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Du H, Dang X, Chen R, Li Y, Cui N, Yang H. A universal three-dimensional hydrogel electrode for electrochemical detection of SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid protein and hydrogen peroxide. Biosens Bioelectron 2024; 259:116355. [PMID: 38754196 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2024.116355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2024] [Revised: 04/09/2024] [Accepted: 04/30/2024] [Indexed: 05/18/2024]
Abstract
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a highly contagious illness caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), resulting in a global health crisis. The primary diagnostic method for COVID-19 is quantitative reverse transcription PCR, which is time-consuming and requires expensive instrumentation. Here, we developed an electrochemical biosensor for detecting SARS-CoV-2 biomarkers using a 3D porous polyacrylamide/polyaniline hydrogel (PPG) electrode prepared by UV photopolymerization and in situ polymerization. The electrochemical immunosensor for detecting SARS-CoV-2 N protein via the immune sandwich principle demonstrated a lower detection limit of 42 pg/mL and comparable specificity to a commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, which was additionally validated in pseudoviruses. The electrochemical sensor for hydrogen peroxide showed a low detection limit of 0.5 μM and excellent selectivity, which was further confirmed in cancer cells under oxidative stress. The biomarkers of SARS-CoV-2 were successfully detected due to the signal amplification capability provided by 3D porous electrodes and the high sensitivity of the antigen-antibody specific binding. This study introduces a novel three-dimensional electrode with great potential for the early detection of SARS-CoV-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haoze Du
- School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, 710072, PR China; Engineering Research Center of Chinese Ministry of Education for Biological Diagnosis, Treatment and Protection Technology and Equipment, Xi'an, 710072, PR China; Center for Advanced Biomaterials and Technology Transformation, Suzhou Ningrao Biotechnology Co., Ltd, Suzhou, 215000, PR China
| | - Xinmin Dang
- School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, 710072, PR China; Engineering Research Center of Chinese Ministry of Education for Biological Diagnosis, Treatment and Protection Technology and Equipment, Xi'an, 710072, PR China; Center for Advanced Biomaterials and Technology Transformation, Suzhou Ningrao Biotechnology Co., Ltd, Suzhou, 215000, PR China
| | - Ran Chen
- School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, 710072, PR China; Engineering Research Center of Chinese Ministry of Education for Biological Diagnosis, Treatment and Protection Technology and Equipment, Xi'an, 710072, PR China; Center for Advanced Biomaterials and Technology Transformation, Suzhou Ningrao Biotechnology Co., Ltd, Suzhou, 215000, PR China
| | - Yiwei Li
- School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, 710072, PR China; Engineering Research Center of Chinese Ministry of Education for Biological Diagnosis, Treatment and Protection Technology and Equipment, Xi'an, 710072, PR China
| | - Ning Cui
- School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, 710072, PR China; Engineering Research Center of Chinese Ministry of Education for Biological Diagnosis, Treatment and Protection Technology and Equipment, Xi'an, 710072, PR China; Center for Advanced Biomaterials and Technology Transformation, Suzhou Ningrao Biotechnology Co., Ltd, Suzhou, 215000, PR China.
| | - Hui Yang
- School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, 710072, PR China; Engineering Research Center of Chinese Ministry of Education for Biological Diagnosis, Treatment and Protection Technology and Equipment, Xi'an, 710072, PR China.
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Khan MKA, Abdulhameed AS, Alshahrani H, Algburi S. Chitosan/functionalized fruit stones as a highly efficient adsorbent biomaterial for adsorption of brilliant green dye: Comprehensive characterization and statistical optimization. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 263:130465. [PMID: 38423427 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.130465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2023] [Revised: 01/02/2024] [Accepted: 02/24/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024]
Abstract
In this research, a highly efficient adsorbent biomaterial (hereinafter, CTS/PPS-HS) of chitosan/functionalized fruit stones (peach and plum) with H2SO4 was produced for the adsorption of brilliant green (BG) dye from aquatic systems. The developed biomaterial was characterized by several techniques like SEM-EDX, FTIR, XRD, BET, and pHpzc. To systematically optimize the adsorption performance of CTS/PPS-HS, the Box-Behnken design (BBD) based on response surface methodology (RSM) was attained. The factors considered for optimization included A: CTS/PPS-HS dosage (0.02-0.08 g), B: pH (4-10), and C: removal time (10-60 min). The pseudo-first-order and Langmuir isotherm models exhibited excellent agreement with the experimental results of BG adsorption by CTS/PPS-HS. The outstanding adsorption capacity (409.63 mg/g) of CTS/PPS-HS was obtained. The remarkable adsorption of BG onto CTS/PPS-HS can be primarily attributed to electrostatic forces between the acidic sites of CTS/PPS-HS and the BG cations, accompanied by interactions such as π-π, Yoshida H-bonding, n-π, and H-bond interactions. The current data underscores the significant potential inherent in combining biomass with CTS polymer to create an exceptionally effective adsorbent biomaterial tailored for the elimination of cationic dyes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad K A Khan
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, Najran University, Najran, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ahmed Saud Abdulhameed
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Anbar, Ramadi, Iraq; College of Engineering, University of Warith Al-Anbiyaa, Karbala, Iraq.
| | - Hassan Alshahrani
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, Najran University, Najran, Saudi Arabia
| | - Sameer Algburi
- College of Engineering Technology, Al-Kitab University, Kirkuk 36015, Iraq
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Mittal M, Tripathi S, Shin DK. Biopolymeric Nanocomposites for Wastewater Remediation: An Overview on Recent Progress and Challenges. Polymers (Basel) 2024; 16:294. [PMID: 38276702 PMCID: PMC10818902 DOI: 10.3390/polym16020294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2023] [Revised: 01/17/2024] [Accepted: 01/19/2024] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Essential for human development, water is increasingly polluted by diverse anthropogenic activities, containing contaminants like organic dyes, acids, antibiotics, inorganic salts, and heavy metals. Conventional methods fall short, prompting the exploration of advanced, cost-effective remediation. Recent research focuses on sustainable adsorption, with nano-modifications enhancing adsorbent efficacy against persistent waterborne pollutants. This review delves into recent advancements (2020-2023) in sustainable biopolymeric nanocomposites, spotlighting the applications of biopolymers like chitosan in wastewater remediation, particularly as adsorbents and filtration membranes along with their mechanism. The advantages and drawbacks of various biopolymers have also been discussed along with their modification in synthesizing biopolymeric nanocomposites by combining the benefits of biodegradable polymers and nanomaterials for enhanced physiochemical and mechanical properties for their application in wastewater treatment. The important functions of biopolymeric nanocomposites by adsorbing, removing, and selectively targeting contaminants, contributing to the purification and sustainable management of water resources, have also been elaborated on. Furthermore, it outlines the reusability and current challenges for the further exploration of biopolymers in this burgeoning field for environmental applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mona Mittal
- Department of Applied Sciences (Chemistry), Galgotias College of Engineering and Technology, Greater Noida 201310, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Smriti Tripathi
- Department of Applied Sciences (Chemistry), Galgotias College of Engineering and Technology, Greater Noida 201310, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Dong Kil Shin
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Yeungnam University, 280-Daehak-ro, Gyeongsan 38541, Republic of Korea
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Novo DC, Edgar KJ. Smart fluorescent polysaccharides: Recent developments and applications. Carbohydr Polym 2024; 324:121471. [PMID: 37985079 PMCID: PMC10661488 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2023.121471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2023] [Revised: 09/27/2023] [Accepted: 10/06/2023] [Indexed: 11/22/2023]
Abstract
Polysaccharides are ubiquitous, generally benign in nature, and compatible with many tissues in biomedical situations, making them appealing candidates for new materials such as therapeutic agents and sensors. Fluorescent labeling can create the ability to sensitively monitor distribution and transport of polysaccharide-based materials, which can for example further illuminate drug-delivery mechanisms and therefore improve design of delivery systems. Herein, we review fluorophore selection and ways of appending polysaccharides, utility of the product fluorescent polysaccharides as new smart materials, and their stimulus-responsive nature, with focus on their biomedical applications as environment-sensitive biosensors, imaging, and as molecular rulers. Further, we discuss the advantages and disadvantages of these methods, and future prospects for creation and use of these self-reporting materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana C Novo
- Department of Sustainable Biomaterials, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, United States; Department of Chemistry, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, United States
| | - Kevin J Edgar
- Department of Sustainable Biomaterials, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, United States; Macromolecules Innovation Institute, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, United States; GlycoMIP, National Science Foundation Materials Innovation Platform, United States.
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Zhu Z, Wu X, Wang Z. Effect of polyaniline dispersibility in chitin sponge matrix controlled by hydrophilicity on microplastics adsorption. Int J Biol Macromol 2023; 253:127292. [PMID: 37827420 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.127292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2023] [Revised: 09/24/2023] [Accepted: 10/05/2023] [Indexed: 10/14/2023]
Abstract
Microplastics have become an emerging threat to global ecosystems, and their efficient removal faces with serious challenges. Herein, this study introduced different hydrophilic polyaniline (PANIs) into chitin matrix to fabricate Chitin-PANIs sponge (ChPANIs) and investigated the relationship between PANIs dispersibility in chitin sponge matrix controlled by its hydrophilicity and adsorption effects on MPs. With the increase of PANIs' hydrophilicity (WCA from 153.9° to 32.8°), the removal efficiency of sponges to MPs increased from 84.0 % to 91.7 %. More hydrophilic PANIs can provide more contact surfaces and adsorption sites, which enhanced the electrostatic interactions to MPs and obtained excellent adsorption properties. The adsorption of MPs on ChPANIs accorded with the pseudo-first-order adsorption, suggesting that physical adsorption plays a dominant role. The adsorption process also conformed to Freundlich model, which displayed the MPs adsorption on ChPANI-PA could be multi-layer. The adsorption strength of ChPANIs was 0.7552, suggesting that it was a strong adsorbent. The ChPANIs also exhibited good mechanical properties and reusability, which its MPs removal efficiency just decreased from 91.7 % to 86.9 % during the five cycles. These findings expand the understanding of the adsorption mechanism analysis of MPs on sponge materials, and exist guiding significance for the design of adsorbed materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiping Zhu
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Cytochemistry, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Changsha University of Science and Technology, Changsha 410114, PR China
| | - Xueyu Wu
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Cytochemistry, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Changsha University of Science and Technology, Changsha 410114, PR China
| | - Zhenggang Wang
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Cytochemistry, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Changsha University of Science and Technology, Changsha 410114, PR China.
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Gong H, Liu L, Zhou J, Li H, Qiu J, Cheng W. Smart chitosan-based microgels for enhanced photothermal-assisted antibacterial activity. Int J Biol Macromol 2023; 252:126389. [PMID: 37611687 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.126389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2023] [Revised: 05/14/2023] [Accepted: 08/15/2023] [Indexed: 08/25/2023]
Abstract
During recent years, antibiotic-resistant bacteria have rapidly emerged owing to the irrational use of antibiotics, rendering a global problem. Currently, few studies introduce customized antibacterial nanoplatforms to overcome antibiotic-resistance according to specific characteristic of bacteria, rather than abuse of antibiotic. Herein, with regard to personalized antibacterial nanoplatform, we design a novel antibiotic delivery nanocarrier composed of polyaniline-grafted-chitosan, presenting pH-responsive, conductive, photothermal, and biodegradable properties. After treatment with divalent anion (SO42-), the negatively charged nanocarriers are obtained for improving the loading efficacy of cationic vancomycin. Meanwhile, the controlled vancomycin release is achieved by lysozyme-triggered degradation of the nanocarrier. With the assistance of photothermal effect, the photothermal-assisted antibacterial effect of the nanocarriers have been effectively enhanced rather than that of a single antibacterial effect of vancomycin. Owing to the low heat resistance of Escherichia coli, photothermal effect can break the antibiotic-resistant bacteria membrane to render the convenient antibiotic entry, leading to the improved antibacterial efficacy. Therefore, the customization of a photothermal-assisted antibacterial on account of the characteristic of specific bacteria can definitely expand our arsenal for enhancing the antibacterial effect against antibiotic-resistant bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Gong
- Department of Emergency, School of Medicine, Renji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200127, China
| | - Li Liu
- The People's Hospital of Suzhou New District, Suzhou 215129, China
| | - Jieru Zhou
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, School of Medicine, Ren Ji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200127, China
| | - Helin Li
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Yangtze River Delta Region Green Pharmaceuticals, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China.
| | - Jiaxing Qiu
- Shanghai TCM-Integrated Hospital, Shanghai 200082, China.
| | - Weini Cheng
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, Renji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200127, China.
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Sambasevam KP, Sateria SF, Baharin SNA, Azman NJ, Ahmad Wakid S, Shahabuddin S. An optimization of fungal chitin grafted polyaniline for ammonia gas detection via Box Behnken design. Int J Biol Macromol 2023; 238:124079. [PMID: 36934823 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.124079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2022] [Revised: 03/03/2023] [Accepted: 03/14/2023] [Indexed: 03/19/2023]
Abstract
In this work, chitin (Ch) was chemically extracted from wild mushrooms and then grafted to polyaniline (PANI) to form a composite (Ch-g-PANI) to detect ammonia (NH3) gas. The Ch-g-PANI was comprehensively characterized using Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), elemental mapping, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and UV-Vis spectroscopy. The NH3 gas detection optimization was evaluated using Box-Behnken Design. Typically, physical factors such as (A)film layer, (B)loading %, and (C)contact time were investigated and validated through the analysis of variance (ANOVA). The ANOVA revealed that dual interactions between (A)film layer - (C)contact time, and (B)loading % - (C)contact time are among the significant factors. By considering these significant interactions, the highest sensitivity was obtained when (A)film layer (3), (B)loading (5 %), and (C)contact time (10 min) in NH3 gas detection. Then, the optimized Ch-g-PANI was tested in the linear range of NH3 gas concentration from 10 to 50 ppm, which resulted in a linear calibration curve with R2 = 0.994 and a detection limit of 15.03 ppm. Sensor performances showed that Ch-g-PANI films possess high selectivity for NH3 gas among the common interfering gases and the film can be reused for up to 6 cycles. Therefore, the new mushroom-sourced Ch-g-PANI is an inexpensive and economical sensor in the NH3 gas sensor field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kavirajaa Pandian Sambasevam
- Advanced Materials for Environmental Remediation (AMER), Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Cawangan Negeri Sembilan, Kampus Kuala Pilah, 72000 Kuala Pilah, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia; Electrochemical Material and Sensor (EMaS) Research Group, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam 40450, Selangor, Malaysia.
| | - Syafarina Farisa Sateria
- Advanced Materials for Environmental Remediation (AMER), Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Cawangan Negeri Sembilan, Kampus Kuala Pilah, 72000 Kuala Pilah, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia
| | - Siti Nor Atika Baharin
- Advanced Materials for Environmental Remediation (AMER), Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Cawangan Negeri Sembilan, Kampus Kuala Pilah, 72000 Kuala Pilah, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia
| | - Nur Jannah Azman
- Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Cawangan Negeri Sembilan, Kampus Kuala Pilah, 72000 Kuala Pilah, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia
| | - Sarini Ahmad Wakid
- School of Biology, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Cawangan Negeri Sembilan, Kampus Kuala Pilah, 72000 Kuala Pilah, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia
| | - Syed Shahabuddin
- Department of Chemistry, School of EnergyTechnology, Pandit Deendayal Energy University, Raisan, Gandhinagar 382426, Gujarat, India
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Synergistic Effects of Multifunctional Nanostructured WO3-WS2 Decorated on Polypyrrole (WO3-WS2/PPy) for the Removal of Toxic Heavy Metals from Wastewaters and High Supercapacitor Performance. J Mol Liq 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molliq.2023.121312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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Emerging Applications of Versatile Polyaniline-Based Polymers in the Food Industry. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14235168. [PMID: 36501566 PMCID: PMC9737623 DOI: 10.3390/polym14235168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2022] [Revised: 11/08/2022] [Accepted: 11/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Intrinsically conducting polymers (ICPs) have been widely studied in various applications, such as sensors, tissue engineering, drug delivery, and semiconductors. Specifically, polyaniline (PANI) stands out in food industry applications due to its advantageous reversible redox properties, electrical conductivity, and simple modification. The rising concerns about food safety and security have encouraged the development of PANI as an antioxidant, antimicrobial agent, food freshness indicator, and electronic nose. At the same time, it plays an important role in food safety control to ensure the quality of food. This study reviews the emerging applications of PANI in the food industry. It has been found that the versatile applications of PANI allow the advancement of modern active and intelligent food packaging and better food quality monitoring systems.
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Mohseni M, Toloee P, Nademi N. Rheological and electrical behavior of core–shell conduit comprising PCL-chitosan-gelatin/Al 2O 3 nanofibers and gellan-agar/poly aniline-graphene. JOURNAL OF MACROMOLECULAR SCIENCE PART A-PURE AND APPLIED CHEMISTRY 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/10601325.2022.2138764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mojdeh Mohseni
- Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Pouriya Toloee
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Naghmeh Nademi
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
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PANI/Bi2O3 polymeric nanocomposite for the reduction of 4-nitrophenol. Polym Bull (Berl) 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s00289-022-04457-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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12
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Recent Advances and Future Perspectives of Polymer-Based Magnetic Nanomaterials for Detection and Removal of Radionuclides: A review. J Mol Liq 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molliq.2022.119976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Biologically Synthesized Copper Nanoparticles Show Considerable Degradation of Reactive Red 81 Dye: An Eco-Friendly Sustainable Approach. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 2022:7537955. [PMID: 35880033 PMCID: PMC9308545 DOI: 10.1155/2022/7537955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2022] [Accepted: 07/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Diospyros kaki leaf extract was used in this study as a favorable basis for the synthesis of copper nanoparticles (Cu NPs). X-ray diffraction (XRD) and UV-visible spectroscopy approaches were used to characterize the biologically synthesized copper nanoparticles. The XRD analysis showed that copper nanoparticles were face-centered cubic structure. Various experimental levels like conc. of dye, concentration of Cu NPs, pH, reaction time, and temperature were optimized to decolorize reactive red 81 dye using the synthesized Cu NPs. Reactive red 81 dye was decolorized maximum using Cu NPs of 0.005 mg/L. Additionally, reactive red 81 dye was decolorized at its maximum at pH = 6, temperature = 50°C. Our study reported that chemical oxidation demand (COD) and total organic carbon (TOC) deduction efficacies were 74.56% and 73.24%. Further degradation study of reactive red 81 dye was also carried out. Cu NPs have the ability and promising potential to decolorize and degrade reactive red 81 dye found in wastewater.
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