild-type CRC patients, the summary HR for OS was 1.46 (95% CI 1.28-1.67, P = 0.001), the summary HR for PFS/RFS was 1.59 (95% CI 1.14-2.22, P = 0.006). In terms of clinicopathology parameters, 9 studies have data that can be extracted, SMAD4 mutations were associated with tumor location (odds ratio [OR] = 1.15, colon/rectum, 95% CI 1.01-1.31, P = 0.042), TNM stage (OR = 1.28, stage IV/I-III, 95% CI 1.03-1.58, P = 0.025), lymph node metastasis (OR = 1.42, N1 + N2/N0, 95% CI 1.20-1.67, P < 0.001), mucinous differentiation (OR = 2.23, 95% CI 1.85-2.70, P < 0.001) and rat sarcoma viral oncogene homolog (RAS) mutation status (OR = 2.13, 95% CI 1.37-3.34, P = 0.001). No connection was found with age, gender, tumor grade, microsatellite instability status and b-viral oncogene homolog B1 mutation status. Besides, publication bias was not observed in any study.

CONCLUSIONS

This meta-analysis suggests that SMAD4 mutation was associated with OS, PFS/RFS, and clinicopathological parameters, including tumor site, disease stage, RAS status, lymph node metastasis and mucinous differentiation. Our meta-analysis indicated that SMAD4 mutations could predict the poor prognosis and aggressive clinicopathological characteristics of CRC. More large-sample cohort studies are needed to confirm this conclusion. Since SMAD4 mutations are closely related to RAS mutations, their relationship warrants further investigation.

Upregulation of FTX expression is associated with a poor prognosis and contributes to the progression of thyroid cancer

The dysregulated expression of long non-coding RNA FTX transcript X inactive specific transcript regulator (FTX) has been reported to be involved in the tumorigenesis of multiple cancer types. However, to the best our knowledge, its function and clinical value in thyroid cancer remain unclear. The present study aimed to determine the potential role of FTX in the development and progression of thyroid cancer. Reverse transcription-quantitative PCR analysis revealed that the expression levels of FTX were upregulated in thyroid cancer tissues and cell lines compared with those in normal tissues and cell lines, respectively. Survival analysis demonstrated that patients with upregulated FTX expression had a lower survival rate. Functional experiments revealed that the knockdown of FTX inhibited proliferation, cell cycle progression, migration and invasion, and induced apoptosis in thyroid cancer cells, while FTX overexpression accelerated proliferation, migration and invasion, and alleviated apoptosis in thyroid cancer cells. In addition, FTX knockdown significantly inhibited tumor growth in vivo. Furthermore, in thyroid cancer cells, FTX was identified to positively regulate the expression levels of TGF-β1, which is known to play an important regulatory role in tumor metastasis. In conclusion, the findings of the present study suggested that FTX may accelerate thyroid cancer progression via regulation of cellular activities, including cell proliferation, migration, invasion and apoptosis. Thus, FTX may represent a potential biomarker for the diagnosis, treatment and prognosis of thyroid cancer.

Ginsenoside-Rg3 inhibits the proliferation and invasion of hepatoma carcinoma cells via regulating long non-coding RNA HOX antisense intergenic

Ginsenoside Rg3, a natural compound, has been reported to function as an anticancer agent for hepatoma carcinoma, while the mechanisms underlying the anticancer effects are not clear. Therefore, the objective of our study was to explore the impact of RG3 on cell migration and invasion by regulating the lncRNA HOX antisense intergenic (HOTAIR) expression involving PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. qRT-PCR was utilized to measure the mRNA expression of HOTAIR. Furthermore, HOTAIR overexpression plasmids were transfected to SMMC-7721 and SK-Hep-1 cells. Additionally, MTT assay was used to evaluate the proliferation of transfected cells. The scratch and transwell assays were used to determine the migration and invasion ability of the cell. The protein levels were determined with Western blot. lncRNA HOTAIR was overexpressed in SMMC-7721 and SK-Hep-1 cells. Ginsenoside-Rg3 reduced the level of lncRNA HOTAIR. Overexpressed lncRNA HOTAIR offset ginsenoside-Rg3 inhibited proliferation, migration and invasion of HCC cells. Furthermore, ginsenoside-Rg3 decreased the expression of p-AKT, p-PI3K, matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP2) and matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP9), which was reversed after the treatment of HOTAIR. LncRNA HOTAIR was overexpressed in SMMC-7721 cells. Ginsenoside-Rg3 could reduce the expression of lncRNA HOTAIR, resulting in the inhibited cell proliferation, migration and invasion. Furthermore, ginsenoside-Rg3 inhibited cell proliferation and invasion ability through the PI3k/AKT pathway. Thus, ginsenoside-Rg3 might be a potential and effective treatment for HCC.

Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Exosomal microRNA-3940-5p Inhibits Colorectal Cancer Metastasis by Targeting Integrin α6

BACKGROUND

Exosomes are potential tools for disease control by regulating intercellular communication through carrying proteins and RNAs between cells or remote organs. Exosome activities have aroused wide concerns in cancer biology and malignancy control.

AIMS

This study was performed to explore the roles of mesenchymal stem cell (MSC)-derived exosomes in colorectal cancer (CRC) progression.

METHODS

MSC-exosomal microRNAs (miRNAs) in CRC tissues were analyzed, and aberrantly expressed miRNAs in CRC tissues were obtained from the data available on the GEO database. Altered expression of miR-3940-5p was introduced to identify its role in CRC invasion and metastasis in both cell and animal models. The binding relationship between miR-3940-5p and Integrin alpha6 (ITGA6) was predicted on TargetScan and validated through a luciferase assay. The effects of ITGA6 on CRC were figured out.

RESULTS

MSC-derived exosomes carried miR-3940-5p into CRC cells. Up-regulation of miR-3940-5p inhibited epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and invasion of CRC cells, and suppressed the tumor metastasis and growth in vivo. miR-3940-5p was found to directly bind to ITGA6. Overexpression of ITGA6 promoted CRC cell invasion and EMT and tumor progression through upregulating the transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF-β1) signaling. A TGF-β1-specific antagonist, Disitertide, blocked the functions of ITGA6 both in vivo and in vitro.

CONCLUSION

MSC-exosomal miR-3940-5p inhibits invasion and EMT of CRC cells as well as growth and metastasis of tumors through targeting ITGA6 and the following TGF-β1 inactivation. This study may provide novel insights into exosome-based treatment for CRC.

Tenacissoside G synergistically potentiates inhibitory effects of 5-fluorouracil to human colorectal cancer

BACKGROUND

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most malignant tumors worldwide with poor prognosis and low survival rate. Since the clinical efficacy of the commonly used 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) based chemotherapy in CRC patients is limited because of its intolerable adverse effects, there is an urgent need to explore agents that can enhance the anti-cancer activity of 5-FU, reduce adverse effects and prevent resistance.

PURPOSE

This study aims to investigate Tenacissoside G (TG)'s synergistic potentiation with 5-FU in inhibitory activity to colorectal cancer cells.

METHODS

The anti-proliferation effect of TG on 5 colorectal cancer cell lines was assessed by CCK-8 assay. The isobologram analysis and combination index methods were used to detect the synergistic effect of TG and 5-FU by the CompuSyn software using the T.C. Chou Method. The effects of TG/5-FU combination on cell cycle distribution and apoptosis induction were detected by flow cytometry. DNA damage degrees of cells treated with TG, 5-FU and their combination were evaluated by the alkaline comet assay. Protein expression regulated by the TG/5-FU combination was investigated by western blotting. Furthermore, a xenograft mouse model was established to investigate the synergistic anti-tumor effect in vivo.

RESULTS

In this work, we observed a dose-dependent growth inhibitory activity and cell cycle arrest induction of TG, a monomeric substance originated from Marsdenia tenacissima (Roxb.) Wight et Arn, in colorectal cancer cells. It was found that TG potentiated the anticancer effects of 5-FU with a synergism for the first time. And the co-treatment effects were also validated by in vivo experiments. The underlying mechanisms involved in the synergistic effects were probably included: (1) increased activation of caspase cascade; (2) enhancement of DNA damage degree and (3) induction of p53 phosphorylation at Serine 46.

CONCLUSION

TG potentiated 5-FU's inhibitory activity to human colorectal cancer through arresting cell cycle progression and inducing p53-mediated apoptosis, which may present a novel strategy in CRC therapies and contribute to the optimizing clinical application of 5-FU.

PROTAC: An Effective Targeted Protein Degradation Strategy for Cancer Therapy

Proteolysis targeting chimeric (PROTAC) technology is an effective endogenous protein degradation tool developed in recent years that can ubiquitinate the target proteins through the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) to achieve an effect on tumor growth. A number of literature studies on PROTAC technology have proved an insight into the feasibility of PROTAC technology to degrade target proteins. Additionally, the first oral PROTACs (ARV-110 and ARV-471) have shown encouraging results in clinical trials for prostate and breast cancer treatment, which inspires a greater enthusiasm for PROTAC research. Here we focus on the structures and mechanisms of PROTACs and describe several classes of effective PROTAC degraders based on E3 ligases.

Hypericin-mediated photodynamic therapy inhibits growth of colorectal cancer cells via inducing S phase cell cycle arrest and apoptosis

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one type of cancer with high morbidity and mortality worldwide. Photodynamic therapy (PDT), a promising new therapeutic approach for cancer, induces tumor damage through photosensitizer-mediated oxidative cytotoxicity. Hypericin is a powerful photosensitizer with pronounced tumor-localizing properties. In this study, we investigated the phototoxic effects of hypericin-mediated PDT (HYP-PDT) in HCT116 and SW620 cells. We validated that HYP-PDT inhibited cell proliferation, triggered intracellular reactive oxygen species generation, induced S phase cell cycle arrest and apoptosis of HCT116 and SW620 cells. Mechanistically, the results of western blot showed that HYP-PDT downregulated CDK2 expression through decreasing the CDC25A protein, which resulted in the decrease of CDK2/Cyclin A complex. Additionally, HYP-PDT induced DNA damage as evidenced by ATM activation and upregulation of p-H2AX. Further investigation showed that HYP-PDT significantly increased Bax expression and decreased Bcl-2 expression, and then, upregulated the expression of cleaved caspase-9, cleaved caspase-3 and cleaved PARP, thereby inducing apoptosis in HCT116 and SW620 cells. In conclusion, our results indicated that the CDC25A/CDK2/Cyclin A pathway and the mitochondrial apoptosis pathway were involved in HYP-PDT induced S phase cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in colorectal cancer cells, which shows HYP could be a probable candidate used for treating colorectal cancer.

Ginsenoside from ginseng: a promising treatment for inflammatory bowel disease

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is an autoimmune disease mediated by immune disorder and termed as one of the most refractory diseases by the Word Health Organization. Its morbidity has increased steadily over the past half century worldwide. Environmental, genetic, infectious, and immune factors are integral to the pathogenesis of IBD. Commonly known as the king of herbs, ginseng has been consumed in many countries for the past 2000 years. Its active ingredient ginsenosides, as the most prominent saponins of ginseng, have a wide range of pharmacological effects. Recent studies have confirmed that the active components of Panax ginseng have anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects on IBD, including regulating the balance of immune cells, inhibiting the expression of cytokines, as well as activating Toll-like receptor 4, Nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB), nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor (NLRP), mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling, and so on. Accumulated evidence indicates that ginsenosides may serve as a potential novel therapeutic drug or health product additive in IBD prevention and treatment in the future.

Ginsenoside Rb2 improves insulin resistance by inhibiting adipocyte pyroptosis

Pyroptosis plays a critical role in the development of obesity-associated inflammation and insulin resistantance (IR). Ginsenoside Rb2 (Rb2), the main component of ginsenosides has drawn appreciable interest in the context of glucose metabolism. In the present study, we investigated Rb2-mediated protection against obesity-induced IR and the related mechanisms. Rb2 could significantly reduce high-fat diet (HFD)-induced body weight changes, fat accumulation and IR. In addition, Rb2 treatment inhibited pyroptosis-related genes and proteins, such as caspase-1, ASC, NLRP3, IL-1β and GSDMD in HFD-fed mice. The above results were recapitulated in 3T3-L1 adipocytes and demonstrated that Rb2 improved TNF-α induced IR and pyroptosis in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Furthermore, Rb2 reduced the phosphorylation levels of p65 and IκBα both in vitro and in vivo. The present study showed that Rb2, which could serve as a promising agent for the treatment of IR and obesity, ameliorated IR by inhibiting pyroptosis in adipocytes in vivo and in vitro through the NF-κB pathway.

EIF5A2 Is Highly Expressed in Anaplastic Thyroid Carcinoma and Is Associated With Tumor Growth by Modulating TGF- Signals

Anaplastic thyroid carcinoma (ATC) is resistant to standard therapies and has no effective treatment. Eukaryotic translation initiation factor 5A2 (EIF5A2) has shown to be upregulated in many malignant tumors and proposed to be a critical gene involved in tumor metastasis. In this study, we aimed to investigate the expression status of EIF5A2 in human ATC tissues and to study the role and mechanisms of EIF5A2 in ATC tumorigenesis in vitro and in vivo. Expression of EIF5A2 protein was analyzed in paraffin-embedded human ATC tissues and adjacent nontumorous tissues (ANCT) (n=24) by immunochemistry. Expressions of EIF5A2 mRNA and protein were analyzed in fresh-matched ATC and ANCT (n=23) and ATC cell lines by real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and Western blotting. The effect of targeting EIF5A2 with short hairpin RNA (shRNA) or EIF5A2 overexpression on the ATC tumorigenesis and TGF-/Smad2/3 signals in vitro and in vivo was investigated. Expression of EIF5A2 was significantly upregulated in ATC tissues and cell lines compared with ANCT and normal follicular epithelial cell line. Functional studies found that targeting EIF5A2 induced SW1736 cell death in vitro and in vivo, followed by significantly downregulated phosphorylation of Smad2/3 (p-Smad2/3) in SW1736 cells at the protein level. Ectopic expression of EIF5A2 could promote 8505C cell growth in vitro and in vivo, followed by significantly upregulated p-Smad3 at the protein level. Recombinant human TGF-1 (hTGF-1) treatment decreased the antiproliferative activity of the EIF5A2 downexpressing 8505C cells through reversing pSmad2/3. Using the specific inhibitor SB431542 to block TGF- pathway or Smad3 siRNA to knock down Smad3 increased the antiproliferative activity of the EIF5A2-overexpressing 8505C cells through inhibiting pSmad2/3. Our findings indicated that EIF5A2 controled cell growth in ATC cells, and EIF5A/TGF-/Smad2/3 signal may be a potential therapeutic target for ATC treatment.

Overexpression of lncRNA NLIPMT Inhibits Colorectal Cancer Cell Migration and Invasion by Downregulating TGF-β1

Background

NLIPMT, as a tumor suppressive lncRNA, has only been investigated in breast cancer, while its roles in other types of cancer remain unknown. This study aimed to explore the role of NLIPMT in colorectal cancer (CRC).

Methods

Expression levels of NLIPMT and TGF-β1 in two types of CRC tissue (Non-tumor tissues and tumor tissues) were measured and compared by qRT-PCR and paired t-test, respectively. Correlations between the expression of NLIPMT and TGF-β1 were analyzed by performing linear regression. The effects of transfections on cell invasion and migration were evaluated by Transwell assays.

Results

We found that NLIPMT was downregulated, while TGF-β1 was upregulated in CRC. In CRC tumor, a negative correlation was found between the expression of NLIPMT and TGF-β1. In CRC cells, overexpression of NLIPMT resulted in downregulation, while silencing of NLIPMT resulted in upregulation of TGF-β1. Analysis of cell invasion and migration showed that overexpression of NLIPMT suppressed the tumor cell invasion and migration. In contrast, overexpression of TGF-β1 could promote CRC cell invasion and migration and also reduce the role of NLIPMT. Through the overall survival evaluation, NLIPMT-high groups of CRC represented better survival rate compared to that of the NLIPMT-low group patients.

Conclusion

The expression of lncRNA NLIPMT was negatively correlated with TGF-β1 in CRC. Overexpression of NLIPMT inhibited the colorectal cancer cell migration and invasion by downregulating TGF-β1. Furthermore, the expression of NLIPMT in CRC patients predicted better prognosis, which suggested that NLIPMT could be considered as a novel diagnosis biomarker.

Anticancer activities of phytoconstituents and their liposomal targeting strategies against tumor cells and the microenvironment

Various bioactive ingredients have been extracted from Chinese herbal medicines (CHMs) that affect tumor progression and metastasis. To further understand the mechanisms of CHMs in cancer therapy, this article summarizes the effects of five categories of CHMs and their active ingredients on tumor cells and the tumor microenvironment. Despite their treatment potential, the undesirable physicochemical properties (poor permeability, instability, high hydrophilicity or hydrophobicity, toxicity) and unwanted pharmacokinetic profiles (short half-life in blood and low bioavailability) restrict clinical studies of CHMs. Therefore, development of liposomes through relevant surface modifying techniques to achieve targeted CHM delivery for cancer cells, i.e., extracellular and intracellular targets and targets in tumor microenvironment or vasculature, have been reviewed. Current challenges of liposomal targeting of these phytoconstituents and future perspective of CHM applications are discussed to provide an informative reference for interested readers.

MicroRNAs mediate the anti-tumor and protective effects of ginsenosides

MicroRNAs (miRs(, as short non-coding RNAs, regulate important biological processes and mainly are associated with regulation of gene expression. The miRs are beneficial targets for diagnosis of various disorders, particularly cancer, since their expression profile undergoes alterations in pathological conditions. The numerous drugs have been designed with the capability of targeting miRs for treating pathological conditions. On the other hand, the application of naturally occurring compounds has been increased due to their minimal side effects and valuable biological and therapeutic activities. Ginsenosides are able to act as anti-tumor agents via either increasing or decreasing the expression level of miRs. Ginsenosides affect the expression profile of miRNAs to induce their protective impacts. Angiogenesis as a key factor in the progression of cancer can be suppressed by ginsenosides which is mediated by miR regulation. The aim of this review is to shed some light on the protective and anti-tumor activities of ginsenosides mediated by miRNAs.

The inhibitory effect of oridonin on colon cancer was mediated by deactivation of TGF-β1/Smads-PAI-1 signaling pathway in vitro and vivo

Background

Oridonin, the main active component of Rabdosia rubescens, has been demonstrated to have anti-tumor effect on all kinds of cancer cells through various mechanisms and it has shown antitumor activity in some tumors partially via the suppression of TGF-β/Smads signaling pathway. The aim of this study was to explore the anticancer effect of oridonin on human colon carcinoma and underlying mechanism in vitro and vivo.

Methods

CCK-8 assay was employed to assess cell viability. The key target genes and proteins involved in TGF-β/Smads pathway was detected by RT-PCR, Western blotting and immunohistochemistry. The orthotopic transplantation tumor model of colon cance LOVO cell was introduced to detect anti-cancer effects in vivo.

Results

Oridonin inhibited the proliferation of colon cancer LOVO cells in a concentration and time dependent manner. In addition, oridonin reduced the levels of Smad2, Smad3, Smad4, PAI-1 and the phosphorylation of Smad2 and Smad3 induced by TGF-β1 in vitro. Subsequently, we established an orthotopically implanted tumor model in nude mice and found that oridonin treatment significantly suppressed tumor growth, and which was accompanied by the down-regulation of Smad2, Smad3, Smad4, PAI-1 and p-Smad2, p-Smad3 expression levels.

Conclusion

Our present study demonstrated that the growth inhibition of colon cancer by oridonin could be partially mediated through discontinuing TGF-β1/Smads-PAI-1 signaling pathway, suggesting it as a promising agent in treating colorectal cancer.

Copy number variations primed lncRNAs deregulation contribute to poor prognosis in colorectal cancer

Copy number variations (CNVs) are crucial genetic change elements in malignancies, and lncRNAs deregulation induced by genomic and epigenomic aberrations plays key driving role in tumorigenesis, including colorectal cancer (CRC). However, effects of CNVs associated with lncRNAs in CRC is largely unknown. Here, we perform integrative analysis considering messenger RNA expression levels, DNA methylation and DNA copy numbers from 289 cases of CRC specimens. There are five prognostic subtypes of CRC determined by multi-omics integration, and differentially expressed lncRNAs (DE-lncRNAs) are acquired among five subtypes and normal cases. Finally, CNVs pattern matched with DE-lncRNAs reveals a signature including 10 lncRNAs (LOC101927604, LOC105377267, CASC15, LINC-PINT, CLDN10-AS1, C14orf132, LMF1, LINC00675, CCDC144NL-AS1, LOC284454), conspicuously contributing to poor prognosis in CRC, which can be validated in another independent dataset. Together, our research is interested in copy number changes relevant with lncRNAs, not only expending the spectrum of CNVs, but also perfecting the regulation network of lncRNAs in CRC. The main purpose is to provide novel biomarkers for prognostic managements of CRC patients.