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Aguirresarobe R, Calafel I, Villanueva S, Sanchez A, Agirre A, Sukia I, Esnaola A, Saralegi A. Development of Flame-Retardant Polylactic Acid Formulations for Additive Manufacturing. Polymers (Basel) 2024; 16:1030. [PMID: 38674951 PMCID: PMC11053787 DOI: 10.3390/polym16081030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2024] [Revised: 04/06/2024] [Accepted: 04/08/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Polymeric materials, renowned for their lightweight attributes and design adaptability, play a pivotal role in augmenting fuel efficiency and cost-effectiveness in railway vehicle development. The tailored formulation of compounds, specifically designed for additive manufacturing, holds significant promise in expanding the use of these materials. This study centers on poly(lactic acid) (PLA), a natural-based biodegradable polymeric material incorporating diverse halogen-free flame retardants (FRs). Our investigation scrutinizes the printability and fire performance of these formulations, aligning with the European railway standard EN 45545-2. The findings underscore that FR in the condensed phase, including ammonium polyphosphate (APP), expandable graphite (EG), and intumescent systems, exhibit superior fire performance. Notably, FR-inducing hydrolytic degradation, such as aluminum hydroxide (ATH) or EG, reduces polymer molecular weight, significantly impacting PLA's mechanical performance. Achieving a delicate balance between fire resistance and mechanical properties, formulations with APP as the flame retardant emerge as optimal. This research contributes to understanding the fire performance and printability of 3D-printed PLA compounds, offering vital insights for the rail industry's adoption of polymeric materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Aguirresarobe
- POLYMAT and Department of Advanced Polymers and Materials: Physics, Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Chemistry, Universidad del País Vasco/Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea, UPV/EHU, 20018 San Sebastian, Spain; (R.A.); (I.C.); (A.A.)
| | - Itxaso Calafel
- POLYMAT and Department of Advanced Polymers and Materials: Physics, Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Chemistry, Universidad del País Vasco/Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea, UPV/EHU, 20018 San Sebastian, Spain; (R.A.); (I.C.); (A.A.)
| | - Sara Villanueva
- TECNALIA, Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Parque Tecnológico de San Sebastián, 20009 San Sebastian, Spain;
| | - Alberto Sanchez
- TECNALIA, Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Parque Tecnológico de San Sebastián, 20009 San Sebastian, Spain;
| | - Amaia Agirre
- POLYMAT and Department of Advanced Polymers and Materials: Physics, Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Chemistry, Universidad del País Vasco/Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea, UPV/EHU, 20018 San Sebastian, Spain; (R.A.); (I.C.); (A.A.)
| | - Itxaro Sukia
- Department of Mechanics and Industrial Production, Mondragon Unibertsitatea, 20500 Arrasate-Mondragon, Spain; (I.S.); (A.E.)
| | - Aritz Esnaola
- Department of Mechanics and Industrial Production, Mondragon Unibertsitatea, 20500 Arrasate-Mondragon, Spain; (I.S.); (A.E.)
| | - Ainara Saralegi
- Group ‘Materials + Technologies’, Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering of Gipuzkoa, Universidad del País Vasco/Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea, UPV/EHU, 20018 San Sebastian, Spain
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Whaley P, Wattam S, Bedford C, Bell N, Harrad S, Jones N, Kirkbride T, Naldzhiev D, Payne E, Wooding EJ, Hull TR. Reconciling chemical flame retardant exposure and fire risk in domestic furniture. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0293651. [PMID: 38019785 PMCID: PMC10686510 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0293651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2023] [Accepted: 10/17/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Evidence suggests that standards for resistance of furniture to ignition may lead to an increase in use of chemical flame retardants (CFRs). This is motivating the development of new approaches that maintain high levels of fire safety while facilitating a reduction in use of CFRs. However, reconciling potential fire risk with use of CFRs in relation to specific policy objectives is challenging. OBJECTIVES To inform the development of a new policy in the UK for the fire safety of furniture, we developed for domestic furniture quantitative models of fire risk and potential for CFR exposure. We then combined the models to determine if any lower fire risk, higher CFR exposure categories of furniture were identifiable. METHODS We applied a novel mixed-methods approach to modelling furniture fire risk and CFR exposure in a data-poor environment, using literature-based concept mapping, qualitative research, and data visualisation methods to generate fire risk and CFR exposure models and derive furniture product rankings. RESULTS Our analysis suggests there exists a cluster of furniture types including baby and infant products and pillows that have comparable overall properties in terms of lower fire risk and higher potential for CFR exposure. DISCUSSION There are multiple obstacles to reconciling fire risk and CFR use in furniture. In particular, these include a lack of empirical data that would allow absolute fire risk and exposure levels to be quantified. Nonetheless, it seems that our modelling method can potentially yield meaningful product clusters, providing a basis for further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Whaley
- Lancaster Environment Centre, Lancaster University, Lancaster, United Kingdom
- WhaleyResearch, Leuchars, Fife, United Kingdom
| | - Stephen Wattam
- W&P Academic Consultancy Limited, Northallerton, United Kingdom
| | - Clare Bedford
- Centre for Fire and Hazards Science, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, United Kingdom
| | - Nia Bell
- Oakdene Hollins, Aylesbury, United Kingdom
| | - Stuart Harrad
- School of Geography, Earth, and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Nicola Jones
- Centre for Fire and Hazards Science, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, United Kingdom
| | | | | | | | - Elli-Jo Wooding
- Centre for Fire and Hazards Science, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, United Kingdom
| | - T. Richard Hull
- Centre for Fire and Hazards Science, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, United Kingdom
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Bessa MJ, Sarmento B, Oliveira M, Rodrigues F. In vitro data for fire pollutants: contribution of studies using human cell models towards firefighters' occupational. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART B, CRITICAL REVIEWS 2023; 26:238-255. [PMID: 36883725 DOI: 10.1080/10937404.2023.2187909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Firefighters are the principal line of defense against fires, being at elevated risk of exposure to health-relevant pollutants released during fires and burning processes. Although many biomonitoring studies exist, only a limited number of human in vitro investigations in fire risk assessment are currently available. In vitro studies stand out as valuable tools to assess the toxicity mechanisms involved following exposure to fire pollutants at a cellular level. The aim of the present review was to contextualize existing in vitro studies using human cell models exposed to chemicals emitted from fire emissions and wood smoke and discuss the implications of the observed toxic outcomes on adverse health effects detected in firefighters. Most of the reported in vitro investigations focused on monocultures respiratory models and exposure to particulate matter (PM) extracts collected from fire effluents. Overall, (1) a decrease in cellular viability, (2) enhanced oxidative stress, (3) increased pro-inflammatory cytokines levels and (4) elevated cell death frequencies were noted. However, limited information remains regarding the toxicity mechanisms initiated by firefighting activities. Hence, more studies employing advanced in vitro models and exposure systems using human cell lines are urgently needed taking into consideration different routes of exposure and health-related pollutants released from fires. Data are needed to establish and define firefighters' occupational exposure limits and to propose mitigation strategies to promote beneficial human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria João Bessa
- UNIPRO - Unidade de Investigação em Patologia e Reabilitação Oral, Instituto Universitário de Ciências da Saúde (IUCS), CESPU, Gandra, Portugal
| | - Bruno Sarmento
- UNIPRO - Unidade de Investigação em Patologia e Reabilitação Oral, Instituto Universitário de Ciências da Saúde (IUCS), CESPU, Gandra, Portugal
- i3S - Institute for Research and Innovation in Health, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- INEB - Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Marta Oliveira
- REQUIMTE/LAQV, ISEP, Polytechnique of Porto, Porto, Portugal
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Borucka M, Mizera K, Przybysz J, Kozikowski P, Gajek A. Analysis of Flammability and Smoke Emission of Plastic Materials Used in Construction and Transport. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 16:2444. [PMID: 36984324 PMCID: PMC10054394 DOI: 10.3390/ma16062444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2023] [Revised: 03/06/2023] [Accepted: 03/15/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
This study provides valuable data on the specific toxic products that could be released from the commercially used, flexible polyurethane foams (FPUFs) during a fire. The steady-state tube furnace (Purser furnace) was used to generate combustion and thermal degradation products under different fire conditions. The concentrations of asphyxiates and irritant gases were determined using a Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy gas analyser. The volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds released in the fire effluents were collected using the solid-phase microextraction technique and identified by gas chromatography with a mass selective detector. In addition, the thermal stability of the FPUFs was evaluated by simultaneous thermal analysis. The cone calorimetry test was used to determine the flame retardancy of the selected materials. The obtained results show that the emission of carbon monoxide and hydrogen cyanide during the thermal degradation and combustion of the tested foams exceeded the permissible values and pose a serious threat to human life and health. Moreover, substituted benzenes, aldehydes, and polycyclic hydrocarbons were found in the released gases during all of the test conditions.
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No business as usual: The effect of smoke suppressants commonly used in the flame retardant PA6.6 on smoke and fire properties. Polym Degrad Stab 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2023.110276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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6
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Shi X, Luo S, Du X, Li Q, Cheng S. Improvement the Flame Retardancy and Thermal Conductivity of Epoxy Composites via Melamine Polyphosphate-Modified Carbon Nanotubes. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14153091. [PMID: 35956608 PMCID: PMC9370361 DOI: 10.3390/polym14153091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2022] [Revised: 07/27/2022] [Accepted: 07/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Surface chemical modification of carbon nanotubes can enhance the compatibility with polymers and improve flame retardancy performances. In this work, the double bond active sites were constructed on the surface of carbon nanotubes modified by the γ-methacryloyloxypropyl trimethoxysilane (KH570). Glycidyl methacrylate (GMA) was further grafted onto the surface of carbon nanotubes via free radical polymerization. Finally, the flame retardant melamine polyphosphate (MPP) was bonded to the surface of carbon nanotubes by the ring-opening reaction. This modification process was proved to be achieved by infrared spectroscopy and thermogravimetric test. The carbon nanotubes modified by flame retardant were added into the epoxy matrix and cured to prepare flame retardant and thermal conductive composites. The flame retardancy of composites were studied by cone calorimetry, UL94 vertical combustion test and limiting oxygen index. The thermal conductivity of composites was characterized by laser thermal conductivity instrument. The results showed that when the addition amount of flame retardant MPP-modified carbon nanotubes in composites was 10 wt%, the flame retardant level of UL94 reached to V2, the limiting oxygen index increased from 25.1 of pure epoxy resin to 28.3, the PHRR of pure epoxy resin was reduced from 800 kW/m2 to 645 kW/m2 of composites and thermal conductivity of composites was enhanced from 0.21 W/m·K−1 of pure epoxy resin to 0.42 W/m·K−1 of the composites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuejun Shi
- School of Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, Pingdingshan University, Pingdingshan 467000, China; (X.S.); (S.L.); (X.D.)
| | - Shiying Luo
- School of Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, Pingdingshan University, Pingdingshan 467000, China; (X.S.); (S.L.); (X.D.)
| | - Xiangxiang Du
- School of Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, Pingdingshan University, Pingdingshan 467000, China; (X.S.); (S.L.); (X.D.)
| | - Qingbin Li
- School of Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, Pingdingshan University, Pingdingshan 467000, China; (X.S.); (S.L.); (X.D.)
- Correspondence: (Q.L.); (S.C.)
| | - Shiping Cheng
- Henan Key Laboratory of Germplasm Innovation and Utilization of Eco-Economic Woody Plant, Pingdingshan University, Pingdingshan 467000, China
- Correspondence: (Q.L.); (S.C.)
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Han LX, Zhao ZY, Deng C, Wang YZ. Piperazine/Alkene-Containing Phosphoramide Oligomer for the Intumescent Flame Retardation of EPDM Rubber. Polym Degrad Stab 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2022.109990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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8
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Zhou Y, Hu Q, Wang W, Wang R. Controlled Architecture of Polyhedral Oligomeric Silsesquioxane-Functionalized Poly(Glycidyl Methacrylate)/Polyester Composites Using Surface-Initiated ICAR ATRP Technique for High Flame Retardancy and Smoke Suppression. Polym Degrad Stab 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2022.109914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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9
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Cingolani A, Zanotti V, Cesari C, Ferri M, Mazzocchetti L, Benelli T, Merighi S, Giorgini L, Mazzoni R. Synthesis of functionalized iron N-heterocyclic carbene complexes and their potential application as flame behavior modifier in cross linked epoxy resins. Inorganica Chim Acta 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ica.2021.120273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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10
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Peck G, Jones N, McKenna ST, Glockling JLD, Harbottle J, Stec AA, Hull TR. Smoke toxicity of rainscreen façades. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2021; 403:123694. [PMID: 32835994 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.123694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2020] [Revised: 08/06/2020] [Accepted: 08/10/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The toxic smoke production of four rainscreen façade systems were compared during large-scale fire performance testing on a reduced height BS 8414 test wall. Systems comprising 'non-combustible' aluminium composite material (ACM) with polyisocyanurate (PIR), phenolic foam (PF) and stone wool (SW) insulation, and polyethylene-filled ACM with PIR insulation were tested. Smoke toxicity was measured by sampling gases at two points - the exhaust duct of the main test room and an additional 'kitchen vent', which connects the rainscreen cavity to an occupied area. Although the toxicity of the smoke was similar for the three insulation products with non-combustible ACM, the toxicity of the smoke flowing from the burning cavity through the kitchen vent was greater by factors of 40 and 17 for PIR and PF insulation respectively, when compared to SW. Occupants sheltering in a room connected to the vent are predicted to collapse, and then inhale a lethal concentration of asphyxiant gases. This is the first report quantifying fire conditions within the cavity and assessing smoke toxicity within a rainscreen façade cavity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabrielle Peck
- Centre for Fire and Hazard Science, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, PR1 2HE, UK
| | - Nicola Jones
- Centre for Fire and Hazard Science, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, PR1 2HE, UK
| | - Sean T McKenna
- Centre for Fire and Hazard Science, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, PR1 2HE, UK
| | - Jim L D Glockling
- Fire Protection Association, London Road, Moreton in Marsh, Gloucestershire, GL56 0RH, UK
| | - John Harbottle
- Fire Protection Association, London Road, Moreton in Marsh, Gloucestershire, GL56 0RH, UK
| | - Anna A Stec
- Centre for Fire and Hazard Science, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, PR1 2HE, UK
| | - T Richard Hull
- Centre for Fire and Hazard Science, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, PR1 2HE, UK.
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11
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Zhang Y, Yang W, Zhao W, Ruan F, Li S, Liu J. Synthesis and characterization of SPDSCD and its flame retardant application on epoxy resins. RSC Adv 2020; 10:28654-28663. [PMID: 35520038 PMCID: PMC9055797 DOI: 10.1039/d0ra05167e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2020] [Accepted: 07/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, a flame retardant agent, 2,4,8,10-tetraoxo-3,9-diphosphospiro[5.5]undecane spirophosphate-4,4-diaminopair benzene disulfone-1,3,5-himetriazine (SPDSCD), is synthesized through a direct polycondensation reaction. SPDSCD is a chemically expanded phosphorus-containing flame retardant in epoxy resins (EP). The molecular structure of SPDSCD and thermal stability are characterized by nuclear magnetic resonance, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and thermogravimetric analysis, and EP/SPDSCD composites were investigated in detail. These properties are associated with the phosphorus-containing spiro structure on the main molecular chain which can promote condensation polymerization into carbon during pyrolysis, the new nitrogen-containing carbon source, and the triazine structure. SPDSCD shows good thermal stability and low flammability, the weight loss from 500 to 800 °C was only 6.1 wt%, and the residual mass at 800 °C was 48.9 wt%. With the addition of SPDSCD, the flame retardant quality of the composites was gradually enhanced, the carbon residue becomes denser, which isolates heat transfer and inhibits the volatilization of flue gas. The addition of 20 wt% SPDSCD in the EP sample was associated with a limited oxygen index (LOI) value of 26% and a vertical burning V-0 rating. Cone calorimeter test shows that the peak heat release rate is reduced by 75%; the heat release rate curve enters the heat release platform area with a value lower than the first peak, TSP is reduced by 24%, the ac-CO2Y value reduced by 25.6%, indicating that SPDSCD/EP produced less CO2, which obviously prevented the combustion of volatile gas. SPDSCD exerted a charring and barrier effect in the condensation phase. Using basic characterization and flame retardancy testing, this work determined that SPDSCD has good flame retardancy when added to EP. In this study, a flame retardant agent, 2,4,8,10-tetraoxo-3,9-diphosphospiro[5.5]undecane spirophosphate-4,4-diaminopair benzene disulfone-1,3,5-himetriazine (SPDSCD), is synthesized through a direct polycondensation reaction.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Zhang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology Beijing 100081 China +86-139-10788891.,Department of Biology and Chemical Engineering, Shandong Vocational College of Science &Technology Weifang 261053 China
| | - Weiwei Yang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology Beijing 100081 China +86-139-10788891
| | - Wei Zhao
- CAS Key Laboratory of Space Manufacturing Technology, Technology and Engineering Center for Space Utilization, Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing 100094 China
| | - Fang Ruan
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology Beijing 100081 China +86-139-10788891
| | - Shulei Li
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology Beijing 100081 China +86-139-10788891
| | - Jiping Liu
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology Beijing 100081 China +86-139-10788891
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McKenna S, Birtles R, Dickens K, Walker R, Spearpoint M, Stec AA, Hull TR. Authors' response to comments on "Flame retardants in UK furniture increase smoke toxicity more than they reduce fire growth rate". CHEMOSPHERE 2019; 232:512-515. [PMID: 30420099 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.10.178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2018] [Accepted: 10/25/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Sean McKenna
- Centre for Fire and Hazard Science, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, PR1 2HE, UK
| | - Robert Birtles
- Centre for Fire and Hazard Science, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, PR1 2HE, UK; Greater Manchester Fire and Rescue Service, Manchester, M4 5HU, UK
| | - Kathryn Dickens
- Centre for Fire and Hazard Science, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, PR1 2HE, UK
| | - Richard Walker
- Centre for Fire and Hazard Science, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, PR1 2HE, UK; West Midlands Fire Service Headquarters, 99 Vauxhall Road, Birmingham, B7 4HW, UK
| | - Michael Spearpoint
- Department of Civil and Natural Resources Engineering, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, 8140, New Zealand; Olsson Fire and Risk, Manchester, M4 6WX, UK
| | - Anna A Stec
- Centre for Fire and Hazard Science, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, PR1 2HE, UK
| | - T Richard Hull
- Centre for Fire and Hazard Science, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, PR1 2HE, UK.
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Zhang W, Wu H, Meng W, Li J, Cui Y, Xu J, Qu H. Investigation of nickel ammonia phosphate with different morphologies as a new high-efficiency flame retardant for epoxy resin. HIGH PERFORM POLYM 2019. [DOI: 10.1177/0954008319867369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Nanowires, nanosheets, and microflowers of nickel ammonium phosphate (NiNH4PO4·H2O) were synthesized by a mixed solvothermal method and used to improve the flame retardancy of epoxy resin (EP). The solvent concentration and surfactant content were found to play a key role in nucleation and growth of NiNH4PO4·H2O. The structure of NiNH4PO4·H2O was characterized by X-ray diffraction and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The flame retardancy, thermostability, mechanical properties, and flame retardancy mechanism of EP/NiNH4PO4·H2O composites were analyzed using the limiting oxygen index (LOI), cone calorimetry (Cone), mechanical property tests, thermogravimetric analysis, and thermogravimetric–Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The results indicated that NiNH4PO4·H2O has proper thermal stability and greatly improves the flame retardancy of EP. The nanosheets outperformed the other morphologies; the EP/5% NiNH4PO4·H2O nanosheets have an LOI of 35.2%, which exceeds that of pure EP (24.7%). Furthermore, Cone showed that these nanosheets have the lowest peak heat release rate and peak smoke production rate, which are 69.1% and 36.5% lower than those of pure EP, respectively. NiNH4PO4·H2O can promote the formation of a stable char layer and release nonflammable gases, thus protecting the matrix by preventing heat and oxygen transfer and reducing the concentration of combustible gas. NiNH4PO4·H2O is expected to serve as a new high-efficiency flame retardant for EP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiwei Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Analytical Science and Technology of Hebei Province, Flame Retardant Materials and Processing Technology Engineering Technology Research Center, College of Chemistry and Environmental Science, Hebei University, Baoding, People’s Republic of China
| | - Hongjuan Wu
- Department of Foundation Courses, Agricultural University of Hebei, Cangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Weihua Meng
- Key Laboratory of Analytical Science and Technology of Hebei Province, Flame Retardant Materials and Processing Technology Engineering Technology Research Center, College of Chemistry and Environmental Science, Hebei University, Baoding, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jiahe Li
- Key Laboratory of Analytical Science and Technology of Hebei Province, Flame Retardant Materials and Processing Technology Engineering Technology Research Center, College of Chemistry and Environmental Science, Hebei University, Baoding, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yumeng Cui
- Key Laboratory of Analytical Science and Technology of Hebei Province, Flame Retardant Materials and Processing Technology Engineering Technology Research Center, College of Chemistry and Environmental Science, Hebei University, Baoding, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jianzhong Xu
- Key Laboratory of Analytical Science and Technology of Hebei Province, Flame Retardant Materials and Processing Technology Engineering Technology Research Center, College of Chemistry and Environmental Science, Hebei University, Baoding, People’s Republic of China
| | - Hongqiang Qu
- Key Laboratory of Analytical Science and Technology of Hebei Province, Flame Retardant Materials and Processing Technology Engineering Technology Research Center, College of Chemistry and Environmental Science, Hebei University, Baoding, People’s Republic of China
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Peng C, Gao C, Yuan Y, Wu Z, zhou D. Synthesis and application of a benzoxazine-type phosphorus-containing monomer on epoxy/benzoxazine copolymer: Thermal stability and compatibility with liquid oxygen. Polym Degrad Stab 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2018.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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15
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Realinho V, Haurie L, Formosa J, Velasco JI. Flame retardancy effect of combined ammonium polyphosphate and aluminium diethyl phosphinate in acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene. Polym Degrad Stab 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2018.07.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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16
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McKenna ST, Birtles R, Dickens K, Walker RG, Spearpoint MJ, Stec AA, Hull TR. Flame retardants in UK furniture increase smoke toxicity more than they reduce fire growth rate. CHEMOSPHERE 2018; 196:429-439. [PMID: 29324384 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.12.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2017] [Revised: 12/03/2017] [Accepted: 12/04/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
This paper uses fire statistics to show the importance of fire toxicity on fire deaths and injuries, and the importance of upholstered furniture and bedding on fatalities from unwanted fires. The aim was to compare the fire hazards (fire growth and smoke toxicity) using different upholstery materials. Four compositions of sofa-bed were compared: three meeting UK Furniture Flammability Regulations (FFR), and one using materials without flame retardants intended for the mainland European market. Two of the UK sofa-beds relied on chemical flame retardants to meet the FFR, the third used natural materials and a technical weave in order to pass the test. Each composition was tested in the bench-scale cone calorimeter (ISO 5660) and burnt as a whole sofa-bed in a sofa configuration in a 3.4 × 2.25 × 2.4 m3 test room. All of the sofas were ignited with a No. 7 wood crib; the temperatures and yields of toxic products are reported. The sofa-beds containing flame retardants burnt somewhat more slowly than the non-flame retarded EU sofa-bed, but in doing so produced significantly greater quantities of the main fire toxicants, carbon monoxide and hydrogen cyanide. Assessment of the effluents' potential to incapacitate and kill is provided showing the two UK flame retardant sofa-beds to be the most dangerous, followed by the sofa-bed made with European materials. The UK sofa-bed made only from natural materials (Cottonsafe®) burnt very slowly and produced very low concentrations of toxic gases. Including fire toxicity in the FFR would reduce the chemical flame retardants and improve fire safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean T McKenna
- Centre for Fire and Hazard Science, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, PR1 2HE, UK
| | - Robert Birtles
- Centre for Fire and Hazard Science, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, PR1 2HE, UK; Greater Manchester Fire and Rescue Service, Manchester, M4 5HU, UK
| | - Kathryn Dickens
- Centre for Fire and Hazard Science, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, PR1 2HE, UK
| | - Richard G Walker
- Centre for Fire and Hazard Science, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, PR1 2HE, UK; West Midlands Fire Service Headquarters, 99 Vauxhall Road, Birmingham B7 4HW, UK
| | - Michael J Spearpoint
- Department of Civil and Natural Resources Engineering, University of Canterbury, Christchurch 8140, New Zealand; Olsson Fire and Risk, Manchester, M4 6WX, UK
| | - Anna A Stec
- Centre for Fire and Hazard Science, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, PR1 2HE, UK
| | - T Richard Hull
- Centre for Fire and Hazard Science, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, PR1 2HE, UK.
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17
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Liao DJ, Xu QK, McCabe RW, Babu HV, Hu XP, Pan N, Wang DY, Hull TR. Ferrocene-Based Nonphosphorus Copolymer: Synthesis, High-Charring Mechanism, and Its Application in Fire Retardant Epoxy Resin. Ind Eng Chem Res 2017. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.7b02980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dui-Jun Liao
- School
of Materials Science and Engineering, Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang 621010, P.R. China
| | - Qi-Kui Xu
- School
of Materials Science and Engineering, Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang 621010, P.R. China
| | - Richard W. McCabe
- Centre
for Fire and Hazards Science, University of Central Lancashire, Preston PR1 2HE, U.K
| | | | - Xiao-Ping Hu
- School
of Materials Science and Engineering, Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang 621010, P.R. China
- Centre
for Fire and Hazards Science, University of Central Lancashire, Preston PR1 2HE, U.K
| | - Ning Pan
- Fundamental
Science on Nuclear Wastes and Environmental Safety Laboratory, Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang 621010, P.R. China
| | - De-Yi Wang
- IMDEA Materials
Institute, C/Eric Kandel, 2, 28906 Getafe, Madrid, Spain
| | - T. Richard Hull
- Centre
for Fire and Hazards Science, University of Central Lancashire, Preston PR1 2HE, U.K
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18
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Enhancement of Fire Retardancy Using Surface-Modified Silica Spheres with Aluminum Hydroxide. ARABIAN JOURNAL FOR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s13369-017-2721-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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19
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Bouldin RM, Xia Z, Klement TJ, Kiratitanavit W, Nagarajan R. Bioinspired flame retardant polymers of tyrosol. J Appl Polym Sci 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/app.45394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ryan M. Bouldin
- Department of Natural and Applied Sciences; Bentley University; Waltham Massachusetts 02452
| | - Zhiyu Xia
- Department of Plastics Engineering; University of Massachusetts Lowell; Lowell Massachusetts 01854
| | - Thomas J. Klement
- Department of Natural and Applied Sciences; Bentley University; Waltham Massachusetts 02452
| | - Weeradech Kiratitanavit
- Department of Plastics Engineering; University of Massachusetts Lowell; Lowell Massachusetts 01854
| | - Ramaswamy Nagarajan
- Department of Plastics Engineering; University of Massachusetts Lowell; Lowell Massachusetts 01854
- Center for Advanced Materials; University of Massachusetts Lowell; Lowell Massachusetts 01854
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20
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Wang PJ, Hu XP, Liao DJ, Wen Y, Hull TR, Miao F, Zhang QT. Dual Fire Retardant Action: The Combined Gas and Condensed Phase Effects of Azo-Modified NiZnAl Layered Double Hydroxide on Intumescent Polypropylene. Ind Eng Chem Res 2017. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.6b03953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Peng-Ji Wang
- School
of Materials Science and Engineering, Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang 621010, P. R. China
| | - Xiao-Ping Hu
- School
of Materials Science and Engineering, Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang 621010, P. R. China
- Centre
for Fire and Hazards Science, University of Central Lancashire, Preston PR1 2HE, U.K
| | - Dui-Jun Liao
- School
of Materials Science and Engineering, Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang 621010, P. R. China
| | - Yi Wen
- School
of Materials Science and Engineering, Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang 621010, P. R. China
| | - T. Richard Hull
- Centre
for Fire and Hazards Science, University of Central Lancashire, Preston PR1 2HE, U.K
| | - Fei Miao
- School
of Materials Science and Engineering, Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang 621010, P. R. China
| | - Quan-Tong Zhang
- School
of Materials Science and Engineering, Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang 621010, P. R. China
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21
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An efficient halogen-free flame retardant for polyethylene: piperazinemodified ammonium polyphosphates with different structures. CHINESE JOURNAL OF POLYMER SCIENCE 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s10118-016-1855-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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22
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Zhu J, Liu JG, Hu JX, Yi S. Socio-economic analysis of the risk management of hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) in China in the context of the Stockholm Convention. CHEMOSPHERE 2016; 150:520-527. [PMID: 26615892 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2015] [Revised: 11/01/2015] [Accepted: 11/03/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Socio-economic analysis (SEA) plays an important role in decision-making on risk management actions for certain chemicals under Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs) in developing countries. This paper showed the first holistic and quantitative SEA case study on that by developing a country-specific SEA framwork and methodologies and applying the case of HBCD phase-out in China under the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs). The study indicates that, under the possible scenarios of 10 years and 5 years , the economic costs of HBCD phase-out in China would be between 9.032 and 19.021 billion RMB. Although the total economic costs seems to be significant, it would only have a marginal impact on the house building industry with a likely cost increase by about 0.07‰-0.14‰. Meanwhile, the HBCD phase-out may render significant environmental and health benefits, including about 23-29 tons of HBCD release prevented to the environment, 1.142-1.469 million tons of potentially HBCD contained hazardous wastes avoided, along with significant reduction from 58% up to almost 100% in local environmental concentrations of HBCD, and about 0.0996-0.128 million workers at risk avoided and at least 3.067-4.033 billion RMB of the health care savings. While the scenario of phasing out HBCD over 10 years would be less costly than the scenario of that over 5 years, the later scenario suggested much greater environmental and health benefits for China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Zhu
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, 100871, Beijing, China
| | - Jian-Guo Liu
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, 100871, Beijing, China.
| | - Jian-Xin Hu
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, 100871, Beijing, China
| | - Shan Yi
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, 100871, Beijing, China
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23
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Wu Z, Li S, Liu M, Wang H, Wang Z, Liu X. Study on liquid oxygen compatibility of bromine-containing epoxy resins for the application in liquid oxygen tank. POLYM ADVAN TECHNOL 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/pat.3604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zhanjun Wu
- School of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Faculty of Vehicle Engineering and Mechanics, State Key Laboratory of Structural Analysis for Industrial Equipment; Dalian University of Technology; Dalian 116024 P.R. China
| | - Shichao Li
- School of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Faculty of Vehicle Engineering and Mechanics, State Key Laboratory of Structural Analysis for Industrial Equipment; Dalian University of Technology; Dalian 116024 P.R. China
| | - Minjing Liu
- School of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Faculty of Vehicle Engineering and Mechanics, State Key Laboratory of Structural Analysis for Industrial Equipment; Dalian University of Technology; Dalian 116024 P.R. China
| | - Hongyu Wang
- School of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Faculty of Vehicle Engineering and Mechanics, State Key Laboratory of Structural Analysis for Industrial Equipment; Dalian University of Technology; Dalian 116024 P.R. China
| | - Zhi Wang
- School of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Faculty of Vehicle Engineering and Mechanics, State Key Laboratory of Structural Analysis for Industrial Equipment; Dalian University of Technology; Dalian 116024 P.R. China
| | - Xin Liu
- School of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Faculty of Vehicle Engineering and Mechanics, State Key Laboratory of Structural Analysis for Industrial Equipment; Dalian University of Technology; Dalian 116024 P.R. China
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24
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An Overview of Mode of Action and Analytical Methods for Evaluation of Gas Phase Activities of Flame Retardants. Polymers (Basel) 2015. [DOI: 10.3390/polym7030504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
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25
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Wu Z, Li S, Liu M, Wang Z, Liu X. Liquid oxygen compatible epoxy resin: modification and characterization. RSC Adv 2015. [DOI: 10.1039/c4ra14100h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Liquid oxygen compatibility mechanism of bromine-modified epoxy resin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhanjun Wu
- School of Aeronautics and Astronautics
- Faculty of Vehicle Engineering and Mechanics
- State Key Laboratory of Structural Analysis for Industrial Equipment
- Dalian University of Technology
- Dalian 116024
| | - Shichao Li
- School of Aeronautics and Astronautics
- Faculty of Vehicle Engineering and Mechanics
- State Key Laboratory of Structural Analysis for Industrial Equipment
- Dalian University of Technology
- Dalian 116024
| | - Minjing Liu
- School of Aeronautics and Astronautics
- Faculty of Vehicle Engineering and Mechanics
- State Key Laboratory of Structural Analysis for Industrial Equipment
- Dalian University of Technology
- Dalian 116024
| | - Zhi Wang
- School of Aeronautics and Astronautics
- Faculty of Vehicle Engineering and Mechanics
- State Key Laboratory of Structural Analysis for Industrial Equipment
- Dalian University of Technology
- Dalian 116024
| | - Xin Liu
- School of Aeronautics and Astronautics
- Faculty of Vehicle Engineering and Mechanics
- State Key Laboratory of Structural Analysis for Industrial Equipment
- Dalian University of Technology
- Dalian 116024
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26
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Naik AD, Fontaine G, Samyn F, Delva X, Louisy J, Bellayer S, Bourgeois Y, Bourbigot S. Mapping the multimodal action of melamine-poly(aluminium phosphate) in the flame retardancy of polyamide 66. RSC Adv 2014. [DOI: 10.1039/c4ra02005g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Multimodal action and synergism of melamine poly(aluminum phosphate) in the flame retardancy of polyamide 66.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anil D. Naik
- ISP/UMET – UMR/CNRS 8207
- Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Chimie de Lille (ENSCL)
- 59652 Villeneuve d'Ascq Cedex, France
| | - Gaëlle Fontaine
- ISP/UMET – UMR/CNRS 8207
- Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Chimie de Lille (ENSCL)
- 59652 Villeneuve d'Ascq Cedex, France
| | - Fabienne Samyn
- ISP/UMET – UMR/CNRS 8207
- Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Chimie de Lille (ENSCL)
- 59652 Villeneuve d'Ascq Cedex, France
| | | | | | - Séverine Bellayer
- ISP/UMET – UMR/CNRS 8207
- Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Chimie de Lille (ENSCL)
- 59652 Villeneuve d'Ascq Cedex, France
| | | | - Serge Bourbigot
- ISP/UMET – UMR/CNRS 8207
- Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Chimie de Lille (ENSCL)
- 59652 Villeneuve d'Ascq Cedex, France
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