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Kliphuis S, Manet MWE, Goerlich VC, Nordquist RE, Vernooij H, Tuyttens FAM, Rodenburg TB. Effects of lighted incubation and foraging enrichment during rearing on individual fear behavior, corticosterone, and neuroplasticity in laying hen pullets. Poult Sci 2024; 103:103665. [PMID: 38569241 PMCID: PMC10999657 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2024.103665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2024] [Revised: 03/07/2024] [Accepted: 03/12/2024] [Indexed: 04/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Environmental conditions during incubation and rearing can influence stress responsivity of laying hen pullets throughout their lifespan, and therefore have important implications for their welfare. In this study, a 12:12h green LED light-dark cycle during incubation and larvae provisioning as enrichment during rearing were tested as strategies to optimize early-life conditions and thereby decrease stress responsivity in ISA Brown laying hens. A combination of parameters was measured to indicate neuronal, physiological, and behavioral changes that may affect fear and stress. The proteins calbindin D28k (calbindin1), doublecortin (DCX), and neuronal nuclein protein (NeuN) were quantified after hatch as a proxy for brain plasticity. Plasma and feather corticosterone levels were measured after hatch and at the end of the rearing phase, and fearfulness was investigated through a series of behavioral tests (i.e., voluntary approach, open field, tonic immobility, and manual restraint tests). No effects of light during incubation were found on calbindin1, DCX, or NeuN. Neither of the treatments affected corticosterone levels in blood plasma and feathers. Light-incubated pullets showed less fearfulness towards humans in the voluntary approach test, but not in the other behavioral tests reported in this study. Larvae provisioning had no effect on behavior. Our study showed minor effects of light during incubation and no effects of enrichment during rearing on stress responsivity of laying hen pullets. The small effects may be explained by the enriched rearing conditions for all birds in this experiment (low stocking density, natural daylight, and 24/7 classical music). Given the promising results of lighted incubation in other studies, which were mostly performed in broiler chickens, and evidence regarding the positive effects of enrichment during rearing, the potential of these strategies to improve laying hen welfare needs to be explored further.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saskia Kliphuis
- Animals in Science and Society, Department of Population Health Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | - Maëva W E Manet
- Animals in Science and Society, Department of Population Health Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Vivian C Goerlich
- Animals in Science and Society, Department of Population Health Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Rebecca E Nordquist
- Animals in Science and Society, Department of Population Health Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Hans Vernooij
- Animals in Science and Society, Department of Population Health Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Frank A M Tuyttens
- Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), Merelbeke, Belgium; Department of Veterinary and Biosciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - T Bas Rodenburg
- Animals in Science and Society, Department of Population Health Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands; Adaptation Physiology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
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Zou X, Zou G, Zou X, Wang K, Chen Z. Gut microbiota and its metabolites in Alzheimer's disease: from pathogenesis to treatment. PeerJ 2024; 12:e17061. [PMID: 38495755 PMCID: PMC10944166 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.17061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2023] [Accepted: 02/15/2024] [Indexed: 03/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction An increasing number of studies have demonstrated that altered microbial diversity and function (such as metabolites), or ecological disorders, regulate bowel-brain axis involvement in the pathophysiologic processes in Alzheimer's disease (AD). The dysregulation of microbes and their metabolites can be a double-edged sword in AD, presenting the possibility of microbiome-based treatment options. This review describes the link between ecological imbalances and AD, the interactions between AD treatment modalities and the microbiota, and the potential of interventions such as prebiotics, probiotics, synbiotics, fecal microbiota transplantation, and dietary interventions as complementary therapeutic strategies targeting AD pathogenesis and progression. Survey methodology Articles from PubMed and china.com on intestinal flora and AD were summarized to analyze the data and conclusions carefully to ensure the comprehensiveness, completeness, and accuracy of this review. Conclusions Regulating the gut flora ecological balance upregulates neurotrophic factor expression, regulates the microbiota-gut-brain (MGB) axis, and suppresses the inflammatory responses. Based on emerging research, this review explored novel directions for future AD research and clinical interventions, injecting new vitality into microbiota research development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinfu Zou
- Subject of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Guoqiang Zou
- Subject of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shandong University Of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Xinyan Zou
- College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Hebei University, Baoding, Hebei, China
| | - Kangfeng Wang
- Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Zetao Chen
- Subject of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, China
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Huang C, Hao E, Yue Q, Liu M, Wang D, Chen Y, Shi L, Zeng D, Zhao G, Chen H. Malfunctioned inflammatory response and serotonin metabolism at the microbiota-gut-brain axis drive feather pecking behavior in laying hens. Poult Sci 2023; 102:102686. [PMID: 37327743 PMCID: PMC10404692 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2023.102686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2022] [Revised: 03/10/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Feather pecking (FP) is a multifactorial abnormal behavior in laying hens where they display harmful pecks in conspecifics. FP has been associated with the altered functioning of the microbiome-gut-brain axis affecting host emotions and social behavior. The altered levels of serotonin (5-HT), a key monoaminergic neurotransmitter at both terminals of the gut-brain axis, affect the development of abnormal behavior, such as FP in laying hens. However, the underlying mechanism involving reciprocal interactions along the microbiota-gut-brain axis, particularly about the metabolism of 5-HT, remains unclear in FP phenotypes. This study examined the microbiota diversity, intestinal microbial metabolites, inflammatory responses, and 5-HT metabolism in divergently selected high (HFP; n = 8) and low (LFP; n = 8) FP hens to investigate the possible interconnections between FP behavior and the examined parameters. The 16S rRNA analysis revealed that compared to LFP birds, the gut microbiota of HFP birds exhibited a decrease in the abundance of phylum Firmicutes and genera Lactobacillus, while an increase in the abundance of phylum Proteobacteria and genera Escherichia Shigella and Desulfovibrio. Furthermore, the intestinal differential metabolites associated with FP phenotypes were mainly enriched in the tryptophan metabolic pathway. HFP birds had higher tryptophan metabolites and possibly a more responsive immune system compared to the LFP birds. This was indirectly supported by altered TNF-α levels in the serum and expression of inflammatory factor in the gut and brain. Moreover, HFP birds had lower serum levels of tryptophan and 5-HT compared to LFP birds, which was consistent with the downregulation of 5-HT metabolism-related genes in the brain of HFP birds. The correlation analysis revealed that genera Lactobacillus and Desulfovibrio were associated with differences in intestinal metabolites, 5-HT metabolism, and inflammatory response between the LFP and HFP birds. In conclusion, differences in the cecal microbiota profile, immune response and 5-HT metabolism drive FP phenotypes, which could be associated with the gut abundance of genera Lactobacillus and Desulfovibrio.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenxuan Huang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, Hebei 071001, China
| | - Erying Hao
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, Hebei 071001, China
| | - Qiaoxian Yue
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, Hebei 071001, China
| | - Meng Liu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, Hebei 071001, China
| | - Dehe Wang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, Hebei 071001, China
| | - Yifan Chen
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, Hebei 071001, China
| | - Lei Shi
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, Hebei 071001, China
| | - Dan Zeng
- Hua Yu Agricultural Technology Co., Ltd., Handan, Hebei 057150, China
| | - Guoxian Zhao
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, Hebei 071001, China
| | - Hui Chen
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, Hebei 071001, China.
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Wang C, Li Y, Wang H, Li M, Rong J, Liao X, Wu Y, Wang Y. Differences in peripheral and central metabolites and gut microbiome of laying hens with different feather-pecking phenotypes. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1132866. [PMID: 36937288 PMCID: PMC10017472 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1132866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2022] [Accepted: 02/09/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Feather pecking (FP) is a maladaptive behavior in laying hens that is associated with numerous physiological traits, including those involving the central neurotransmitter system and the immune system, which have been identified in many species as being regulated by the gut microbiota via the "microbiota-gut-brain" (MGB) axis. Yet, it is unknown whether and how gut microbiota influences FP by regulating multiple central neurotransmission systems and immune system. Methods This study was measured the prevalence of severe FP (SFP) in the commercial layer farm. The chicken flock with the highest frequency of SFP were selected for FP phenotype identification. Nontargeted metabolomics was performed to investigated the differences in the peripheral and central metabolites and 16S rDNA sequencing was performed to investigated the differences in gut microbiome of laying hens with different FP phenotypes. Correlation analysis was performed to determine the potential mechanism by which the disturbed gut microbiota may modulate host physiology and behavior. Results The results showed that pullets (12 weeks of age) showed significantly higher SFP frequencies than chicks (6 weeks of age) and adults (22 weeks of age; p < 0.05). Compared to neutrals (N), peckers (P) exhibited the stress-induced immunosuppression with the increased plasma levels of corticosterone and norepinephrine, and the decreased plasma levels of IgA, IL-1, IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor α (p < 0.05). In the cecum, the relative abundances of Bacteroides and Gemmiger were higher in the P group, while Roseburia, Ruminococcus2, Anaerostipes, Lachnospiracea_incertae_sedis and Methanobrevibacter were more enriched in the N group. Moreover, increased plasma levels of L-tryptophan, beta-tyrosine and L-histidine were found in the P group (p < 0.05). Notably, in the P group, hippocampal levels of L-tryptophan, xanthurenic acid, L-histidine and histamine were improved and showed a positive association with L-glutamic acid levels. Plasma levels of L-tryptophan, beta-tyrosine and L-histidine were both positively correlated with Bacteroides abundance but negatively correlated with Methanobrevibacter abundance. Conclusion Overall, these findings suggest that the development of FP may be affected by the gut microbiota, which regulates the central glutamatergic nerve system by altering the metabolism of tryptophan, histidine and tyrosine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Wang
- Guangdong Provincial Laboratory of Lingnan Modern Agricultural Science and Technology, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yaling Li
- Guangdong Provincial Laboratory of Lingnan Modern Agricultural Science and Technology, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Haoliang Wang
- Guangdong Provincial Laboratory of Lingnan Modern Agricultural Science and Technology, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Miao Li
- Guangdong Provincial Laboratory of Lingnan Modern Agricultural Science and Technology, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jinsheng Rong
- Guangdong Provincial Laboratory of Lingnan Modern Agricultural Science and Technology, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xindi Liao
- Guangdong Provincial Laboratory of Lingnan Modern Agricultural Science and Technology, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Lab of Agro-Animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- National Engineering Research Center for Breeding Swine Industry, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yinbao Wu
- Guangdong Provincial Laboratory of Lingnan Modern Agricultural Science and Technology, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Lab of Agro-Animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- National Engineering Research Center for Breeding Swine Industry, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yan Wang
- Guangdong Provincial Laboratory of Lingnan Modern Agricultural Science and Technology, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Lab of Agro-Animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- National Engineering Research Center for Breeding Swine Industry, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Yan Wang,
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Tilgar V. Sex-Specific Effects of Blood Serotonin on Reproductive Effort in a Small Passerine. Physiol Biochem Zool 2023; 96:75-85. [PMID: 36626843 DOI: 10.1086/722132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
AbstractLaboratory animal models have shown that blood serotonin levels reflect consistent individual differences in behavioral decision-making and maternal behavior. Serotonin could also help to understand intraspecific variation in reproductive strategies, although the mechanisms are poorly understood. In this study, the relationships of plasma serotonin with breeding parameters and parental behavior were examined in wild great tits (Parus major). Females who laid eggs earlier had higher levels of serotonin in the second half of the nestling period, while no significant relationship of serotonin with clutch size, brood size, and body size was detected. In males, serotonin levels were negatively related to clutch size and brood size and positively related to body size. The association of serotonin with provisioning behavior was sex specific, and acute fear stress induced by a predator presentation did not change this relationship. Food provisioning was positively related to size-corrected serotonin levels in females and negatively related to size-corrected serotonin levels in males. These results suggest that peripheral serotonin is a sensitive marker of parental behavior and reproductive effort in wild birds, while the mechanisms linking this neurotransmitter to reproduction are probably mediated by interplay between the serotonergic system, sex hormones, and other neurotransmitters.
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Effect of Providing Environmental Enrichment into Aviary House on the Welfare of Laying Hens. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12091165. [PMID: 35565591 PMCID: PMC9103546 DOI: 10.3390/ani12091165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2022] [Revised: 04/18/2022] [Accepted: 04/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to determine the effects of providing environmental enrichment materials—pumice stone and alfalfa hay—to laying hens in the aviary system. A total of 2196 40-week-old Hy-Line Brown laying hens were randomly allotted to three treatment groups: (1) no enrichment (control; CON), (2) enrichment with pumice stone (PS), and (3) enrichment with alfalfa hay (HAY). Each treatment comprised four replicates of 183 hens each, and four of the same materials were provided per replicate. The experiment lasted for 26 weeks. Feed and water were provided ad libitum. As a result, the PS and HAY groups demonstrated increased egg production (p < 0.001). The HAY group showed a reduced rate of mislaid eggs (p < 0.01) and produced low egg weight and pale-yellow yolk (p < 0.05). Both enrichment materials decreased blood creatinine (CRE) or lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) in the blood and resulted in a significantly lower corticosterone (CORT) level (p < 0.05). However, the feather condition scores for the laying hens were similar across all treatments (p > 0.05). In summary, although pumice stone and alfalfa hay are effective in alleviating stress and improving the production of laying hens, additional environmental improvement studies are needed to contribute to reducing pecking behaviors in poultry farming.
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Mindus C, van Staaveren N, Fuchs D, Gostner JM, Kjaer JB, Kunze W, Mian MF, Shoveller AK, Forsythe P, Harlander-Matauschek A. Regulatory T Cell Modulation by Lactobacillus rhamnosus Improves Feather Damage in Chickens. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:855261. [PMID: 35478602 PMCID: PMC9036099 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.855261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2022] [Accepted: 03/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
It is currently unclear whether potential probiotics such as lactic acid bacteria could affect behavioral problems in birds. To this end, we assessed whether a supplementation of Lactobacillus rhamnosus JB-1 can reduce stress-induced severe feather pecking (SFP), feather damage and fearfulness in adult birds kept for egg laying. In parallel, we assessed SFP genotypic and phenotypic-related immune responses and aromatic amino acid status linked to neurotransmitter production. Social stress aggravated plumage damage, while L. rhamnosus treatment improved the birds' feather cover in non-stressed birds, but did not impact fearfulness. Our data demonstrate the significant impact of L. rhamnosus supplementation on the immune system. L. rhamnosus supplementation induced immunosuppressive regulatory T cells and cytotoxic T cells in both the cecal tonsils and the spleen. Birds exhibiting the SFP phenotype possessed lower levels of cecal tonsils regulatory T cells, splenic T helper cells and a lower TRP:(PHE+TYR). Together, these results suggest that bacteria may have beneficial effects on the avian immune response and may be useful therapeutic adjuncts to counteract SFP and plumage damage, thus increasing animal health and welfare.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire Mindus
- Department of Animal Biosciences, Ontario Agricultural College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Nienke van Staaveren
- Department of Animal Biosciences, Ontario Agricultural College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Dietmar Fuchs
- Biocenter, Institute of Biological Chemistry, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Johanna M. Gostner
- Biocenter, Institute of Medical Biochemistry, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Joergen B. Kjaer
- Institute of Animal Welfare and Animal Husbandry, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Celle, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Kunze
- Brain-Body Institute, St. Joseph's Healthcare, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - M. Firoz Mian
- Division of Respirology, Department of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Anna K. Shoveller
- Department of Animal Biosciences, Ontario Agricultural College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Paul Forsythe
- Division of Respirology, Department of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
- Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Alexandra Harlander-Matauschek
- Department of Animal Biosciences, Ontario Agricultural College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
- *Correspondence: Alexandra Harlander-Matauschek
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Fu Y, Hu J, Erasmus MA, Johnson TA, Cheng HW. Effects of early-life cecal microbiota transplantation from divergently selected inbred chicken lines on growth, gut serotonin, and immune parameters in recipient chickens. Poult Sci 2022; 101:101925. [PMID: 35613492 PMCID: PMC9130533 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2022.101925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2022] [Revised: 04/12/2022] [Accepted: 04/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent studies have revealed that fecal microbiota transplantation exerts beneficial effects on modulating stress-related inflammation and gastrointestinal health of the host. The aim of this study was to examine if cecal microbiota transplantation (CMT) presents similar efficiency in improving the health status of egg-laying strain chickens. Chicken lines 63 and 72 divergently selected for resistance or susceptibility to Marek's disease were used as CMT donors. Eighty-four d-old male recipient chicks (a commercial DeKalb XL layer strain) were randomly assigned into 3 treatments with 7 replicates per treatment and 4 birds per replicate (n = 7): saline (control, CTRL), cecal solution of line 63 (63-CMT), and cecal solution of line 72 (72-CMT) for a 16-wk trial. Cecal transplant gavage was conducted once daily from d 1 to d 10, then boosted once weekly from wk 3 to wk 5. The results indicated that 72-CMT birds had the highest body weight and ileal villus/crypt ratio among the treatments at wk 5 (P ≤ 0.05); and higher heterophil/lymphocyte ratios than that of 63-CMT birds at wk 16 (P < 0.05). 72-CMT birds also had higher levels of plasma natural IgG and Interleukin (IL)-6 at wk 16, while 63-CMT birds had higher concentrations of ileal mucosal secretory IgA at wk 5 and plasma IL-10 at wk 16 (P < 0.05), with a tendency for lower mRNA abundance of splenic IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α at wk 16 (P = 0.08 and 0.07, respectively). In addition, 72-CMT birds tended to have the lowest serotonin concentrations (P = 0.07) with the highest serotonin turnover in the ileum at wk 5 (P < 0.05). There were no treatment effects on the levels of plasma corticosterone and testosterone at wk 16 (P > 0.05). In conclusion, early postnatal CMT from different donors led to different patterns of growth and health status through the regulation of ileal morphological structures, gut-derived serotonergic activities, peripheral cytokines, and antibody production in recipient chickens.
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Wei H, Feng Y, Ding S, Nian H, Yu H, Zhao Q, Bao J, Zhang R. Keel bone damage affects behavioral and physiological responses related to stress and fear in two strains of laying hens. J Anim Sci 2022; 100:6547233. [PMID: 35275597 PMCID: PMC9030218 DOI: 10.1093/jas/skac076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2021] [Accepted: 03/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Keel bone damage (KBD) is more prevalent in alternative laying hen housing systems than in conventional cages, and its incidence differs from strain to strain. However, the information of KBD in Lindian chickens, a native Chinese strain, is limited. To investigate the effect of KBD on fearfulness and physiological indicators of stress in Lindian chickens and commercial laying hens, a total of two hundred 25-wk-old chickens (100 Hy-line Brown and 100 Lindian chickens) were studied for 7 wk. The birds were housed in furnished cages with 10 birds per cage for each strain. At 32-wk of age, the birds in each strain were divided into normal (NK), deviated (DK), and fractured (FK) hens according to the keel bone status. Ten birds in each keel bone status per strain were subsequently selected to collect blood for the determination of stress and fear-related indicators, including corticosterone, serotonin, interleukin-1β, and interleukin-6, and measure fear responses, including novel object test (NOT), human approach test (HAT), and tonic immobility (TI) test. The results showed that egg production was lower and the incidence of keel bone fractures was higher in Lindian chickens than in Hy-line Brown hens (P < 0.05). Lindian chickens showed a significantly increased whole blood serotonin content, NOT-latency, HAT-score, and TI induction times (P < 0.05) and decreased serum interleukin-6 content and TI-duration (P < 0.05) compared with Hy-line Brown hens. Additionally, FK hens had significantly elevated whole blood corticosterone, serum interleukin-1β and interleukin-6 levels, TI-duration, and NOT-latency (P < 0.05), and a reduced whole blood serotonin content (P < 0.05) compared with NK and DK hens. Our results indicated that KBD affected stress and fear responses, and this impact was mainly reflected by FK hens compared with NK and DK hens. We suggest that keel bone fractures are the main factor impairing hen welfare. Besides, the incidence of keel bone fractures and stress and fear responses of Lindian chickens are more severe than Hy-line Brown laying hens, indicating that the strain type can affect the health and welfare of laying hens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haidong Wei
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
| | - Yanru Feng
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
| | - Susu Ding
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
| | - Haoyang Nian
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
| | - Hanlin Yu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
| | - Qian Zhao
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
| | - Jun Bao
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China.,Key Laboratory of Chicken Genetics and Breeding, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Harbin 150030, China
| | - Runxiang Zhang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China.,Key Laboratory of Chicken Genetics and Breeding, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Harbin 150030, China
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Leishman EM, van Staaveren N, Osborne VR, Wood BJ, Baes CF, Harlander-Matauschek A. The Prevalence of Integument Injuries and Associated Risk Factors Among Canadian Turkeys. Front Vet Sci 2022; 8:757776. [PMID: 35071378 PMCID: PMC8777054 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.757776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2021] [Accepted: 12/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Injurious pecking can cause a wide range of damage and is an important welfare and economic issue in turkey production. Aggressive pecking typically targets the head/neck (HN) area, and feather pecking typically targets the back/tail (BT) area; injuries in these separate areas could be used as a proxy for the level of aggressive and feather pecking in a flock. The objective of this study was to identify risk factors for integument injuries in Canadian turkey flocks. A survey containing a questionnaire about housing and management practices and a scoring guide was distributed to 500 turkey farmers across Canada. The farmer scored pecking injuries in two different body areas (HN and BT) on a 0-2 scale on a subset of birds within each flock. Multivariable logistic regression modeling was used to identify factors associated with the presence of HN and BT injuries. The prevalence of birds with integument injuries ranged widely between the flock subsets (HN = 0-40%, BT = 0-97%), however the mean prevalence was low (HN = 6%, BT = 10%). The presence of injuries for logistic regression was defined as flocks with an injury prevalence greater than the median level of injury prevalence in the dataset (3.3% HN and 6.6% BT). The final logistic regression model for HN injuries contained five variables: flock sex, flock age, number of daily inspections, number of different people during inspections, and picking up birds during inspections (N = 62, pR2 = 0.23, α = 0.05). The final logistic regression model for BT injuries contained six variables: flock sex, flock age, litter depth, litter condition, inspection duration, and use of hospital pens for sick/injured birds (N = 59, pR2 = 0.29, α = 0.05). Flock age, and to a lesser extent, sex was associated with both types of injuries. From a management perspective, aggressive pecking injuries appear to be influenced by variables related to human interaction, namely during inspections. On the other hand, the presence of feather pecking injuries, was associated with litter condition and other management factors like separating sick birds. Future research on injurious pecking in turkeys should focus on these aspects of housing and management to better describe the relationship between the identified variables and the prevalence and severity of these conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily M. Leishman
- Department of Animal Biosciences, Centre for the Genetic Improvement of Livestock, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Nienke van Staaveren
- Department of Animal Biosciences, Centre for the Genetic Improvement of Livestock, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
- Department of Animal Biosciences, The Campbell Centre for the Study of Animal Welfare, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Vern R. Osborne
- Department of Animal Biosciences, Centre for the Genetic Improvement of Livestock, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
- Department of Animal Biosciences, The Centre for Nutrition Modelling, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Benjamin J. Wood
- Department of Animal Biosciences, Centre for the Genetic Improvement of Livestock, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
- Hybrid Turkeys, Kitchener, ON, Canada
- School of Veterinary Science, University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD, Australia
| | - Christine F. Baes
- Department of Animal Biosciences, Centre for the Genetic Improvement of Livestock, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
- Vetsuisse Faculty, Institute of Genetics, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Alexandra Harlander-Matauschek
- Department of Animal Biosciences, The Campbell Centre for the Study of Animal Welfare, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
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11
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Kaplan G. Casting the Net Widely for Change in Animal Welfare: The Plight of Birds in Zoos, Ex Situ Conservation, and Conservation Fieldwork. Animals (Basel) 2021; 12:ani12010031. [PMID: 35011137 PMCID: PMC8749551 DOI: 10.3390/ani12010031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2021] [Revised: 12/15/2021] [Accepted: 12/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Animal welfare measures have been designed to improve the health and environmental conditions of animals living under human control, for whatever reason. Welfare regulations have evolved also in line with new research insights into the cognitive, affective, and physiological domain of birds, as this paper discusses. This paper casts a critical eye on areas that Animal Welfare regulations have not reached at all, have not gone far enough, or are not regulated or supervised. It identifies the plight of birds living in captivity or being studied in the field, which either by neglect, ignorance, or design are subject to practices and procedures that may not meet basic welfare standards. The paper discusses some profound contradictions in the way we think about birds and their plight in today’s world: marked for extinction on one hand and highly admired as pets on the other; damaging fieldwork on one hand and the aims of conservation on the other. It highlights some common and distressing examples of poor welfare in birds. It also offers some solutions involving simple legislative changes and ways to eliminate some unacceptably low ethical standards in the handling and management of birds. Abstract This paper discusses paradoxes in our relationship to and treatment of birds in captive and conservation contexts. The paper identifies modern and new challenges that arise from declining bird numbers worldwide. Such challenges have partly changed zoos into providers of insurance populations specifically for species at risk of extinction. They have also accelerated fieldwork projects, but by using advanced technological tools and in increasing numbers, contradictorily, they may cause serious harm to the very birds studied for conservation purposes. In practice, very few avian species have any notable protection or guarantee of good treatment. The paper first deals with shortcomings of identifying problematic avian behavior in captive birds. It then brings together specific cases of field studies and captive breeding for conservation in which major welfare deficits are identified. Indeed, the paper argues that avian welfare is now an urgent task. This is not just because of declining bird numbers but because of investment in new technologies in field studies that may have introduced additional stressors and put at risk bird survival. While the paper documents a substantial number of peer-reviewed papers criticizing practices counter to modern welfare standards, they have by and large not led to changes in some practices. Some solutions are suggested that could be readily implemented and, to my knowledge, have never been considered under a welfare model before.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gisela Kaplan
- School of Science and Technology, University of New England, Armidale, NSW 2351, Australia
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12
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Mindus C, van Staaveren N, Fuchs D, Gostner JM, Kjaer JB, Kunze W, Mian MF, Shoveller AK, Forsythe P, Harlander-Matauschek A. L. rhamnosus improves the immune response and tryptophan catabolism in laying hen pullets. Sci Rep 2021; 11:19538. [PMID: 34599202 PMCID: PMC8486881 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-98459-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2021] [Accepted: 08/30/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
In mammals, early-life probiotic supplementation is a promising tool for preventing unfavourable, gut microbiome-related behavioural, immunological, and aromatic amino acid alterations later in life. In laying hens, feather-pecking behaviour is proposed to be a consequence of gut-brain axis dysregulation. Lactobacillus rhamnosus decreases stress-induced severe feather pecking in adult hens, but whether its effect in pullets is more robust is unknown. Consequently, we investigated whether early-life, oral supplementation with a single Lactobacillus rhamnosus strain can prevent stress-induced feather-pecking behaviour in chickens. To this end, we monitored both the short- and long-term effects of the probiotic supplement on behaviour and related physiological parameters. We hypothesized that L. rhamnosus would reduce pecking behaviour by modulating the biological pathways associated with this detrimental behaviour, namely aromatic amino acid turnover linked to neurotransmitter production and stress-related immune responses. We report that stress decreased the proportion of cytotoxic T cells in the tonsils (P = 0.047). Counteracting this T cell depression, birds receiving the L. rhamnosus supplementation significantly increased all T lymphocyte subset proportions (P < 0.05). Both phenotypic and genotypic feather peckers had lower plasma tryptophan concentrations compared to their non-pecking counterparts. The probiotic supplement caused a short-term increase in plasma tryptophan (P < 0.001) and the TRP:(PHE + TYR) ratio (P < 0.001). The administration of stressors did not significantly increase feather pecking in pullets, an observation consistent with the age-dependent onset of pecking behaviour. Despite minimal changes to behaviour, our data demonstrate the impact of L. rhamnosus supplementation on the immune system and the turnover of the serotonin precursor tryptophan. Our findings indicate that L. rhamnosus exerts a transient, beneficial effect on the immune response and tryptophan catabolism in pullets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire Mindus
- grid.34429.380000 0004 1936 8198Department of Animal Biosciences, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Road East, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1 Canada
| | - Nienke van Staaveren
- grid.34429.380000 0004 1936 8198Department of Animal Biosciences, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Road East, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1 Canada
| | - Dietmar Fuchs
- grid.5361.10000 0000 8853 2677Institute of Biological Chemistry, Biocenter, Center for Chemistry and Biomedicine, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Johanna M. Gostner
- grid.5361.10000 0000 8853 2677Institute of Medical Biochemistry, Biocenter, Center for Chemistry and Biomedicine, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Joergen B. Kjaer
- grid.417834.dInstitute of Animal Welfare and Animal Husbandry, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Celle, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Kunze
- grid.25073.330000 0004 1936 8227Brain-Body Institute, St. Joseph’s Healthcare, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1 Canada
| | - M. Firoz Mian
- grid.25073.330000 0004 1936 8227Division of Respirology, Department of Medicine, McMaster University, 50 Charlton Avenue East, Hamilton, ON L8N 4A6 Canada
| | - Anna K. Shoveller
- grid.34429.380000 0004 1936 8198Department of Animal Biosciences, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Road East, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1 Canada
| | - Paul Forsythe
- grid.25073.330000 0004 1936 8227Division of Respirology, Department of Medicine, McMaster University, 50 Charlton Avenue East, Hamilton, ON L8N 4A6 Canada
| | - Alexandra Harlander-Matauschek
- grid.34429.380000 0004 1936 8198Department of Animal Biosciences, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Road East, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1 Canada
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13
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Huang C, Chen Y, Yue Q, Hao E, Wang D, Zhou R, Zhao G, Chen H. Effect of in ovo injection of serotonin on the behavior and hormone level in laying hens. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2021; 310:113824. [PMID: 34048728 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2021.113824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2020] [Revised: 05/18/2021] [Accepted: 05/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Feather pecking is a typically abnormal behavior that significantly impacts breeding efficiency and animal welfare in the egg production sector. Serotonin (5-HT) is essential for neuronal development and behavioral regulation. This study evaluated the effects of birds' behavioral development (including feather pecking) and changes in serum hormones in chickens followed in ovo injection of 5-HT. On day 11, incubated eggs were injected with 5-HT at 0 (saline control), 5 ug (low) or 15 ug (high) (n = 166 per treatment). The hatched female chicks were raised under similar conditions up to 20 weeks of age (n = 60 per treatment). Birds' behaviors were recorded using a digital video recording system. The time to first vocalize and first move, along with the duration of vocalization and escape attempts during the isolation test, during isolation test were analyzed on day 1, and week 4, 8, 12, 16 and 20. Blood samples were collected followed behavioral tests (n = 5/treatment). The expression of 5-HTR1A genes in the hypothalamus was measured by real-time PCR. Compared to controls, 5-HT administrated pullets had greater body weight (P < 0.05) with an improved feed conversion rate (P < 0.05) as well as higher serum concentrations of norepinephrine (NE) regardless of their doses. In addition, serum dopamine (DA) concentrations were lower in both high- and low-dose pullets at 8 and 12 weeks of age (P < 0.05). Also, a decrease in fearfulness response was observed based on the test to vocalize and duration of vocalization (P < 0.05). Further, this exhibited a lesser frequency of total aggressive behavior compared with the chicks in the control group, especially at 8 weeks of age (P < 0.05), where it is associated with elevated serum 5-HT concentration and upregulated hypothalamic expression of 5-HTR1A (P < 0.05). The changes of these hormone concentrations and gene expressions suggested that 5-HT accumulation in early embryonic stages may alter both the adrenergic and serotonergic systems, which could further regulate the isolation behavior and improve birds' growth performance to a certain extent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenxuan Huang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, Hebei 071001, China
| | - Yifan Chen
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, Hebei 071001, China
| | - Qiaoxian Yue
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, Hebei 071001, China
| | - Erying Hao
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, Hebei 071001, China
| | - Dehe Wang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, Hebei 071001, China
| | - Rongyan Zhou
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, Hebei 071001, China
| | - Guoxian Zhao
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, Hebei 071001, China.
| | - Hui Chen
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, Hebei 071001, China.
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14
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Campbell DL, Whitten JM, Slater E, Lee C. Rearing enrichments differentially modified hen personality traits and reduced prediction of range use. Anim Behav 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2021.06.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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15
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Mindus C, van Staaveren N, Bharwani A, Fuchs D, Gostner JM, Kjaer JB, Kunze W, Mian MF, Shoveller AK, Forsythe P, Harlander-Matauschek A. Ingestion of Lactobacillus rhamnosus modulates chronic stress-induced feather pecking in chickens. Sci Rep 2021; 11:17119. [PMID: 34429482 PMCID: PMC8384842 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-96615-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2021] [Accepted: 08/10/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Feather pecking (FP) is a stress-induced neuropsychological disorder of birds. Intestinal dysbiosis and inflammation are common traits of these disorders. FP is, therefore, proposed to be a behavioral consequence of dysregulated communication between the gut and the brain. Probiotic bacteria are known to favorably modulate the gut microbiome and hence the neurochemical and immune components of the gut-brain axis. Consequently, probiotic supplementation represents a promising new therapeutic to mitigate widespread FP in domestic chickens. We monitored FP, gut microbiota composition, immune markers, and amino acids related to the production of neurochemicals in chickens supplemented with Lactobacillus rhamnosus or a placebo. Data demonstrate that, when stressed, the incidence of FP increased significantly; however, L. rhamnosus prevented this increase. L. rhamnosus supplementation showed a strong immunological effect by increasing the regulatory T cell population of the spleen and the cecal tonsils, in addition to limiting cecal microbiota dysbiosis. Despite minimal changes in aromatic amino acid levels, data suggest that catecholaminergic circuits may be an interesting target for further studies. Overall, our findings provide the first data supporting the use of a single-strain probiotic to reduce stress-induced FP in chickens and promise to improve domestic birds' welfare.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire Mindus
- Department of Animal Biosciences, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Road East, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Nienke van Staaveren
- Department of Animal Biosciences, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Road East, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Aadil Bharwani
- Michael G. DeGroote School of Medicine, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON, L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Dietmar Fuchs
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Biocenter, Center for Chemistry and Biomedicine, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Johanna M Gostner
- Institute of Medical Biochemistry, Biocenter, Center for Chemistry and Biomedicine, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Joergen B Kjaer
- Institute of Animal Welfare and Animal Husbandry, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Celle, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Kunze
- Brain-Body Institute, St. Joseph's Healthcare, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON, L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - M Firoz Mian
- Division of Respirology, Department of Medicine, McMaster University, 50 Charlton Avenue East, Hamilton, ON, L8N 4A6, Canada
| | - Anna K Shoveller
- Department of Animal Biosciences, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Road East, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Paul Forsythe
- Division of Respirology, Department of Medicine, McMaster University, 50 Charlton Avenue East, Hamilton, ON, L8N 4A6, Canada
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16
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Yoshidome K, Fukano N, Ouchi Y, Tomonaga S, Cockrem JF, Bungo T. The use of behavioral tests of fearfulness in chicks to distinguish between the Japanese native chicken breeds, Tosa-Kukin and Yakido. Anim Sci J 2021; 92:e13507. [PMID: 33398886 DOI: 10.1111/asj.13507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2020] [Revised: 10/19/2020] [Accepted: 12/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate the differences in fearfulness between two Japanese native chicken breeds, Tosa-Kukin (TOK) and Yakido (YKD). In a tonic immobility test, TOK breed chicks showed longer duration and lower induction number compared with YKD. The number of peeps in YKD in an isolation test was lower than that in TOK, whereas there were more bouts of peeping in YKD than in TOK. In a manual restraint test, YKD showed more active responses and initiated peeps and struggling earlier than TOK. The three behavioral tests all indicated that YKD are less fearful than TOK chickens. A latent structures discriminant (OPLS-DA) analysis was used to identify behavioral parameters that contributed to the differences between the breeds. The major parameters were duration and number of inductions in the tonic immobility test and number of struggle in the manual restraint test. These results suggest that three behavioral tests can be used together to evaluate fearfulness of Japanese native breeds of chickens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koichi Yoshidome
- Graduate School of Biosphere Science, Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Natsuki Fukano
- Graduate School of Biosphere Science, Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Yoshimitsu Ouchi
- Graduate School of Integrated Sciences for Life, Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Shozo Tomonaga
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - John F Cockrem
- School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Takashi Bungo
- Graduate School of Integrated Sciences for Life, Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima, Japan
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17
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Ferreira VHB, Guesdon V, Calandreau L. How can the research on chicken cognition improve chicken welfare: a perspective review. WORLD POULTRY SCI J 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/00439339.2021.1924920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- V. H. B. Ferreira
- JUNIA, Comportement Animal et Systèmes d’Elevage, Lille Cedex, France
| | - V. Guesdon
- JUNIA, Comportement Animal et Systèmes d’Elevage, Lille Cedex, France
| | - L. Calandreau
- CNRS, IFCE, INRAE, Université de Tours, PRC, Nouzilly, France
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18
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Mahmoud UT, Mahmoud MA, Abd-Elkareem M, Ahmed FA, Khalil NSA. Prebiotics reduce feather pecking behavior, and improve trace element profile and redox balance in Mule ducks. J Vet Behav 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jveb.2021.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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19
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High and low feather pecking selection lines of laying hens differ in response to a judgment bias test. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2021.105305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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20
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Rieke L, Spindler B, Zylka I, Kemper N, Giersberg MF. Pecking Behavior in Conventional Layer Hybrids and Dual-Purpose Hens Throughout the Laying Period. Front Vet Sci 2021; 8:660400. [PMID: 33969040 PMCID: PMC8102775 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.660400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 03/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
To avoid the killing of surplus male layer chickens, dual-purpose hybrids are suggested as an alternative approach. These strains may offer additional advantages compared to conventional laying hens, for instance, a lower tendency to develop injurious pecking behavior. The aim of this study was to assess the behavior, with focus on pecking behavior, of conventional layers (Lohmann Brown plus, LB+) and dual-purpose hens (Lohmann Dual, LD). About 1,845 hens per strain with intact beaks were housed in four stable compartments in aviary systems. Video-based scan sampling of general behaviors and continuous observations of pecking behavior were carried out between 25 and 69 weeks of life. With the exception of "dustbathing" and "scratching," hybrid × time during the laying period affected all of the observed general behaviors [F (2, 89) = 3.92-10.81, P < 0.001-0.05]. With increasing age, the LB+ hens performed more general pecking, more locomotion and less comfort and sitting behavior. General pecking and comfort behavior did not change over time in the LD hens, whereas inactive behaviors increased with age. During continuous observations, a significant hybrid x period interaction was found for all forms of pecking behavior [F (2, 89) = 4.55-14.80, P < 0.001-0.05]. The LB+ hens showed particularly more severe feather pecking (SFP), which increased with age. In contrast, SFP remained exceptionally low in the LD hens throughout production. Therefore, dual-purpose hybrids should be considered as an alternative to both avoid the killing of surplus male chickens and the development of SFP in laying hen production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorena Rieke
- Institute for Animal Hygiene, Animal Welfare and Farm Animal Behavior, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Hanover, Germany
| | - Birgit Spindler
- Institute for Animal Hygiene, Animal Welfare and Farm Animal Behavior, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Hanover, Germany
| | - Isabel Zylka
- Institute for Animal Hygiene, Animal Welfare and Farm Animal Behavior, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Hanover, Germany
| | - Nicole Kemper
- Institute for Animal Hygiene, Animal Welfare and Farm Animal Behavior, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Hanover, Germany
| | - Mona Franziska Giersberg
- Animals in Science and Society, Department Population Health Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
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21
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Cronin GM, Glatz PC. Causes of feather pecking and subsequent welfare issues for the laying hen: a review. ANIMAL PRODUCTION SCIENCE 2021. [DOI: 10.1071/an19628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
When feather-pecking behaviour by hens becomes repetitive, plumage damage often results for the recipient of the pecks. The forceful removal of feathers and vigorous pecks directed at the skin may also cause pain, fear and even wounds. ‘Outbreaks’ of pecking behaviour have been reported in all housing systems in which poultry are managed. Pecking may progress to cannibalism and death, thus constituting significant hen welfare and farm economy problems. Farmers apply preventative management practices to minimise the risk of outbreaks. However, outbreaks are unpredictable and, once in progress, are difficult to control, especially in non-cage housing systems. For more than a century, research has been directed at trying to identify the causal factors underlying this problem, without success. The problem is multi-factorial and different studies often identify contradictory findings, such as, for example, in relation to the effects of adding forage to increase environmental enrichment, among others. The present review aims to provide background information about severe feather-pecking behaviour in laying hens, with mention of the resultant issues from repeated performance, such as, for example, on feather cover over the life of the laying hen. On-farm surveys, epidemiological studies and experimental trials have generated much information that has improved our general understanding of the significance of the problem, even though studies have typically been inconclusive due to its multi-factorial causes. While ‘Good Practice Guides’ are available and provide relevant advice for farmers to manage flocks to minimise the risk of outbreaks, we suggest significant progress towards identifying the root-cause(s) of the problem will more likely be achieved through controlled experimental trials using research models than through survey approaches. For example, using a stress-induction model, researchers should first focus on the impact of cumulative stressors in the flock that seem to predispose a hen to either become a feather pecker, or be the victim of pecking. Subsequent research should then investigate the affected hens for altered behavioural or (neuro-) physiological states, or physical stimuli on the skin and feathers, that may increase the motivation of hens to become feather peckers.
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Glatz PC, Underwood G. Current methods and techniques of beak trimming laying hens, welfare issues and alternative approaches. ANIMAL PRODUCTION SCIENCE 2021. [DOI: 10.1071/an19673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Beak trimming is used in the egg industry to prevent mortality from cannibalism and minimise injurious pecking, vent pecking, aggressive pecking at the head and all forms of feather pecking, although the practice does not completely reduce the damage. There are alternatives to beak trimming, but they have not been reliable in preventing injurious pecking. However, beak trimming should not be used without providing birds enriched indoor and outdoor environments. Even when birds are beak trimmed, providing enriched facilities is recommended. The two main methods of beak trimming are hot blade (HB) and infrared beak treatment (IRBT). HB trimming removes the beak tips and cauterises the beak stump. The IRBT method uses heat from an infrared lamp to treat the outer beak and the underlying tissue. Initially, the tips of the beak remain intact and then soften and wear as the bird uses its beak. In contrast, the HB method results in an open wound that takes 3 weeks to heal. Two major welfare issues arise from beak trimming. The first is loss of sensory input because of removal of or heat treatment of sensory receptors in the beak. The second issue is the potential for acute and chronic pain from severing or heat treatment of nerves. HB trimming initially results in acute pain but there is limited evidence for beak sensitivity in IRBT birds. The development of neuromas in the beak have been implicated as a cause of chronic pain after HB trimming. When birds are HB trimmed (one-half of upper beak; one-third of lower) in the first 10 days of life, neuromas will develop, but they will resolve, compared with birds trimmed at older ages. However, neuromas will not resolve in 10-day old birds if more than one-half of the beak is HB trimmed. While HB trimming is performed according to accreditation standards by removal of one-half the upper beak and one-third of the lower beak is considered excessive, it prevents beak regrowth and the need to subject birds to re-trimming and a second bout of acute pain from the beak wound. Current levels of IRBT to treat half of the beak using the vendors quality-assurance protocol have been implemented worldwide to ensure that neuroma formation is prevented; however, if severe levels of IRBT are used, acute pain and subsequent neuromas may persist. The main impact of beak trimming is how the bird uses its beak when it eats, drinks and pecks at other birds and the environment. Reduced feed intake after HB trimming indicates pain associated with pecking or difficulty in eating. HB-trimmed birds initially show an increase in listlessness and guarding behaviours and increased inactivity, which indicates pain. IRBT and HB-trimmed birds have fewer aggressive pecks at the head, and there is a reduction in severe feather pecking and better feather scores, which results in a large reduction in mortality. Depending on the severity of IRBT and HB trimming, the advantage of using IRBT is improved welfare.
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Chenxuan H, Qiaoxian Y, Yifan C, Dehe W, Rongyan Z, Guoxian Z, Hui C. Effects of in ovo injection of serotonin on behavior and hypothalamic genes expression in post hatch-chicks. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2020.105176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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24
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Reyneveld GIJ, Savelkoul HFJ, Parmentier HK. Current Understanding of Natural Antibodies and Exploring the Possibilities of Modulation Using Veterinary Models. A Review. Front Immunol 2020; 11:2139. [PMID: 33013904 PMCID: PMC7511776 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.02139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2020] [Accepted: 08/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural antibodies (NAb) are defined as germline encoded immunoglobulins found in individuals without (known) prior antigenic experience. NAb bind exogenous (e.g., bacterial) and self-components and have been found in every vertebrate species tested. NAb likely act as a first-line immune defense against infections. A large part of NAb, so called natural autoantibodies (NAAb) bind to and clear (self) neo-epitopes, apoptotic, and necrotic cells. Such self-binding antibodies cannot, however, be considered as pathogenic autoantibodies in the classical sense. IgM and IgG NAb and NAAb and their implications in health and disease are relatively well-described in humans and mice. NAb are present in veterinary (and wildlife) species, but their relation with diseases and disorders in veterinary species are much less known. Also, there is little known of IgA NAb. IgA is the most abundant immunoglobulin with essential pro-inflammatory and homeostatic properties urging for more research on the importance of IgA NAb. Since NAb in humans were indicated to fulfill important functions in health and disease, their role in health of veterinary species should be investigated more often. Furthermore, it is unknown whether levels of NAb-isotypes and/or idiotypes can and should be modulated. Veterinary species as models of choice fill in a niche between mice and (non-human) primates, and the study of NAb in veterinary species may provide valuable new insights that will likely improve health management. Below, examples of the involvement of NAb in several diseases in mostly humans are shown. Possibilities of intravenous immunoglobulin administration, targeted immunotherapy, immunization, diet, and genetic modulation are discussed, all of which could be well-studied using animal models. Arguments are given why veterinary immunology should obtain inspiration from human studies and why human immunology would benefit from veterinary models. Within the One Health concept, findings from veterinary (and wildlife) studies can be related to human studies and vice versa so that both fields will mutually benefit. This will lead to a better understanding of NAb: their origin, activation mechanisms, and their implications in health and disease, and will lead to novel health management strategies for both human and veterinary species.
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Affiliation(s)
- G IJsbrand Reyneveld
- Faculty of Science, VU University, Amsterdam, Netherlands.,Adaptation Physiology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Huub F J Savelkoul
- Cell Biology and Immunology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Henk K Parmentier
- Adaptation Physiology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University, Wageningen, Netherlands
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van der Eijk JAJ, de Vries H, Kjaer JB, Naguib M, Kemp B, Smidt H, Rodenburg TB, Lammers A. Differences in gut microbiota composition of laying hen lines divergently selected on feather pecking. Poult Sci 2020; 98:7009-7021. [PMID: 31226709 PMCID: PMC6869756 DOI: 10.3382/ps/pez336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2018] [Accepted: 05/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Feather pecking (FP), a damaging behavior where laying hens peck and pull at feathers of conspecifics, is multifactorial and has been linked to numerous behavioral and physiological characteristics. The gut microbiota has been shown to influence host behavior and physiology in many species, and could therefore affect the development of damaging behaviors, such as FP. Yet, it is unknown whether FP genotypes (high FP [HFP] and low FP [LFP] lines) or FP phenotypes (i.e., individuals differing in FP, feather peckers and neutrals) differ in their gut microbiota composition. Therefore, we identified mucosa-associated microbiota composition of the ileum and cecum at 10 and 30 wk of age. At 30 wk of age, we further identified luminal microbiota composition from combined content of the ileum, ceca, and colon. FP phenotypes could not be distinguished from each other in mucosa-associated or luminal microbiota composition. However, HFP neutrals were characterized by a higher relative abundance of genera of Clostridiales, but lower relative abundance of Lactobacillus for the luminal microbiota composition compared to LFP phenotypes. Furthermore, HFP neutrals had a higher diversity and evenness for the luminal microbiota compared to LFP phenotypes. FP genotypes could not be distinguished from each other in mucosa-associated microbiota composition. Yet, FP genotypes could be distinguished from each other in luminal microbiota composition. HFP birds were characterized by a higher relative abundance of genera of Clostridiales, but lower relative abundance of Staphylococcus and Lactobacillus compared to LFP birds. Furthermore, HFP birds had a higher diversity and evenness for both cecal mucosa-associated and luminal microbiota compared to LFP birds at adult age. In conclusion, we here show that divergent selection on FP can (in)directly affect luminal microbiota composition. Whether differences in microbiota composition are causal to FP or a consequence of FP remains to be elucidated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerine A J van der Eijk
- Behavioural Ecology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University & Research, 6708 WD Wageningen, the Netherlands.,Adaptation Physiology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University & Research, 6708 WD Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Hugo de Vries
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Wageningen University & Research, 6708 WE Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Joergen B Kjaer
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Animal Welfare and Animal Husbandry, 29223 Celle, Germany
| | - Marc Naguib
- Behavioural Ecology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University & Research, 6708 WD Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Bas Kemp
- Adaptation Physiology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University & Research, 6708 WD Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Hauke Smidt
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Wageningen University & Research, 6708 WE Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - T Bas Rodenburg
- Behavioural Ecology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University & Research, 6708 WD Wageningen, the Netherlands.,Adaptation Physiology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University & Research, 6708 WD Wageningen, the Netherlands.,Department of Animals in Science and Society, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, 3584 CL Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Aart Lammers
- Adaptation Physiology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University & Research, 6708 WD Wageningen, the Netherlands
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26
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Campbell DL, Gerber PF, Downing JA, Lee C. Minimal Effects of Rearing Enrichments on Pullet Behaviour and Welfare. Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:E314. [PMID: 32085379 PMCID: PMC7070349 DOI: 10.3390/ani10020314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2020] [Revised: 02/07/2020] [Accepted: 02/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
In Australia, free-range pullets are typically reared indoors, which may hinder later adjustment to outdoor access. Rearing enrichments could optimise pullet development. Hy-Line Brown® chicks (n = 1700) were reared indoors across 16 weeks with 3 enrichment treatments: (1) a standard control; (2) novel objects (novelty) provided weekly or (3) perching structures (structural) provided. All pullets were weighed at 5, 8, 12, and 16 weeks old. Pullets (n = 87) were tested in a novel arena at 9 weeks and manual restraint (n = 90) at 16 weeks. At 15 weeks, lymphoid organs were extracted and weighed from 90 pullets. Pullets were transferred to the free-range facility at 16 weeks and housed in 9 identical pens within rearing treatments. Hens perching were counted via video recordings across the first week. The structural pullets had the highest relative adrenal weights (p = 0.03) but differences may not have been biologically relevant. Structural hens perched less than the novelty hens in the layer facility (p = 0.02). There were no other consistent rearing treatment differences. The rearing environments had minimal effects on pullet behaviour and welfare, but data from the adult hens did show some longer-term welfare impacts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dana L.M. Campbell
- Agriculture and Food, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Armidale, NSW 2350, Australia;
| | - Priscilla F. Gerber
- School of Environmental and Rural Science, University of New England, Armidale, NSW 2351, Australia;
| | - Jeff A. Downing
- School of Life and Environmental Science, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia;
| | - Caroline Lee
- Agriculture and Food, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Armidale, NSW 2350, Australia;
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27
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van der Eijk JAJ, Rodenburg TB, de Vries H, Kjaer JB, Smidt H, Naguib M, Kemp B, Lammers A. Early-life microbiota transplantation affects behavioural responses, serotonin and immune characteristics in chicken lines divergently selected on feather pecking. Sci Rep 2020; 10:2750. [PMID: 32066789 PMCID: PMC7026165 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-59125-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2019] [Accepted: 01/17/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Gut microbiota influences host behaviour and physiology, such as anxiety, stress, serotonergic and immune systems. These behavioural and physiological characteristics are related to feather pecking (FP), a damaging behaviour in chickens that reduces animal welfare and productivity. Moreover, high FP (HFP) and low FP (LFP) lines differed in microbiota composition. However, it is unknown whether microbiota can influence the development of FP. For the first time, we identified the effects of microbiota transplantation on FP, and behavioural and physiological characteristics related to FP. HFP and LFP chicks received sterile saline (control), HFP or LFP microbiota transplantation during the first two weeks post-hatch. Microbiota transplantation influenced behavioural responses of the HFP line during treatment and of the LFP line after treatment. In both lines, homologous microbiota transplantation (i.e., receiving microbiota from their line) resulted in more active behavioural responses. Furthermore, microbiota transplantation influenced immune characteristics (natural antibodies) in both lines and peripheral serotonin in the LFP line. However, limited effects on microbiota composition, stress response (corticosterone) and FP were noted. Thus, early-life microbiota transplantation had immediate and long-term effects on behavioural responses and long-term effects on immune characteristics and peripheral serotonin; however, the effects were dependent on host genotype. Since early-life microbiota transplantation influenced behavioural and physiological characteristics that are related to FP, it could thus influence the development of FP later in life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerine A J van der Eijk
- Behavioural Ecology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands.
- Adaptation Physiology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands.
| | - T Bas Rodenburg
- Adaptation Physiology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
- Department of Animals in Science and Society, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Hugo de Vries
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Joergen B Kjaer
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute of Animal Welfare and Animal Husbandry, Celle, Germany
| | - Hauke Smidt
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Marc Naguib
- Behavioural Ecology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Bas Kemp
- Adaptation Physiology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Aart Lammers
- Adaptation Physiology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
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28
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van der Eijk JAJ, Verwoolde MB, de Vries Reilingh G, Jansen CA, Rodenburg TB, Lammers A. Chicken lines divergently selected on feather pecking differ in immune characteristics. Physiol Behav 2019; 212:112680. [PMID: 31518579 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2019.112680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2019] [Revised: 07/19/2019] [Accepted: 09/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
It is crucial to identify whether relations between immune characteristics and damaging behaviors in production animals exist, as these behaviors reduce animal welfare and productivity. Feather pecking (FP) is a damaging behavior in chickens, which involves hens pecking and pulling at feathers of conspecifics. To further identify relationships between the immune system and FP we characterized high FP (HFP) and low FP (LFP) selection lines with regard to nitric oxide (NO) production by monocytes, specific antibody (SpAb) titers, natural (auto)antibody (N(A)Ab) titers and immune cell subsets. NO production by monocytes was measured as indicator for innate pro-inflammatory immune functioning, SpAb titers were measured as part of the adaptive immune system and N(A)Ab titers were measured as they play an essential role in both innate and adaptive immunity. Immune cell subsets were measured to identify whether differences in immune characteristics were reflected by differences in the relative abundance of immune cell subsets. Divergent selection on FP affected NO production by monocytes, SpAb and N(A)Ab titers, but did not affect immune cell subsets. The HFP line showed higher NO production by monocytes and higher IgG N(A)Ab titers compared to the LFP line. Furthermore the HFP line tended to have lower IgM NAAb titers, but higher IgM and IgG SpAb titers compared to the LFP line. Thus, divergent selection on FP affects the innate and adaptive immune system, where the HFP line seems to have a more responsive immune system compared to the LFP line. Although causation cannot be established in the present study, it is clear that relationships between the immune system and FP exist. Therefore, it is important to take these relationships into account when selecting on behavioral or immunological traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerine A J van der Eijk
- Behavioural Ecology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands; Adaptation Physiology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands.
| | - Michel B Verwoolde
- Adaptation Physiology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands; Animal Nutrition Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Ger de Vries Reilingh
- Adaptation Physiology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Christine A Jansen
- Avian Immunology Group, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - T Bas Rodenburg
- Behavioural Ecology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands; Adaptation Physiology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands; Department of Animals in Science and Society, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Aart Lammers
- Adaptation Physiology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
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