Does acute exercise affect the performance of whole-body, psychomotor skills in an inverted-U fashion? A meta-analytic investigation

Inverted U-shape-like functional connectivity alterations in cognitive resting-state networks depending on exercise intensity: An fMRI study

Acute physical activity influences cognitive performance. However, the relationship between exercise intensity, neural network activity, and cognitive performance remains poorly understood. This study examined the effects of different exercise intensities on resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC) and cognitive performance. Twenty male athletes (27.3 ± 3.6 years) underwent cycling exercises of different intensities (high, low, rest/control) on different days in randomized order. Before and after, subjects performed resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging and a behavioral Attention Network Test (ANT). Independent component analysis and Linear mixed effects models examined rsFC changes within ten resting-state networks. No significant changes were identified in ANT performance. Resting-state analyses revealed a significant interaction in the Left Frontoparietal Network, driven by a non-significant rsFC increase after low-intensity and a significant rsFC decrease after high-intensity exercise, suggestive of an inverted U-shape relationship between exercise intensity and rsFC. Similar but trend-level rsFC interactions were observed in the Dorsal Attention Network (DAN) and the Cerebellar Basal Ganglia Network. Explorative correlation analysis revealed a significant positive association between rsFC increases in the right superior parietal lobule (part of DAN) and better ANT orienting in the low-intensity condition. Results indicate exercise intensity-dependent subacute rsFC changes in cognition-related networks, but their cognitive-behavioral relevance needs further investigation.

Acute exercise performed before and after motor practice enhances the positive effects on motor memory consolidation

Performing a single bout of exercise can enhance motor learning and long-term retention of motor skills. Parameters such as the intensity and when the exercise bout is performed in relation to skill practice (i.e., timing) likely influence the effectiveness. However, it is still not fully understood how exercise should be administered to maximize its effects and how exercise interacts with distinct components of skill learning. Here, we expand this knowledge by investigating the potential synergistic effects of performing acute exercise both prior to and following motor practice. Sixty-four, able-bodied, young adult male participants practiced a sequential visuomotor accuracy tracking (SVAT) task requiring rapid and accurate force modulation and high levels of precision control using intrinsic hand muscles. The task also contained a repeated pattern of targets that allowed sequence-specific skill improvements. Sequential and non-sequential motor performance was assessed at baseline, immediately after motor practice, and again seven days later. One group performed moderate-intensity exercise before practice (PREMO), a second group performed high-intensity exercise after practice (POSTHI), a third group exercised both before and after practice (PREMO + POSTHI), and a fourth group did not exercise during these periods (CON). Regardless of the exercise condition, acute exercise improved long-term retention of the skill by countering performance decay between experimental sessions (i.e., a 7-day interval). Furthermore, exercising both before and after motor practice led to the greatest improvements in skilled performance over time. We found that the effects of exercise were not specific to the practiced sequence. Namely, the effects of exercise generalized across sequential and non-sequential target positions and orders. This suggests that acute exercise works through mechanisms that promote general aspects of motor memory (e.g., lasting improvements in fast and accurate motor execution). The results demonstrate that various exercise protocols can promote the stabilization and long-term retention of motor skills. This effect can be enhanced when exercise is performed both before and after practice.

Effects of acute exercise fatigue on the spatiotemporal dynamics of resting-state large-scale brain networks

Introduction

Various approaches have been used to explore different aspects of the regulation of brain activity by acute exercise, but few studies have been conducted on the effects of acute exercise fatigue on large-scale brain functional networks. Therefore, the present study aimed to explore the effects of acute exercise fatigue on resting-state electroencephalogram (EEG) microstates and large-scale brain network rhythm energy.

Methods

The Bruce protocol was used as the experimental exercise model with a self-controlled experimental design. Thirty males performed incremental load exercise tests on treadmill until exhaustion. EEG signal acquisition was completed before and after exercise. EEG microstates and resting-state cortical rhythm techniques were used to analyze the EEG signal.

Results

The microstate results showed that the duration, occurrence, and contribution of Microstate C were significantly higher after exhaustive exercise (p's < 0.01). There was a significantly lower contribution of Microstate D (p < 0.05), a significant increase in transition probabilities between Microstate A and C (p < 0.05), and a significant decrease in transition probabilities between Microstate B and D (p < 0.05). The results of EEG rhythm energy on the large-scale brain network showed that the energy in the high-frequency β band was significantly higher in the visual network (p < 0.05).

Discussion

Our results suggest that frequently Microstate C associated with the convexity network are important for the organism to respond to internal and external information stimuli and thus regulate motor behavior in time to protect organism integrity. The decreases in Microstate D parameters, associated with the attentional network, are an important neural mechanism explaining the decrease in attention-related cognitive or behavioral performance due to acute exercise fatigue. The high energy in the high-frequency β band on the visual network can be explained in the sense of the neural efficiency hypothesis, which indicates a decrease in neural efficiency.

Protective effect of aerobic fitness on the detrimental influence of exhaustive exercise on information processing capacity

Although aerobic fitness has been thought to protect against the detrimental cognitive effects following exhaustive exercise, available evidence from studies using traditional mean behavioral measures remain somewhat equivocal.

PURPOSE

This study aimed to reconcile this discrepancy by using a novel theory-driven diagnostic tool, the Systems Factorial Technology (SFT).

METHODS

Sixty-six healthy young adults aged from 18 to 30 years old with different levels of aerobic fitness (n = 33 for the higher-fit and lower-fit groups) completed a go/nogo version of redundant-target task before and after a graded exercise test (GXT) until exhaustion. SFT was used to calculate the resilience capacity, which reflects the information processing capacity underlying inhibitory control.

RESULTS

Following the GXT, both higher-fit and lower-fit groups showed faster responses while leaving accuracy unchanged as compared to the performance at the pretest. On the other hand, the resilience capacity decreased for the lower-fit group but was maintained for the higher-fit group.

CONCLUSION

The present findings suggest that aerobic fitness may modulate the individual difference in decisional mechanism following exhaustive exercise. In sum, this study offers an alternative mechanistic explanation regarding cognitive individual differences in response to exhaustive exercise and provides novel insights into the significance of maintaining a state of high physical fitness for those who need to perform cognitively challenging tasks under physically stressful conditions (e.g., elite athletes).

The effects of physical activity timing and complexity on episodic memory: A randomized controlled trial

The role of two types of acute physical activity (PA) bouts were assessed on young adults' free-recall and recognition memory in two experiments, which differed in the temporal relation of PA and word encoding. Before or following training on the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Task, participants performed a simple two-step dance, a complex four-step dance, or remained seated. Hypotheses proposed that PA prior to encoding and complex PA would enhance PA's mnemonic benefits. Memory assessed post-PA, 24 h, and 7 days after training indicated that timing and complexity of PA did not impact free-recall or recognition memory. Findings differ from a previous study showing complex PA benefited motor learning more than simple PA (Tomporowski & Pendleton, 2018). The inconsistency may be due to different working memory processes underlying consolidation and retrieval of procedural or episodic information. Theory-based explanations regarding memory storage and retrieval are proposed to elucidate this selective process.

Cognitive Enhancement through Differential Rope Skipping after Math Lesson

Numerous studies have shown cognitive enhancement through sport and physical exercise. Despite the variety of studies, the extent to which physical activity before or after a cognitive learning session leads to more effective cognitive enhancement remains largely unresolved. Moreover, little attention has been paid to the dependence of the motor learning approach then applied. In this study, we compare the influence of differential with uniformly rope skipping directly succeeding an acquisition phase in arithmetic mathematics. For three weeks 26 pupils, 14 female, 12 male, and 13.9 ± 0.7 years old, completed nine 15 min exercises in arithmetic math, each followed by 3 min rope skipping with heart rate measurement. Arithmetic performance was tested in a pre-, post- and retention test design. The results showed a statistically significant difference between the differential and the control groups within the development of arithmetic performance, especially in the retention test. There was no statistical difference in heart rate. It is suggested that the results provide evidence for sustainable improvements of cognitive learning performance by means of highly variable rope skipping.

A Pilot Study of Intensive Locomotor-Related Skill Training and Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation in Chronic Spinal Cord Injury

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Improved walking function is a priority among persons with motor-incomplete spinal cord injury (PwMISCI). Accessibility and cost limit long-term participation in locomotor training offered in specialized centers. Intensive motor training that facilitates neuroplastic mechanisms that support skill learning and can be implemented in the home/community may be advantageous for promoting long-term restoration of walking function. Additionally, increasing corticospinal drive via transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) may enhance training effects. In this pilot study, we investigated whether a moderate-intensity motor skill training (MST) circuit improved walking function in PwMISCI and whether augmenting training with tDCS influenced outcomes.

METHODS

Twenty-five adults (chronic, motor-incomplete spinal cord injury) were randomized to a 3-day intervention of a locomotor-related MST circuit and concurrent application of sham tDCS (MST+tDCS sham ) or active tDCS (MST+tDCS). The primary outcome was overground walking speed. Secondary outcomes included walking distance, cadence, stride length, and step symmetry index (SI).

RESULTS

Analyses revealed significant effects of the MST circuit on walking speed, walking distance, cadence, and bilateral stride length but no effect on interlimb SI. No significant between-groups differences were observed. Post hoc analyses revealed within-groups change in walking speed (ΔM = 0.13 m/s, SD = 0.13) that app-roached the minimally clinically important difference of 0.15 m/s.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Brief, intensive MST involving locomotor-related activities significantly increased walking speed, walking distance, and spatiotemporal measures in PwMISCI. Significant additive effects of tDCS were not observed; however, participation in only 3 days of MST was associated with changes in walking speed that were comparable to longer locomotor training studies.Video Abstract available for more insights from the authors (see the Video, Supplemental Digital Content 1, available at: http://links.lww.com/JNPT/A386 ).

Walking and Balance Outcomes Are Improved Following Brief Intensive Locomotor Skill Training but Are Not Augmented by Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation in Persons With Chronic Spinal Cord Injury

Motor training to improve walking and balance function is a common aspect of rehabilitation following motor-incomplete spinal cord injury (MISCI). Evidence suggests that moderate- to high-intensity exercise facilitates neuroplastic mechanisms that support motor skill acquisition and learning. Furthermore, enhancing corticospinal drive via transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) may augment the effects of motor training. In this pilot study, we investigated whether a brief moderate-intensity locomotor-related motor skill training (MST) circuit, with and without tDCS, improved walking and balance outcomes in persons with MISCI. In addition, we examined potential differences between within-day (online) and between-day (offline) effects of MST. Twenty-six adults with chronic MISCI, who had some walking ability, were enrolled in a 5-day double-blind, randomized study with a 3-day intervention period. Participants were assigned to an intensive locomotor MST circuit and concurrent application of either sham tDCS (MST+tDCS_sham) or active tDCS (MST+tDCS). The primary outcome was overground walking speed measured during the 10-meter walk test. Secondary outcomes included spatiotemporal gait characteristics (cadence and stride length), peak trailing limb angle (TLA), intralimb coordination (ACC), the Berg Balance Scale (BBS), and the Falls Efficacy Scale-International (FES-I) questionnaire. Analyses revealed a significant effect of the MST circuit, with improvements in walking speed, cadence, bilateral stride length, stronger limb TLA, weaker limb ACC, BBS, and FES-I observed in both the MST+tDCS_sham and MST+tDCS groups. No differences in outcomes were observed between groups. Between-day change accounted for a greater percentage of the overall change in walking outcomes. In persons with MISCI, brief intensive MST involving a circuit of ballistic, cyclic locomotor-related skill activities improved walking outcomes, and selected strength and balance outcomes; however, concurrent application of tDCS did not further enhance the effects of MST.

Acute Aerobic Exercise-Induced Motor Priming Improves Piano Performance and Alters Motor Cortex Activation

Acute aerobic exercise has been shown to improve fine motor skills and alter activation of the motor cortex (M1). The intensity of exercise may influence M1 activation, and further impact whole-body motor skill performance. The aims of the current study were to compare a whole-body motor skill via a piano task following moderate-intensity training (MIT) and high-intensity interval training (HIIT), and to determine if M1 activation is linked to any such changes in performance. Nine subjects (seven females and two males), aged 18 ± 1 years completed a control, MIT, and HIIT trial followed by administration of a piano performance task. M1 activation was evaluated by measuring oxyhemoglobin (O₂Hb) and hemoglobin difference (Hbdiff) changes during post-exercise piano performance using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). The results indicate that piano performance scores were higher after the MIT trial, but not HIIT trial, compared to the control trial. A negative relationship was detected between heart rate during HIIT and post-HIIT piano scores. M1 activation (as measured by Hbdiff) was significantly increased after the HIIT trial. M1 activation was also positively associated with piano performance when exercise trials (HIIT + MIT) and all trials (HIIT + MIT + Control) were combined. We found that acute moderate-intensity exercise led to an improvement in complex motor skill performance while higher-intensity exercise increased M1 activation. These results demonstrate that moderate-intensity exercise can prime the nervous system for the acquisition of whole-body motor skills, suggesting that similar exercise protocols may be effective in improving the outcomes of other motor tasks performed during regular routines of daily life (e.g., sporting tasks, activities of daily living or rehabilitation). In addition, it appears that improvements in motor task performance may be driven by M1 activation. Our findings provide new mechanistic insight into the complex relationship between exercise intensity, M1 activation, and whole-body motor skill performance.

An investigation into the measurement properties of the King-Devick Eye Tracking system

Objectives

Eye tracking has been gaining increasing attention as a possible assessment and monitoring tool for concussion. The King-Devick test (K-DT) was expanded to include an infrared video-oculography-based eye tracker (K-D ET). Therefore, the aim was to provide evidence on the reliability of the K-D ET system under an exercise condition.

Methods

Participants (N = 61; 26 male, 35 female; age range 19-25) were allocated to an exercise or sedentary group. Both groups completed a baseline K-D ET measurement and then either two 10-min exercise or sedentary interventions with repeated K-D ET measurements between interventions.

Results

The test-retest reliability of the K-D ET ranged from good to excellent for the different variables measured. The mean ± SD of the differences for the total number of saccades was 1.04 ± 4.01 and there was an observable difference (p = 0.005) in the trial number. There were no observable differences for the intervention (p = 0.768), gender (p = 0.121) and trial (p = 0.777) for average saccade’s velocity. The mean ± SD of the difference of the total fixations before and after intervention across both trials was 1.04 ± 3.63 and there was an observable difference in the trial number (p = 0.025). The mean ± SD of the differences for the Inter-Saccadic Interval and the fixation polyarea before and after intervention across both trials were 1.86 ± 22.99 msec and 0.51 ± 59.11 mm2 and no observable differences for the intervention, gender and trial.

Conclusion

The results provide evidence on the reliability of the K-D ET, and the eye-tracking components and demonstrate the relationship between completion time and other variables of the K-D ET system. This is vital as the use of the K-DT may be increasing and the combination of the K-DT and eye tracking as one single package highlights the need to specifically measure the reliability of this combined unit.

Detrimental effects on executive function and mood following consecutive days of repeated high-intensity sprint interval exercise in trained male sports players

Intensified periods of competition are common in many team sports, potentially leading to increased fatigue and reduced performance. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of repeated high-intensity sprint interval exercise on cognitive function, mood and perceptions of energy and fatigue. Twenty-four trained rugby players completed multiple bouts of repeated sprints across two consecutive days. Prior to and following each set of maximal effort sprints or equivalent control duration, a battery of cognitive tasks assessing simple and choice reaction time, visuo-spatial working memory and inhibition were completed as well as visual analogue scales that assessed mood, energy, and fatigue. Accuracy of incongruent Stroop responses was significantly lower across day 2 compared to day 1 and the control condition. Four-choice reaction time was slower across day 2 whilst feelings of alertness, contentedness, and physical and mental energy were reduced while ratings of physical and mental fatigue increased. These findings suggest that intensified periods of high-intensity sprint interval exercise have detrimental effects on executive function, mood and perceptions of physical and mental energy, and fatigue. These deleterious effects have the potential to impact performance and may increase the propensity for injury/accidents in certain sporting and non-sporting contexts.

EEG-derived brain graphs are reliable measures for exploring exercise-induced changes in brain networks

The interaction of acute exercise and the central nervous system evokes increasing interest in interdisciplinary research fields of neuroscience. Novel approaches allow to monitor large-scale brain networks from mobile electroencephalography (EEG) applying graph theory, but it is yet uncertain whether brain graphs extracted after exercise are reliable. We therefore aimed to investigate brain graph reliability extracted from resting state EEG data before and after submaximal exercise twice within one week in male participants. To obtain graph measures, we extracted global small-world-index (SWI), clustering coefficient (CC) and characteristic path length (PL) based on weighted phase leg index (wPLI) and spectral coherence (Coh) calculation. For reliability analysis, Intraclass-Correlation-Coefficient (ICC) and Coefficient of Variation (CoV) were computed for graph measures before (REST) and after POST) exercise. Overall results revealed poor to excellent measures at PRE and good to excellent ICCs at POST in the theta, alpha-1 and alpha-2, beta-1 and beta-2 frequency band. Based on bootstrap-analysis, a positive effect of exercise on reliability of wPLI based measures was observed, while exercise induced a negative effect on reliability of Coh-based graph measures. Findings indicate that brain graphs are a reliable tool to analyze brain networks in exercise contexts, which might be related to the neuroregulating effect of exercise inducing functional connections within the connectome. Relative and absolute reliability demonstrated good to excellent reliability after exercise. Chosen graph measures may not only allow analysis of acute, but also longitudinal studies in exercise-scientific contexts.

Physical activity, motor performance and skill learning: a focus on primary motor cortex in healthy aging

Participation in physical activity benefits brain health and function. Cognitive function generally demonstrates a noticeable effect of physical activity, but much less is known about areas responsible for controlling movement, such as primary motor cortex (M1). While more physical activity may support M1 plasticity in older adults, the neural mechanisms underlying this beneficial effect remain poorly understood. Aging is inevitably accompanied by diminished motor performance, and the extent of plasticity may also be less in older adults compared with young. Motor complications with aging may, perhaps unsurprisingly, contribute to reduced physical activity in older adults. While the development of non-invasive brain stimulation techniques have identified that human M1 is a crucial site for learning motor skills and recovery of motor function after injury, a considerable lack of knowledge remains about how physical activity impacts M1 with healthy aging. Reducing impaired neural activity in older adults may have important implications after neurological insult, such as stroke, which is more common with advancing age. Therefore, a better understanding about the effects of physical activity on M1 processes and motor learning in older adults may promote healthy aging, but also allow us to facilitate recovery of motor function after neurological injury. This article will initially provide a brief overview of the neurophysiology of M1 in the context of learning motor skills, with a focus on healthy aging in humans. This information will then be proceeded by a more detailed assessment that focuses on whether physical activity benefits motor function and human M1 processes.

Exploring intensity-dependent modulations in EEG resting-state network efficiency induced by exercise

PURPOSE

Exhaustive cardiovascular load can affect neural processing and is associated with decreases in sensorimotor performance. The purpose of this study was to explore intensity-dependent modulations in brain network efficiency in response to treadmill running assessed from resting-state electroencephalography (EEG) measures.

METHODS

Sixteen trained participants were tested for individual peak oxygen uptake (VO2 peak) and performed an incremental treadmill exercise at 50% (10 min), 70% (10 min) and 90% speed VO2 peak (all-out) followed by cool-down running and active recovery. Before the experiment and after each stage, borg scale (BS), blood lactate concentration (BLa), resting heartrate (HRrest) and 64-channel EEG resting state were assessed. To analyze network efficiency, graph theory was applied to derive small world index (SWI) from EEG data in theta, alpha-1 and alpha-2 frequency bands.

RESULTS

Analysis of variance for repeated measures revealed significant main effects for intensity on BS, BLa, HRrest and SWI. While BS, BLa and HRrest indicated maxima after all-out, SWI showed a reduction in the theta network after all-out.

CONCLUSION

Our explorative approach suggests intensity-dependent modulations of resting-state brain networks, since exhaustive exercise temporarily reduces brain network efficiency. Resting-state network assessment may prospectively play a role in training monitoring by displaying the readiness and efficiency of the central nervous system in different training situations.

Decision Outcomes in Sport: Influence of Type and Level of Stress

In two experiments, the authors investigated the influence of stress type (i.e., low/no stress, mental, and physical), level (i.e., low, moderate, and high), and Type × Level interaction on intuitive decision frequency, decision quality, and decision speed. Participants were exposed to mental (i.e., color word task, mental arithmetic) and/or physical stress (i.e., running) and then required to make decisions regarding videotaped offensive situations in basketball. Intuitive decision frequency, decision quality, and decision speed were measured for each trial. Study 1 used a between-subjects design whereby 20 participants were randomly assigned to each of the five stress conditions. Results revealed that moderate stress was associated with faster decisions. Study 2 replicated the design and aim of Study 1 using a within-subject methodology (n = 42). Results suggested that moderate stress levels produced better, faster decisions. In conclusion, moderate levels of stress were associated with the most desirable decision outcomes.

Effects of Acute Aerobic Exercise Combined with Resistance Exercise on Neurocognitive Performance in Obese Women

To the best of the author’s knowledge, there have been no previous studies conducted on the effects of a combination of acute aerobic and resistance exercise on deficit of inhibitory control in obese individuals. The aim of this study was, thus, to examine the effect of a single bout of such an exercise mode on behavioral and cognitive electrophysiological performance involving cognitive interference inhibition in obese women. After the estimated VO₂max and percentage fat (measured with dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (Hologic, Bedford, MA, USA) were assessed, 32 sedentary obese female adults were randomly assigned to an exercise group (EG) and a control group (CG), with their behavioral performance being recorded with concomitant electrophysiological signals when performing a Stroop task. Then, the EG engaged in 30 min of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise combined with resistance exercise, and the CG rested for a similar duration of time without engaging in any type of exercise. After the interventions, the neurocognitive performance was measured again in the two groups. The results revealed that although acute exercise did not enhance the behavioral indices (e.g., accuracy rates (ARs) and reaction times (RTs)), cognitive electrophysiological signals were improved (e.g., shorter N2 and P3 latencies, smaller N2 amplitudes, and greater P3 amplitudes) in the Stroop task after the exercise intervention in the EG. The findings indicated that a combination of acute moderate-intensity aerobic and resistance exercise may improve the neurophysiological inhibitory control performance of obese women.

Cognitive effects of acute aerobic exercise: Exploring the influence of exercise duration, exhaustion, task complexity and expectancies in endurance-trained individuals

The cognitive effects of acute aerobic exercise were investigated in endurance-trained individuals. On two occasions, 21 cyclists; 11 male (VO_2max: 57 ± 9 mL·kg^-1·min^-1) and 10 female (VO_2max: 51 ± 9 mL·kg^-1·min^-1), completed 45 min of fixed, moderate-intensity (discontinuous) cycling followed by an incremental ride to exhaustion. Cognitive function was assessed at Baseline, after 15 and 45 min of exercise (15EX and 45EX) and at Exhaustion using a 4-Choice Reaction Time (CRT) test and the Stroop test (Incongruent and Congruent Reaction Time [RT]). A sham capsule was administered on one occasion to determine whether the cognitive response to exercise was robust to the influence of a placebo. CRT, Congruent RT and Incongruent RT decreased (improved) at 15EX, 45EX and Exhaustion compared to Baseline (p's<0.005). While CRT and Congruent RT were faster at 45EX than 15EX (p's<0.020), Incongruent RT was not (p= 1.000). The sham treatment did not affect cognition. When performed at a moderate-intensity, longer duration exercise (up to 45 min) may improve cognition to a greater extent than shorter duration exercise; however, the magnitude of improvement appears to decrease with increasing task complexity. HI/EE performed following a sustained bout of dehydrating activity may not impair cognition.

Effects of acute cardiovascular exercise on motor memory encoding and consolidation: A systematic review with meta-analysis

Emerging evidence indicates that acute bouts of cardiovascular exercise promote motor memory formation. In this preregistered meta-analysis (CRD42018106288) we synthesize data from 22 studies published until February 2020, including a total of 862 participants. We calculated standardized mean differences (SMDs) with 95 % confidence intervals (CIs) to assess exercise effects on motor memory encoding and consolidation, respectively. The pooled data indicate that exercise mainly benefits the consolidation of memories, with exercise prior to motor practice improving early non-sleep consolidation (SMD, 0.58; 95 % CI, 0.30-0.86; p < 0.001), and post-practice exercise facilitating sleep-dependent consolidation (SMD, 0.62; 95 % CI, 0.34-0.90; p < 0.001). Strongest effects exist for high exercise intensities, and motor task nature appears to be another relevant modulator. We demonstrate that acute cardiovascular exercise particularly promotes the consolidation of acquired motor memories, and exercise timing, and intensity as well as motor task nature seem to critically modulate this relationship. These findings are discussed within currently proposed models of motor memory formation and considering molecular and systemic mechanisms of neural plasticity.

Effect of a Single Bout of Acute Aerobic Exercise at Moderate-to-Vigorous Intensities on Motor Learning, Retention and Transfer

Acute exercise influences human cognition, and evidence suggests that learning can be improved. According to the cognitive–energetic approach towards exercise cognition, exercise represents a stressor that elevates physiological arousal, which, in turn, increases the availability of mental resources. However, the degree of arousal is hypothesized to have optimal and suboptimal states, and moderate intensity exercise is thus considered to be favorable compared to low intensity and vigorous exercise. The current evidence for such a moderating effect of exercise intensity on motor learning, however, appears somewhat mixed. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore the effect of aerobic exercise conducted with different exercise intensities on immediate practice, transfer, and 24-h retention of a motor skill. To this end, young adults (n  =  40, mean (SD) age: 23.80 (1.98) years) were randomized to exercise at either 50% or 75% of age-predicted maximal heart rate according to the Karvonen formulae. Immediately after exercising, participants practiced a high-precision golf putting task in a blocked design. Retention and transfer of skill were assessed after 24 h. Results indicated that both groups demonstrated motor learning, retention, and transfer at a similar level. Further works are thus needed to establish the specific relationship between exercise and learning and establish the factors that have an influence.

The Acute Effect of High-Intensity Exercise on Executive Function: A Meta-Analysis

High-intensity exercise has recently emerged as a potent alternative to aerobic regimens, with ramifications for health and brain function. As part of this trend, single sessions of intense exercise have been proposed as powerful, noninvasive means for transiently enhancing cognition. However, findings in this field remain mixed, and a thorough synthesis of the evidence is lacking. Here, we synthesized the literature in a meta-analysis of the acute effect of high-intensity exercise on executive function. We included a total of 1,177 participants and 147 effect sizes across 28 studies and found a small facilitating effect ( d = 0.24) of high-intensity exercise on executive function. However, this effect was significant only compared with rest ( d = 0.34); it was not significant when high-intensity exercise was compared with low-to-moderate intensity exercise ( d = 0.07). This suggests that intense and moderate exercise affect executive function in a comparable manner. We tested a number of moderators that together explained a significant proportion of the between-studies variance. Overall, our findings indicate that high-intensity cardiovascular exercise might be a viable alternative for eliciting acute cognitive gains. We discuss the potential of this line of research, identify a number of challenges and limitations it faces, and propose applications to individuals, society, and policies.

Acute Effects of Instructed and Self-Created Variable Rope Skipping on EEG Brain Activity and Heart Rate Variability

The influence of physical activity on brain and heart activity dependent on type and intensity of exercise is meanwhile widely accepted. Mainly cyclic exercises with longer duration formed the basis for showing the influence on either central nervous system or on heart metabolism. Effects of the variability of movement sequences on brain and heart have been studied only sparsely so far. This study investigated effects of three different motor learning approaches combined with a single bout of rope skipping exercises on the spontaneous electroencephalographic (EEG) brain activity, heart rate variability (HRV) and the rate of perceived exertion (RPE). Participants performed repetitive learning (RL) and two extremely variable rope skipping schedules according to the differential learning approach. Thereby one bout was characterized by instructed variable learning (DLi) and the other by self-created variable learning (DLc) in randomized order each on three consecutive days. The results show higher RPE after DLi and DLc than after RL. HRV analysis demonstrates significant changes in pre-post exercise comparison in all training approaches. No statistically significant differences between training schedules were identified. Slightly greater changes in HRV parameters were observed in both DL approaches indicating a higher activation of the sympathetic nervous system. EEG data reveals higher parietal alpha1 and temporal alpha2 power in RL compared to both DL schedules immediately post exercise. During the recovery of up to 30 min, RL shows higher temporal and occipital theta, temporal, parietal and occipital alpha, temporal and occipital beta and frontal beta3 power. In conclusion, already a single bout of 3 min of rope skipping can lead to brain states that are associated with being advantageous for cognitive learning. Combined with additional, cognitively demanding tasks in form of the DL approach, it seems to lead to an overload of the mental capacity, at least on the short term. Further research should fathom the reciprocal influence of cardiac and central-nervous strain in greater detail.

A Single Bout of Aerobic Exercise Improves Motor Skill Consolidation in Parkinson's Disease

Background: Motor learning is impaired in Parkinson’s disease (PD), with patients demonstrating deficits in skill acquisition (online learning) and consolidation (offline learning) compared to healthy adults of similar age. Recent studies in young adults suggest that single bouts of aerobic exercise (AEX), performed in close temporal proximity to practicing a new motor task, may facilitate motor skill learning. Thus, we aimed at investigating the effects of a single bout of aerobic cycling on online and offline learning in PD patients.

Methods: 17 PD patients (Hoehn and Yahr 1 – 2.5, age: 64.4 ± 6.2) participated in this crossover study. Immediately prior to practicing a novel balance task, patients either performed 30 min of (i) moderate intensity (60–70% VO_2max) aerobic cycling, or (ii) seated rest (order counterbalanced). The task required patients to stabilize a balance platform (stabilometer) in a horizontal position for 30 s. For each experimental condition, patients performed 15 acquisition trials, followed by a retention test 24 h later. We calculated time in balance (platform within ± 5° from horizontal) for each trial, and analyzed within- and between-subjects differences in skill acquisition (online learning) and skill retention (offline learning) using mixed repeated-measures ANOVA.

Results: We found that the exercise bout had no effect on performance level or online gains during acquisition, despite affecting the time course of skill improvements (larger initial and reduced late skill gains). Aerobic cycling significantly improved offline learning, as reflected by larger 24-h skill retention compared to the rest condition.

Conclusion: Our results suggest that a single bout of moderate-intensity AEX is effective in improving motor skill consolidation in PD patients. Thus, acute exercise may represent an effective strategy to enhance motor memory formation in this population. More work is necessary to understand the underlying mechanisms, the optimal scheduling of exercise, and the applicability to other motor tasks. Further, the potential for patients in later disease stages need to be investigated. The study was a priori registered at ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT03245216).

Resting EEG Microstates and Autonomic Heart Rate Variability Do Not Return to Baseline One Hour After a Submaximal Exercise

Recent findings suggest that an acute physical exercise modulates the temporal features of the EEG resting microstates, especially the microstate map C duration and relative time coverage. Microstate map C has been associated with the salience resting state network, which is mainly structured around the insula and cingulate, two brain nodes that mediate cardiovascular arousal and interoceptive awareness. Heart rate variability (HRV) is dependent on the autonomic balance; specifically, an increase in the sympathetic (or decrease in the parasympathetic) tone will decrease variability while a decrease in the sympathetic (or increase in the parasympathetic) tone will increase variability. Relying on the functional interaction between the autonomic cardiovascular activity and the salience network, this study aims to investigate the effect of exercise on the resting microstate and the possible interplay with this autonomic cardiovascular recovery after a single bout of endurance exercise. Thirty-eight young adults performed a 25-min constant-load cycling exercise at an intensity that was subjectively perceived as “hard.” The microstate temporal features and conventional time and frequency domain HRV parameters were obtained at rest for 5 min before exercise and at 5, 15, 30, 45, and 60 min after exercise. Compared to the baseline, all HRV parameters were changed 5 min after exercise cessation. The mean durations of microstate B and C, and the frequency of occurrence of microstate D were also changed immediately after exercise. A long-lasting effect was found for almost all HRV parameters and for the duration of microstate C during the hour following exercise, indicating an uncompleted recovery of the autonomic cardiovascular system and the resting microstate. The implication of an exercise-induced afferent neural traffic is discussed as a potential modulator of both the autonomic regulation of heart rate and the resting EEG microstate.

Effects of acute high-intensity exercise on cognitive performance in trained individuals: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

High-intensity exercise is generally considered to have detrimental effects on cognition. However, high fitness levels are suggested to alleviate this effect.

OBJECTIVES

The specific objective of this review was to evaluate the literature on the effect of acute high-intensity exercise on cognitive performance in trained individuals.

METHODS

Studies were sourced through electronic databases, reference lists of retrieved articles, and manual searches of relevant reviews. Included studies examined trained participants, included a high-intensity exercise bout, used a control or comparison group/condition, and assessed cognitive performance via general laboratory tasks during or ≤10min following exercise cessation.

RESULTS

Ten articles met the inclusion criteria. Results indicated that the effect of acute high-intensity exercise on cognitive performance in trained individuals is dependent on the specific cognitive domain being assessed. Generally, simple tasks were not affected, while the results on complex tasks remain ambiguous. Accuracy showed little tendency to be influenced by high-intensity exercise compared to measures of speed.

CONCLUSION

Multiple factors influence the acute exercise-cognition relationship and thus future research should be highly specific when outlining criteria such as fitness levels, exercise intensity, and exercise mode. Furthermore, greater research is needed assessing more cognitive domains, greater exercise durations/types, and trained populations at high intensities.

Cognitive Performance Enhancement Induced by Caffeine, Carbohydrate and Guarana Mouth Rinsing during Submaximal Exercise

The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of serial mouth rinsing (MR) with nutritional supplements on cognitive performance (i.e., cognitive control and time perception) during a 40-min submaximal exercise. Twenty-four participants completed 4 counterbalanced experimental sessions, during which they performed MR with either placebo (PL), carbohydrate (CHO: 1.6 g/25 mL), guarana complex (GUAc: 0.4 g/25 mL) or caffeine (CAF: 67 mg/25 mL) before and twice during exercise. The present study provided some important new insights regarding the specific changes in cognitive performance induced by nutritional supplements. The main results were: (1) CHO, CAF and GUA MR likely led participants to improve temporal performance; (2) CAF MR likely improved cognitive control; and (3) CHO MR led to a likely decrease in subjective perception of effort at the end of the exercise compared to PL, GUA and CAF. Moreover, results have shown that performing 40-min submaximal exercise enhances information processing in terms of both speed and accuracy, improves temporal performance and does not alter cognitive control. The present study opens up new perspectives regarding the use of MR to optimize cognitive performance during physical exercise.

A single-bout of Endurance Exercise Modulates EEG Microstates Temporal Features

Electrical neuroimaging is a promising method to explore the spontaneous brain function after physical exercise. The present study aims to investigate the effect of acute physical exercise on the temporal dynamic of the resting brain activity captured by the four conventional map topographies (microstates) described in the literature, and to associate these brain changes with the post-exercise neuromuscular function. Twenty endurance-trained subjects performed a 30-min biking task at 60% of their maximal aerobic power followed by a 10 km all-out time trial. Before and after each exercise, knee-extensor neuromuscular function and resting EEG were collected. Both exercises resulted in a similar increase in microstate class C stability and duration, as well as an increase in transition probability of moving toward microstate class C. After the first exercise, the increase in class C global explained variance was correlated with the indice of muscle alterations (100 Hz paired stimuli). After the second exercise, the increase in class C mean duration was correlated with the 100 Hz paired stimuli, but also with the reduction in maximal voluntary force. Interestingly, microstate class C has been associated with the salience resting-state network, which participates in integrating multisensory modalities. We speculate that temporal reorganization of the brain state after exercise could be partially modulated by the muscle afferents that project into the salience resting-state network, and indirectly participates in modulating the motor behavior.

The influence of cycling intensity upon cognitive response during inferred practice and competition conditions

In many sport and exercise situations, cognitive performance is required under conditions of high physiological load and high cognitive anxiety. However, few studies have assessed all these components in situ. The current study sought to address this issue. Fourteen adults (9 males, 5 females) completed 2 incremental exercise trials (perceived competition or perceived practice) in a counterbalanced order. Cognitive performance, via a test of visual discrimination, rating of perceived exertion (RPE), heart rate (HR), blood lactate (Bla), and anxiety scores, was recorded at rest, 70% [Formula: see text] and 90% [Formula: see text]. Visual discrimination response times were faster at rest compared to 70% (P = 0.001) and 90% [Formula: see text] (P = 0.002) and at 70% compared to 90% [Formula: see text] (P = 0.04) in the competitive condition. HR post-instructions (P = 0.0001), at 70% (P = 0.001) and 90% [Formula: see text] (P = 0.0001), was significantly higher in competition compared to practice. RPE was higher in the competitive condition compared to the practice condition (P = 0.023). Cognitive anxiety intensity was significantly higher in the competitive condition, at 70% and 90% [Formula: see text] (P = 0.001). This study suggests that cognitive performance is more negatively affected when physiological arousal and cognitive anxiety are at their highest. Coaches and athletes should be mindful of such effects and seek to develop skills to offset such responses or to structure training to better represent competition.

Physical Load Affects Perceptual-Cognitive Performance of Skilled Athletes: a Systematic Review

Background

Many researchers have considered the impact of physical exercise on perceptual-cognitive performance. There have also been a substantial number of studies that have examined how perceptual-cognitive skills differ between elite athletes and non-athletes. However, the knowledge on how physical exercise interacts with perceptual-cognitive skill is limited.

This systematic review aims to provide detailed information on how athletes’ perceptual-cognitive performance is influenced by acute physical exercise load and whether these effects differ between elite athletes and lesser skilled groups.

Methods

A systematic review was conducted using different combinations of the keywords physical load, acute, exercise, perception, cognition, perceptual, cognitive, sport, and athlete with the PubMed and SportDiscus databases. Additional articles were found through screening the references of these papers.

Articles had to (a) be full journal articles written in English, (b) include an athlete sample, (c) examine acute effects of physical exercise, and (d) measure a perceptual-cognitive task as the dependent variable.

Results

Twenty-six articles matched the inclusion criteria. Results suggested the impact of acute physical exercise on perceptual-cognitive performances of athletes depends on the specificity of the induced exercise and perceptual-cognitive task. Additionally, speed and accuracy were influenced differently by physical exercise. Furthermore, skilled athletes seem to be more positively influenced by acute physical exercise than novices.

Conclusion

Since many factors influence perceptual-cognitive expertise, future research should be highly precise (e.g., regarding the definition of variables, the intensity of the physical exercise) and specific (e.g., regarding the tasks used, the type of the physical exercise).

The effect of badminton-specific exercise on badminton short-serve performance in competition and practice climates

This study examined the effects of changes in physiological and psychological arousal on badminton short-serve performance in competitive and practice climates. Twenty competitive badminton players (10 males and 10 females) volunteered to participate in the study following ethics approval. After familiarisation, badminton short-serve performance was measured at rest, mid-way through and at the end of a badminton-specific exercise protocol in two conditions; competition vs. practice. Ratings of cognitive and somatic anxiety were assessed at three time points prior to badminton short-serve performance using the Mental Readiness Form 3. Heart rate and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) were assessed during the exercise protocol. Results indicated that better short-serve performance was evident in practice compared to competition (P = .034). RPE values were significantly higher in the competition condition compared to practice (P = .007). Cognitive anxiety intensity was significantly lower post-exercise in the practice condition compared to competition (P = .001). Cognitive anxiety direction showed greater debilitation post-exercise in the competition condition compared to practice (P = .01). Somatic anxiety intensity increased from pre-, to mid- to post-exercise (P = .001) irrespective of condition. This study suggests that badminton serve performance is negatively affected when physiological arousal, via badminton-specific exercise, and cognitive anxiety, via perceived competition, are high.

Endurance Exercise as an "Endogenous" Neuro-enhancement Strategy to Facilitate Motor Learning

Endurance exercise improves cardiovascular and musculoskeletal function and may also increase the information processing capacities of the brain. Animal and human research from the past decade demonstrated widespread exercise effects on brain structure and function at the systems-, cellular-, and molecular level of brain organization. These neurobiological mechanisms may explain the well-established positive influence of exercise on performance in various behavioral domains but also its contribution to improved skill learning and neuroplasticity. With respect to the latter, only few empirical and theoretical studies are available to date. The aim of this review is (i) to summarize the existing neurobiological and behavioral evidence arguing for endurance exercise-induced improvements in motor learning and (ii) to develop hypotheses about the mechanistic link between exercise and improved learning. We identify major knowledge gaps that need to be addressed by future research projects to advance our understanding of how exercise should be organized to optimize motor learning.