Increase in BrAO1 gene expression and aldehyde oxidase activity during clubroot development in Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa L.)

Plasmodiophora brassicae affects host gene expression by secreting the transcription factor-type effector PbZFE1

The protist pathogen Plasmodiophora brassicae hijacks the metabolism and development of host cruciferous plants and induces clubroot formation, but little is known about its regulatory mechanisms. Previously, the Pnit2int2 sequence, a sequence around the second intron of the nitrilase gene (BrNIT2) involved in auxin biosynthesis in Brassica rapa ssp. pekinensis, was identified as a specific promoter activated during clubroot formation. In this study, we hypothesized that analysis of the transcriptional regulation of Pnit2int2 could reveal how P. brassicae affects the host gene regulatory system during clubroot development. By yeast one-hybrid screening, the pathogen zinc finger protein PbZFE1 was identified to specifically bind to Pnit2int2. Specific binding of PbZFE1 to Pnit2int2 was also confirmed by electrophoretic mobility shift assay. The binding site of PbZFE1 is essential for promoter activity of Pnit2int2 in clubbed roots of transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana (Pnit2int2-2::GUS), indicating that PbZFE1 is secreted from P. brassicae and functions within plant cells. Ectopic expression of PbZEF1 in A. thaliana delayed growth and flowering time, suggesting that PbZFE1 has significant impacts on host development and metabolic systems. Thus, P. brassicae appears to secrete PbZFE1 into host cells as a transcription factor-type effector during pathogenesis.

The Role of a Cytokinin Antagonist in the Progression of Clubroot Disease

Plasmodiophora brassicae is an obligate biotrophic pathogen causing clubroot disease in cruciferous plants. Infected plant organs are subject to profound morphological changes, the roots form characteristic galls, and the leaves are chlorotic and abscise. The process of gall formation is governed by timely changes in the levels of endogenous plant hormones that occur throughout the entire life cycle of the clubroot pathogen. The homeostasis of two plant hormones, cytokinin and auxin, appears to be crucial for club development. To investigate the role of cytokinin and auxin in gall formation, we used metabolomic and transcriptomic profiling of Arabidopsis thaliana infected with clubroot, focusing on the late stages of the disease, where symptoms were more pronounced. Loss-of-function mutants of three cytokinin receptors, AHK2, AHK3, and CRE1/AHK4, were employed to further study the homeostasis of cytokinin in response to disease progression; ahk double mutants developed characteristic symptoms of the disease, albeit with varying intensity. The most susceptible to clubroot disease was the ahk3 ahk4 double mutant, as revealed by measuring its photosynthetic performance. Quantification of phytohormone levels and pharmacological treatment with the cytokinin antagonist PI-55 showed significant changes in the levels of endogenous cytokinin and auxin, which was manifested by both enhanced and reduced development of disease symptoms in different genotypes.

Multi-Omics Approaches to Improve Clubroot Resistance in Brassica with a Special Focus on Brassica oleracea L

Brassica oleracea is an agronomically important species of the Brassicaceae family, including several nutrient-rich vegetables grown and consumed across the continents. But its sustainability is heavily constrained by a range of destructive pathogens, among which, clubroot disease, caused by a biotrophic protist Plasmodiophora brassicae, has caused significant yield and economic losses worldwide, thereby threatening global food security. To counter the pathogen attack, it demands a better understanding of the complex phenomenon of Brassica-P. brassicae pathosystem at the physiological, biochemical, molecular, and cellular levels. In recent years, multiple omics technologies with high-throughput techniques have emerged as successful in elucidating the responses to biotic and abiotic stresses. In Brassica spp., omics technologies such as genomics, transcriptomics, ncRNAomics, proteomics, and metabolomics are well documented, allowing us to gain insights into the dynamic changes that transpired during host-pathogen interactions at a deeper level. So, it is critical that we must review the recent advances in omics approaches and discuss how the current knowledge in multi-omics technologies has been able to breed high-quality clubroot-resistant B. oleracea. This review highlights the recent advances made in utilizing various omics approaches to understand the host resistance mechanisms adopted by Brassica crops in response to the P. brassicae attack. Finally, we have discussed the bottlenecks and the way forward to overcome the persisting knowledge gaps in delivering solutions to breed clubroot-resistant Brassica crops in a holistic, targeted, and precise way.

Review: Isoprenoid and aromatic cytokinins in shoot branching

Shoot branching is an important event of plant development that defines growth and reproduction. The BRANCHED1 gene (BRC1/TB1/FC1) is crucial for this process. Within the phytohormones, cytokinins directly activate axillary buds to promote shoot branching. In addition, strigolactones and auxins inhibit bud outgrowth. This review addresses the involvement of aromatic and isoprenoid cytokinins in shoot branching. And how auxins and strigolactones contribute to regulating this process also. The results obtained by others and our working group with lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) show that cytokinins affect both shoot and root apical meristem development, consistent with other plant species. However, many questions remain about how cytokinins and strigolactones antagonistically regulate BRC1 gene expression. Additionally, many details of the interaction among cytokinins, auxins, and strigolactones need to be clarified. We will gain a more comprehensive scheme of bud outgrowth with these details.

Root Transcriptome and Metabolome Profiling Reveal Key Phytohormone-Related Genes and Pathways Involved Clubroot Resistance in Brassica rapa L

Plasmodiophora brassicae, an obligate biotrophic pathogen-causing clubroot disease, can seriously affect Brassica crops worldwide, especially Chinese cabbage. Understanding the transcriptome and metabolome profiling changes during the infection of P. brassicae will provide key insights in understanding the defense mechanism in Brassica crops. In this study, we estimated the phytohormones using targeted metabolome assays and transcriptomic changes using RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) in the roots of resistant (BrT24) and susceptible (Y510-9) plants at 0, 3, 9, and 20 days after inoculation (DAI) with P. brassicae. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in resistant vs. susceptible lines across different time points were identified. The weighted gene co-expression network analysis of the DEGs revealed six pathways including "Plant-pathogen interaction" and "Plant hormone signal transduction" and 15 hub genes including pathogenic type III effector avirulence factor gene (RIN4) and auxin-responsive protein (IAA16) to be involved in plants immune response. Inhibition of Indoleacetic acid, cytokinin, jasmonate acid, and salicylic acid contents and changes in related gene expression in R-line may play important roles in regulation of clubroot resistance (CR). Based on the combined metabolome profiling and hormone-related transcriptomic responses, we propose a general model of hormone-mediated defense mechanism. This study definitely enhances our current understanding and paves the way for improving CR in Brassica rapa.

Expression and Role of Response Regulating, Biosynthetic and Degrading Genes for Cytokinin Signaling during Clubroot Disease Development

The obligate biotroph Plasmodiophora brassicae causes clubroot disease in oilseeds and vegetables of the Brassicaceae family, and cytokinins play a vital role in clubroot formation. In this study, we examined the expression patterns of 17 cytokinin-related genes involved in the biosynthesis, signaling, and degradation in Chinese cabbage inoculated with the Korean pathotype group 4 isolate of P. brassicae, Seosan. This isolate produced the most severe clubroot symptoms in Chinese cabbage cultivar “Bullam-3-ho” compared to three other Korean geographical isolates investigated. BrIPT1, a cytokinin biosynthesis gene, was induced on Day 1 and Day 28 in infected root tissues and the upregulation of this biosynthetic gene coincided with the higher expression of the response regulators BrRR1, on both Days and BrRR6 on Day 1 and 3. BrRR3 and 4 genes were also induced during gall enlargement on Day 35 in leaf tissues. The BrRR4 gene, which positively interact with phytochrome B, was consistently induced in leaf tissues on Day 1, 3, and 14 in the inoculated plants. The cytokinin degrading gene BrCKX3-6 were induced on Day 14, before gall initiation. BrCKX2,3,6 were induced until Day 28 and their expression was downregulated on Day 35. This insight improves our current understanding of the role of cytokinin signaling genes in clubroot disease development.

Hormonal Responses to Plasmodiophora brassicae Infection in Brassica napus Cultivars Differing in Their Pathogen Resistance

Hormonal dynamics after Plasmodiophora brassicae infection were compared in two Brassica napus cultivars-more resistant SY Alister and more sensitive Hornet, in order to elucidate responses associated with efficient defense. Both cultivars responded to infection by the early transient elevation of active cytokinins (predominantly cis-zeatin) and auxin indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) in leaves and roots, which was longer in Hornet. Moderate IAA levels in Hornet roots coincided with a high expression of biosynthetic gene nitrilase NIT1 (contrary to TAA1, YUC8, YUC9). Alister had a higher basal level of salicylic acid (SA), and it stimulated its production (via the expression of isochorismate synthase (ICS1)) in roots earlier than Hornet. Gall formation stimulated cytokinin, auxin, and SA levels-with a maximum 22 days after inoculation (dai). SA marker gene PR1 expression was the most profound at the time point where gall formation began, in leaves, roots, and especially in galls. Jasmonic acid (JA) was higher in Hornet than in Alister during the whole experiment. To investigate SA and JA function, SA was applied before infection, and twice (before infection and 15 dai), and JA at 15 dai. Double SA application diminished gall formation in Alister, and JA promoted gall formation in both cultivars. Activation of SA/JA pathways reflects the main differences in clubroot resistance.

Auxin synthesis gene tms1 driven by tuber-specific promoter alters hormonal status of transgenic potato plants and their responses to exogenous phytohormones

Ectopic auxin overproduction in transgenic potato leads to enhanced productivity accompanied with concerted and occasional changes in hormonal status, and causing altered response of transformants to exogenous auxin or cytokinin. Previously, we generated potato transformants expressing Agrobacterium-derived auxin synthesis gene tms1 driven by tuber-specific patatin gene promoter (B33-promoter). Here, we studied the endogenous hormonal status and the response to exogenous phytohormones in tms1 transformants cultured in vitro. Adding indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) or kinetin to culture medium affected differently tuberization of tms1-transformed and control plants, depending also on sucrose content in the medium. Exogenous phytohormones ceased to stimulate the tuber initiation in transformants at high (5-8%) sucrose concentration, while in control plants the stimulation was observed in all experimental settings. Furthermore, exogenous auxin partly inhibited the tuber initiation, and exogenous cytokinin reduced the average tuber weight in most transformants at high sucrose content. The elevated auxin level in tubers of the transformants was accompanied with a decrease in content of cytokinin bases and their ribosides in tubers and most shoots. No concerted changes in contents of abscisic, jasmonic, salicylic acids and gibberellins in tubers were detected. The data on hormonal status indicated that the enhanced productivity of tms1 transformants was due to auxin and not mediated by other phytohormones. In addition, exogenous cytokinin was shown to upregulate the expression of genes encoding orthologs of auxin receptors. Overall, the results showed that tms1 expression and local increase in IAA level in transformants affect both the balance of endogenous cytokinins and the dynamics of tuberization in response to exogenous hormones (auxin, cytokinin), the latter reaction depending also on the carbohydrate supply. We introduce a basic model for the hormonal network controlling tuberization.

Infection by Rhodococcus fascians maintains cotyledons as a sink tissue for the pathogen

Background and Aims

Pisum sativum L. (pea) seed is a source of carbohydrate and protein for the developing plant. By studying pea seeds inoculated by the cytokinin-producing bacterium, Rhodococcus fascians , we sought to determine the impact of both an epiphytic (avirulent) strain and a pathogenic strain on source-sink activity within the cotyledons during and following germination.

Methods

Bacterial spread was monitored microscopically, and real-time reverse transcription-quantitative PCR was used to determine the expression of cytokinin biosynthesis, degradation and response regulator gene family members, along with expression of family members of SWEET , SUT , CWINV and AAP genes - gene families identified initially in pea by transcriptomic analysis. The endogenous cytokinin content was also determined.

Key Results

The cotyledons infected by the virulent strain remained intact and turned green, while multiple shoots were formed and root growth was reduced. The epiphytic strain had no such marked impact. Isopentenyl adenine was elevated in the cotyledons infected by the virulent strain. Strong expression of RfIPT , RfLOG and RfCKX was detected in the cotyledons infected by the virulent strain throughout the experiment, with elevated expression also observed for PsSWEET , PsSUT and PsINV gene family members. The epiphytic strain had some impact on the expression of these genes, especially at the later stages of reserve mobilization from the cotyledons.

Conclusions

The pathogenic strain retained the cotyledons as a sink tissue for the pathogen rather than the cotyledon converting completely to a source tissue for the germinating plant. We suggest that the interaction of cytokinins, CWINVs and SWEETs may lead to the loss of apical dominance and the appearance of multiple shoots.

Differential Gene Expression in the Meristem and during Early Fruit Growth of Pisum sativum L. Identifies Potential Targets for Breeding

For successful molecular breeding it is important to identify targets to the gene family level, and in the specific species of interest, in this case Pisum sativum L. The cytokinins have been identified as a key breeding target due to their influence on plant architecture, and on seed size and sink activity. We focused on the cytokinin biosynthetic gene family (the IPTs) and the gene family key to the destruction of cytokinins (the CKXs), as well as other gene families potentially affected by changing cytokinin levels. These included key meristem genes (WUS and BAM1) and the transporter gene families, sucrose transporters (SUTs) and amino acid permeases (AAPs). We used reverse transcription quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) to monitor gene expression in the vegetative meristem and in pre- and post-fertilisation young pea fruits. PsWUS expression was specific to the shoot apical meristem while PsBAM1 was highly expressed in the shoot apical meristem (SAM) but was also expressed at a low level in the young fruit. Differential expression was shown between genes and within gene families for IPT, CKX, SUT, and AAP. PsCKX7 showed strong gene family member-specific expression in the SAM, and was also expressed in young pea fruits. We suggest that PsCKX7 is a potential target for downregulation via molecular breeding or gene editing.

Cytokinin: a key driver of seed yield

The cytokinins have been implicated in many facets of plant growth and development including cell division and differentiation, shoot and root growth, apical dominance, senescence, fruit and seed development, and the response to biotic and abiotic stressors. Cytokinin levels are regulated by a balance between biosynthesis [isopentenyl transferase (IPT)], activation [Lonely Guy (LOG)], inactivation (O-glucosyl transferase), re-activation (β-glucosidase), and degradation [cytokinin oxidase/dehydrogenase (CKX)]. During senescence, the levels of active cytokinins decrease, with premature senescence leading to a decrease in yield. During the early stages of fruit and seed development, cytokinin levels are transiently elevated, and coincide with nuclear and cell divisions which are a determinant of final seed size. Exogenous application of cytokinin, ectopic expression of IPT, or down-regulation of CKX have, on occasions, led to increased seed yield, leading to the suggestion that cytokinin may be limiting yield. However, manipulation of cytokinins is complex, not only because of their pleiotropic nature but also because the genes coding for biosynthesis and metabolism belong to multigene families, the members of which are themselves spatially and temporally differentiated. Previous research on yield of rice showed that plant breeders could directly target the cytokinins. Modern genome editing tools could be employed to target and manipulate cytokinin levels to increase seed yield with the concurrent aim of maintaining quality. However, how the cytokinin level is modified and whether IPT or CKX is targeted may depend on whether the plant is considered to be in a source-limiting environment or to be sink limited.

Expression patterns of Brassica napus genes implicate IPT, CKX, sucrose transporter, cell wall invertase, and amino acid permease gene family members in leaf, flower, silique, and seed development

Forage brassica (Brassica napus cv. Greenland) is bred for vegetative growth and biomass production, while its seed yield remains to be improved for seed producers without affecting forage yield and quality. Cytokinins affect seed yield by influencing flower, silique and seed number, and seed size. To identify specific cytokinin gene family members as targets for breeding, as well as genes associated with yield and/or quality, a B. napus transcriptome was obtained from a mixed sample including leaves, flower buds and siliques of various stages. Gene families for cytokinin biosynthesis (BnIPT1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8 and 9), cytokinin degradation (BnCKX1 to BnCKX7), cell wall invertase (BnCWINV1 to BnCWINV6), sugar transporter (BnSUT1 to BnSUT6) and amino acid permease (BnAAP1 to BnAAP8) were identified. As B. napus is tetraploid, homoeologues of each gene family member were sought. Using multiple alignments and phylogenetic analysis, the parental genomes of the two B. napus homoeologues could be differentiated. RT-qPCR was then used to determine the expression of gene family members and their homoeologues in leaves, flowers, siliques and seeds of different developmental stages. The expression analysis showed both temporal and organ-specific expression profiles among members of these multi-gene families. Several pairs of homoeologues showed differential expression, both in terms of level of expression and differences in temporal or organ-specificity. BnCKX2 and 4 were identified as targets for TILLING, EcoTILLING and MAS.

Identification, expression, and comparative genomic analysis of the IPT and CKX gene families in Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa ssp. pekinensis)

BACKGROUND

Cytokinins (CKs) have significant roles in various aspects of plant growth and development, and they are also involved in plant stress adaptations. The fine-tuning of the controlled CK levels in individual tissues, cells, and organelles is properly maintained by isopentenyl transferases (IPTs) and cytokinin oxidase/dehydrogenases (CKXs). Chinese cabbage is one of the most economically important vegetable crops worldwide. The whole genome sequencing of Brassica rapa enables us to perform the genome-wide identification and functional analysis of the IPT and CKX gene families.

RESULTS

In this study, a total of 13 BrIPT genes and 12 BrCKX genes were identified. The gene structures, conserved domains and phylogenetic relationships were analyzed. The isoelectric point, subcellular localization and glycosylation sites of the proteins were predicted. Segmental duplicates were found in both BrIPT and BrCKX gene families. We also analyzed evolutionary patterns and divergence of the IPT and CKX genes in the Cruciferae family. The transcription levels of BrIPT and BrCKX genes were analyzed to obtain an initial picture of the functions of these genes. Abiotic stress elements related to adverse environmental stimuli were found in the promoter regions of BrIPT and BrCKX genes and they were confirmed to respond to drought and high salinity conditions. The effects of 6-BA and ABA on the expressions of BrIPT and BrCKX genes were also investigated.

CONCLUSIONS

The expansion of BrIPT and BrCKX genes after speciation from Arabidopsis thaliana is mainly attributed to segmental duplication events during the whole genome triplication (WGT) and substantial duplicated genes are lost during the long evolutionary history. Genes produced by segmental duplication events have changed their expression patterns or may adopted new functions and thus are obtained. BrIPT and BrCKX genes respond well to drought and high salinity stresses, and their transcripts are affected by exogenous hormones, such as 6-BA and ABA, suggesting their potential roles in abiotic stress conditions and regulatory mechanisms of plant hormone homeostasis. The appropriate modulation of endogenous CKs levels by IPT and CKX genes is a promising approach for developing economically important high-yielding and high-quality stress-tolerant crops in agriculture.

Roles of DgBRC1 in regulation of lateral branching in chrysanthemum (Dendranthema ×grandiflora cv. Jinba)

The diverse plasticity of plant architecture is largely determined by shoot branching. Shoot branching is an event regulated by multiple environmental, developmental and hormonal stimuli through triggering lateral bud response. After perceiving these signals, the lateral buds will respond and make a decision on whether to grow out. TCP transcriptional factors, BRC1/TB1/FC1, were previously proven to be involved in local inhibition of shoot branching in Arabidopsis, pea, tomato, maize and rice. To investigate the function of BRC1, we isolated the BRC1 homolog from chrysanthemum. There were two transcripts of DgBRC1 coming from two alleles in one locus, both of which complemented the multiple branches phenotype of Arabidopsis brc1-1, indicating that both are functionally conserved. DgBRC1 was mainly expressed in dormant axillary buds, and down-regulated at the bud activation stage, and up-regulated by higher planting densities. DgBRC1 transcripts could respond to apical auxin supply and polar auxin transport. Moreover, we found that the acropetal cytokinin stream promoted branch outgrowth whether or not apical auxin was present. Basipetal cytokinin promoted outgrowth of branches in the absence of apical auxin, while strengthening the inhibitory effects on lower buds in the presence of apical auxin. The influence of auxin and strigolactons (SLs) on the production of cytokinin was investigated, we found that auxin locally down-regulated biosynthesis of cytokinin in nodes, SLs also down-regulated the biosynthesis of cytokinin, the interactions among these phytohormones need further investigation.

Gall formation in clubroot-infected Arabidopsis results from an increase in existing meristematic activities of the host but is not essential for the completion of the pathogen life cycle

Plasmodiophora brassicae (clubroot) infection leads to reprogramming of host development resulting in the formation of characteristic galls. In this work we explored the cellular events that underly gall formation in Arabidopsis thaliana with the help of molecular markers of cell division (CYCB1:GUS) and meristematic activity (ANT:GUS). Our results show that gall development involved the amplification of existing meristematic activities within the vascular cambium (VC) and phloem parenchyma (PP) cells in the region of the hypocotyl. Additionally we found that the increase in VC activity and prolonged maintenance of cambial-derived cells in a meristematic state was crucial for gall formation; disruption of the VC activity significantly decreased the gall size. Gall formation also perturbed vascular development with a significant reduction in xylem and increase in PP in infected plants. This situation was reflected in a decrease in transcripts of key factors promoting xylogenesis (VND6, VND7 and MYB46) and an increase in those promoting phloem formation and function (APL, SUC2). Finally we show, using the cell cycle inhibitor ICK1/KRP1 and a cle41 mutant with altered regulation of cambial stem cell maintenance and differentiation, that a decrease in gall formation did not prevent pathogen development. This finding demonstrates that although gall formation is a typical symptom of the disease and influences numbers of spores produced, it is not required for completion of the pathogen life cycle. Together, these results provide an insight into the relationship of the cellular events that accompany Plasmodiophora infection and their role in disease progression.

Alternative transcription initiation of the nitrilase gene (BrNIT2) caused by infection with Plasmodiophora brassicae Woron. in Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa L.)

In clubroot disease, gall formation is induced by infection with the obligate biotroph Plasmodiophora brassicae, and cell hypertrophy is dependent on increased auxin levels. The enzyme nitrilase is suggested to play an important role in auxin biosynthesis in plants. Here, we investigated the expression of nitrilase genes in clubroot disease in Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa L.). We isolated four isogenes of nitrilase (BrNIT1, BrNIT2, BrNIT3, and BrNIT4) from Chinese cabbage. When a BrNIT2-specific probe was used for Northern blot hybridization, enhanced accumulation of a 1.4 kb mRNA and additional shorter transcripts (1.1 kb) were only detected in clubbed roots 25 days postinoculation (dpi) onward. The expression of BrNIT1 was not strongly affected by infection with P. brassicae. BrNIT3 expression was detected in the roots at 10 and 20 dpi, and the expression was less in clubbed roots than in healthy roots at 20 dpi. Analysis of the transcription initiation point of the BrNIT2 gene suggests that 1.1 kb transcripts were generated by alternative transcription initiation between the second intron and the third exon. The sequence from the second intron to half of the third exon (+415 to +1037, 623 bp) had promoter activity in Arabidopsis during clubroot formation. Therefore, our results suggest that transcriptional regulation of BrNIT2 might be involved in auxin overproduction during clubroot development.

Metabolic changes in roots of the oilseed canola infected with the biotroph Plasmodiophora brassicae: phytoalexins and phytoanticipins

Analyses of metabolite production and accumulation in roots of canola ( Brassica napus L. spp. oleifera) infected with the phytopathogen Plasmodiophora brassicae (clubroot) allowed the identification of 45 metabolites. HPLC analysis corroborated by metabolite isolation and NMR spectroscopic data demonstrated for the first time that phytoalexins and phytoanticipins were produced in roots of canola infected with a soilborne biotroph. In addition, six new indolyl metabolites were identified, synthesized, and tested against three fungal pathogens of canola. Multivariate data analysis using principal component analysis (PCA) revealed distinct metabolic responses of canola to P. brassicae infection during a six-week period. At late harvest days (five and six weeks), a clear clustering was observed among samples of infected roots because of the higher concentration of phytoalexins, while higher concentration of phytoanticipins contributed to the differentiation between three and four weeks samples of infected and control roots. Altogether, the data shows that canola roots under biotrophic attack are able to produce a complex blend of phytoalexins and other antimicrobial metabolites as a defensive response and that the metabolic regulation of phytoanticipins and phytoalexins appeared to correlate with the infection period.

Efficient transformation of wheat by using a mutated rice acetolactate synthase gene as a selectable marker

Acetolactate synthase (ALS) is a target enzyme for many herbicides, including sulfonylurea and imidazolinone. We investigated the usefulness of a mutated ALS gene of rice, which had double point mutations and encoded an herbicide-resistant form of the enzyme, as a selectable marker for wheat transformation. After the genomic DNA fragment from rice containing the mutated ALS gene was introduced into immature embryos by means of particle bombardment, transgenic plants were efficiently selected with the herbicide bispyribac sodium (BS). Southern blot analysis confirmed that transgenic plants had one to more than ten copies of the transgene in their chromosomes. Adjustment of the BS concentration combined with repeated selection effectively prevented nontransgenic plants from escaping herbicide selection. Measurement of ALS activity indicated that transgenic plants produced an herbicide-resistant form of ALS and therefore had acquired the resistance to BS. This report is the first to describe a selection system for wheat transformation that uses a selectable marker gene of plant origin.

A hormone and proteome approach to picturing the initial metabolic events during Plasmodiophora brassicae infection on Arabidopsis

We report on the early response of Arabidopsis thaliana to the obligate biotrophic pathogen Plasmodiophora brassicae at the hormone and proteome level. Using a CYCB1;1::GUS construct, the re-initiation of infection-related cell division is shown from 4 days after inoculation on. Sensitivity to cytokinins and auxins as well as the endogenous hormone levels are evaluated. Both an enhanced cytokinin gene response and an accumulation of isopentenyl adenine and adenosine precede this re-initiation of cell division, whereas an enhanced auxin gene response is observed from 6 days after inoculation on. The alhl mutant, impaired in the cross talk between ethylene and auxins, is resistant to P. brassicae. A differential protein analysis of infected versus noninfected roots and hypocotyls was performed using two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and quantitative image analysis, coupled to matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time of flight-time of flight mass spectrometry-based protein identification. Of the visualized proteins, 12% show altered abundance compared with the noninfected plants, including proteins involved in metabolism, cell defense, cell differentiation, and detoxification. Combining the hormone and proteome data, we postulate that, at the very first stages of Plasmodiophora infection, plasmodial-produced cytokinins trigger a local re-initiation of cell division in the root cortex. Consequently, a de novo meristematic area is established that acts as a sink for host-derived indole-3-acetic acid, carbohydrates, nitrogen, and energy to maintain the pathogen and to trigger gall development.

Increase in BrAO1 gene expression and aldehyde oxidase activity during clubroot development in Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa L.)

SUMMARY In clubroot disease, gall formation is induced by infection with the obligate biotroph Plasmodiophora brassicae due to increased levels of auxins and cytokinins. Because aldehyde oxidase (AO) may be involved in auxin biosynthesis in plants, we isolated two AO genes (BrAO1 and BrAO2) from Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa ssp. pekinensis cv. Muso), which are the most similar to AAO1 among Arabidopsis AO genes, and examined their expressions during clubroot development. The expression of BrAO1 was enhanced in inoculated roots from 15 days post-inoculation (dpi) when visible clubroots were still undetectable. Thereafter, BrAO1 expression increased with clubroot development compared with uninoculated roots, although BrAO2 expression was repressed. In situ hybridization revealed that BrAO1 was strongly expressed in tissues that were invaded by immature plasmodia at 35 dpi, suggesting that BrAO1 expression was enhanced by the pathogen in order to establish its pathogenesis. In addition, we detected AO activity, as evidenced by the occurrence of at least six bands (BrAO-a to BrAO-f) in the roots of Chinese cabbage using an active staining method with benzaldehyde and indlole-3-aldehyde as the substrate. Coincidental with BrAO1 expression, the signals of BrAO-a and BrAO-d increased with inoculation by P. brassicae during clubroot development compared with healthy roots, resulting in an increase in total AO activity. By contrast, the band BrAO-b decreased post-inoculation, in parallel with the expression of BrAO2. The other bands of activity were not clearly influenced by the infection. Based on these results, we discuss the involvement of AO in auxin-overproduction during clubroot development in Chinese cabbage.