Birth weight as a risk factor for neonatal mortality: Breed-specific approach to identify at-risk puppies

Neonatal Clinical Assessment of the Puppy and Kitten: How to Identify Newborns at Risk?

Neonatal puppies and kittens have physiological and anatomical characteristics that differ from those of adult animals, which impacts the interpretation of physical examination and complementary tests. The veterinarian must be familiar with the clinical, laboratory, and imaging aspects observed in neonates. It is necessary to thoroughly evaluate the litter and the mother to notice the most subtle signs of illness and advise the owner to constantly monitor the newborns, quickly sending them to specialized care. This review describes how to perform clinical assessments of newborns systematically and recognize clinical signs of neonatal changes or affections in puppies and kittens.

The supplementation of female dogs with live yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. boulardii CNCM I-1079 acts as gut stabilizer at whelping and modulates immunometabolic phenotype of the puppies

Time around parturition is a stressful period for both bitches and their puppies. The use of probiotics has been proposed, e.g., in pigs, to improve health status of sows, their reproductive performances and in turn, the health and performance of their progeny. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the impact, on both dams and puppies, of a supplementation of bitches with the live yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. boulardii CNCM I-1079 (SB-1079) during the second part of the gestation and the lactation period. A total of 36 bitches of medium and large-sized breeds were enrolled. They were divided into two groups, one of which received 1.3 × 109 colony forming units of live yeast per day. At dam's level, SB-1079 yeast shaped a different microbiota structure between the two groups just after whelping, impacted alpha diversity and some plasma metabolites related to energy metabolism. Regarding reproductive performances, SB-1079 improved gross energy of the colostrum (1.4 vs. 1.2 kcal of ME/g) as well as the concentration of protein in milk at Day 7 after parturition (10.4 vs. 7.6%). SB-1079 also reduced the odds of having low birth weight in the litter. At puppy's level, a modulation of immunometabolic phenotype is suggested by the observation of increased growth rates during the early pediatric period (i.e., between 21 and 56 days of life, 225 vs. 190%) and a decrease of the IL-8:IL-10 ratio after vaccination against rabies (4.2 vs. 16.9). Our findings suggest that SB-1079 supplementation during gestation and lactation has the potential to enhance health of bitches and in turn health of puppies through maternal programming.

Does Placental Efficiency and Vascularization Affect Puppy Health? A Study in Boxer and Dobermann Dogs

BACKGROUND

The anatomical and functional characteristics of the placenta influence the adaptive ability of the fetus to the extrauterine environment. Placental efficiency, measured as the gram of neonate produced by each gram of placenta, summarizes these characteristics. In the present study, placental efficiency and its impact on the 7-day postpartum life of the puppies were studied in canine large breeds.

METHODS

Placental efficiency (PE) was computed using chorioallantois weight (WPE) and surface (SPE) efficiency for puppies born from natural delivery or elective cesarean section. Capillary density was also histologically determined. Neonate viability was estimated by the APGAR score and the daily weight gain (DWG) was recorded on day 7 after delivery.

RESULTS

from 15 large-breed bitches, 69 live puppies were born by natural delivery (24 puppies) and elective cesarean section (45 puppies). Cluster analysis detected a group of neonates for which reduced placental efficiency (8 for the WPE, 9 for the SPE) was identified, despite a placental weight and surface within the mean and no difference in capillary density. In this group, the DWG was lower and the mortality within 7 days was higher.

CONCLUSIONS

the results suggest that placental efficiency could be an additional tool for the evaluation of a puppy in the first 7 days after delivery.

Evaluation of Canine Neonatal Health by Breeders: A Prospective Questionnaire Study on the Association between Neonatal Scores (Modified APGAR), Parturition, Birth Weight, Growth, and Puppy Mortality

Mortality of neonatal puppies is a widespread problem in small animal medicine. Neonatal monitoring, according to standardized protocols, can be useful for identifying puppies that are at risk of mortality. Prompt intervention on weak puppies could increase survival rates. Apgar scoring adapted for puppies has been demonstrated to be associated with mortality and is usually performed by trained veterinary staff. The majority of puppies, however, are born in a home or kennel environment and not at a veterinary clinic. Our aims were, therefore, to evaluate if a modified protocol for neonatal monitoring would be usable by breeders in a home environment. We wanted to evaluate potential associations between modified Apgar scores, birth weights, delivery times, growth rates, and puppy mortality. Modified Apgar scores were related to the viability of live-born puppies (p < 0.0013). The viability and expulsion time of each puppy were significantly related (p = 0.010 with all puppies included and p = 0.038 with only live-born puppies included). Viability was significantly related to relative birthweight (p < 0.01). Puppies with a negative growth rate the first two days after parturition did not have a significantly higher risk of mortality. In conclusion, a modified and simplified Apgar scoring performed by breeders approximately 5 min after birth was associated with puppy mortality.

Birth weight, puppies' growth and health with limited-ingredient novel protein diet vs standard diet in late pregnancy

Great attention has been given in the last years to the protein source of dog food, and commercial limited-ingredient diets with a single protein are available also for late pregnancy. This work compared the effect of a fish-based limited ingredient diet (LID), and of a standard mixed-protein diet (Mixed), fed to the bitches from the last three weeks of pregnancy and to the puppies at weaning, on birth weight, growth and health of the puppies. From a breeder's records, the weight of 22 Lagotto Romagnolo (LR) and 10 Appenzeller Cattle Dog (ACD) bitches on the day of mating, and of their 199 puppies, were extracted. The effect of diet on puppies' weight on day 0, 6, 30 and 60 was analyzed, considering litter size and sex. The analyses were repeated on puppies' weights normalized on the relative dam's non-pregnant bodyweight. Birth weight was available for 146 puppies, 82 LR and 64 ACD. Median birth weight of LR puppies was 287.5 g (170-400 g); sex ratio was 1.11 (males/females, N = 80). Median birth weight of ACD puppies was 390 g (240-525 g); sex ratio 1.15 (males/females, N = 58). Diet did not significantly affect birth weight in both breeds; however, it showed a significant effect on normalized birth weights (LR, P = 0.016; ACD, P = 0.034), with higher values for LID. At day 30, ACD puppies showed significantly higher weights with the Mixed diet (P = 0.002), and, at day 60, diet significantly affected the normalized weight in both breeds (LR, P = 0.019; ACD, P = 0.001), with higher values for the Mixed type. LID may help the dam to invest the energy in the growth of her litter, however, the same diet resulted in lower puppies' weights around weaning, compared to the Mixed diet. Although our results should be confirmed with larger numbers of animals and more breeds, they set some points worth to be further investigated. The choice of a limited-ingredient single-protein diet can affect litter weight and weight at weaning. Whether, administered to dams and puppies, it can prevent later pathologies, like chronic gastrointestinal diseases or food allergies, is a field of research deserving full attention.

Neonatal-Maternal Bodyweight Ratio at Birth: An Indicator for First-Week Survival Prognosis in Canine Newborns

Objectives. In dogs, neonatal bodyweight (NBW) varies at birth. Size-specific reference values for NBW are essential to correctly manage newborns. The present study aimed to define a new tool to evaluate NBW that could be routinely applied in canine neonatology, promptly identifying puppies requiring more care. Methods. The records of 89 litters were retrospectively evaluated. Data were grouped according to maternal bodyweight (MBW) in five categories: toy (≤5 kg), small (5.1-9.9 kg), medium (10-24.9 kg), large (25-39.9 kg), and giant (≥40 kg) dogs. At birth, the NBW of 412 puppies, alongside their litter size (LS) and gender (G), were recorded. Neonatal mortality within the first week was considered. The influence of MBW, LS, and G on NBW and the effect of NBW on the 1-week outcome were evaluated using ANOVA (p < 0.05). The ratio between NBW and MBW expressed as a percentage (N-MBW%), was assessed for each puppy. Through Receiver-Operating Characteristic (ROC) curves, N-MBW% thresholds between puppies alive or dead at one week of age were calculated in each group. Results. The LS was different among groups, except for small vs. medium dogs. In small litters, N-MBW% was lower in medium-, large- and giant-sized dogs than in toy and small dogs. In medium and large litters, N-MBW% differed among the five groups. Male and female N-MBW% differed among the five groups. Only in large and giant sizes did LS affect N-MBW%, which was lower in a large LS. The N-MBW% was higher in healthy puppies than in those who died within one week. The ROC-derived N-MBW% thresholds were as follows: 4.5% in toy-, 3.2% in small-, 1.5% in medium-, 1.2% in large-, and 1% in giant dogs. Clinical significance. The ROC-derived N-MBW% thresholds can be used to cautiously identify puppies at increased risk for one-week mortality and may be helpful in clinical practice, representing a suitable parameter to give a prognosis on 1-week survival immediately at birth.

Composition and evolution of the gut microbiota of growing puppies is impacted by their birth weight

Low birth weight puppies present an increased risk of neonatal mortality, morbidity, and some long-term health issues. Yet it has not been investigated if those alterations could be linked to the gut microbiota composition and evolution. 57 puppies were weighed at birth and rectal swabs were performed at 5 time points from birth to 28 days of age. Puppies were grouped into three groups based on their birth weight: low birth weight (LBW), normal birth weight (NBW) and high birth weight (HBW). 16S rRNA gene sequencing was used to highlight differences in the fecal microbiota. During the first three weeks, the relative abundance of facultative anaerobic bacteria such as E. coli, C. perfringens and Tyzzerella was higher in LBW feces, but they catch back with the other groups afterwards. HBW puppies showed higher abundances of Faecalibacterium and Bacteroides during the neonatal period, suggesting an earlier maturation of their microbiota. The results of this study suggest that birth weight impact the initial establishment of the gut microbiota in puppies. Innovative strategies would be desired to deal with altered gut microbiota in low birth weight puppies aiming to improve their survival and long term health.

Assessment of Vitality, Blood Profile, and Degree of Meconium Staining on the Skin in Newborn Dogs According to Its Birth Weight

Neonatal mortality in dogs reaches up to 40%. Due to the high rates, promptly detecting the causes and preventing newborns from dying are extremely important. Vitality evaluation, blood parameters, and the degree of meconium staining on the skin are valuable resources in canine perinatology. In this study, 435 puppies from 85 bitches close to parturition were recruited and divided into four quartiles according to the puppy's birth weight: Q₁ (127-200 g) n = 110 puppies, Q₂ (201-269 g) n = 108 puppies, Q₃ (270-388 g) n = 108 puppies, and Q₄ (389-464 g) n = 109 puppies. This experimental article aimed to report the effect of birth weight on the blood profile variables, the vitality of newborn puppies, and the meconium staining degree, integrating these three aspects. It was concluded that the weight of newborns was correlated with the degree of meconium staining, presenting more cases of severe meconium staining in the puppies of the highest birth weight group. The weight of the newborns was correlated with a higher number of stillbirths and alterations in the blood variables, showing the most severe cases of metabolic acidosis, hypoxia, and hypoglycemia in the puppies of the Q₄ quartile. On the contrary, no statistically significant correlations were found between the weight of newborns and vitality. Nevertheless, the analysis of the results showed that the most vigorous puppies were found at Q_1; however, at minute 60 after birth (AB), all the puppies in the four quartiles standardized their vitality scores.

Canine Neonatal Health

This article provides a high-level overview of canine neonatal health for clinicians to use as a mental framework so that when presented with a canine neonate it is easier to construct a logical and systematic clinical approach that is less overwhelming. As early detection of the at-risk neonate results in earlier intervention, and improved health outcomes, there will be a focus on pro-active care. Where appropriate, other articles in this issue will be mentioned for a more in-depth discussion of specific areas. Key points will be highlighted throughout the text.

Relative Impact of Birth Weight and Early Growth on Neonatal Mortality in Puppies

Puppy survival during their first weeks of life can be improved, and early detection of puppies with increased mortality risk is one of the keys to success. In the canine species, the few studies on this subject focused on birth weight, which reflects intrauterine growth. The present work aimed to explore the interconnections between birth weight, early growth and survival until two months of life in the canine species. In total, data from 8550 puppies born in 127 French breeding kennels were analysed. Five different growth rates were calculated to reflect the growth of puppies during their first week of life. Low-birth-weight puppies had lower growth than normal-birth-weight puppies over the first two days of life but higher growth rates thereafter. Growth-rate thresholds allowing the identification of puppies at higher risk of mortality during their first two months of life were lower for low-birth-weight puppies. These thresholds will help breeders and veterinarians to identify puppies at risk with particular needs for monitoring and nursing to improve their chances of survival.

Association between Birth Weight and Mortality over the Two First Months after Birth in Feline Species: Definition of Breed-Specific Thresholds

In many species, low birth weight is identified as a major determinant for neonatal survival. The objectives of the present study were (i) to assess, in a large feline purebred population, the impact of birth weight on 0-2 months mortality in kittens, and (ii) if such mortality occurs, to define cut-off values for birth weight to identify at-risk kittens. Data from 5596 kittens from 15 breeds and provided by 194 French breeders were analysed. A logistic mixed model was used to identify low birth weight, being a male, and being born in a large litter as significant risk factors for kitten mortality during the first two months after birth. Classification and regression tree analysis was used to define the thresholds, first at the species level and, when possible, at the breed level. Two thresholds were defined to group kittens into three categories: low, moderate, or high risk of 0-2 months mortality (normal, low, and very low birth weight, respectively). In our population, 19.7% of the kittens were classified as low birth weight and 1.9% as very low birth weight. Critical thresholds may differ between breeds with similar birth weight distributions and equivalent mortality rates (e.g., Russian Blue/Nebelung vs. Egyptian Mau). These critical birth weight thresholds, established in 15 breeds, could be used to identify kittens requiring more intensive nursing to improve survival.

Preconception paternal/maternal BMI and risk of small/large for gestational age infant in over 4·7 million Chinese women aged 20-49 years: a population-based cohort study in China

Evidence of couples' BMI and its influence on birth weight is limited and contradictory. Therefore, this study aims to assess the association between couple's preconception BMI and the risk of small for gestational age (SGA)/large for gestational age (LGA) infant, among over 4·7 million couples in a retrospective cohort study based on the National Free Pre-pregnancy Checkups Project between 1 December 2013 and 30 November 2016 in China. Among the live births, 256 718 (5·44 %) SGA events and 506 495 (10·73 %) LGA events were documented, respectively. After adjusting for confounders, underweight men had significantly higher risk (OR 1·17 (95 % CI 1·15, 1·19)) of SGA infants compared with men with normal BMI, while a significant and increased risk of LGA infants was obtained for overweight and obese men (OR 1·08 (95 % CI 1·06, 1·09); OR 1·19 (95 % CI 1·17, 1·20)), respectively. The restricted cubic spline result revealed a non-linear decreasing dose-response relationship of paternal BMI (less than 22·64) with SGA. Meanwhile, a non-linear increasing dose-response relationship of paternal BMI (more than 22·92) with LGA infants was observed. Moreover, similar results about the association between maternal preconception BMI and SGA/LGA infants were obtained. Abnormal preconception BMI in either women or men were associated with increased risk of SGA/LGA infants, respectively. Overall, couple's abnormal weight before pregnancy may be an important preventable risk factor for SGA/LGA infants.

[Real-time analysis of parturition in bitches of a medium-sized breed]

OBJECTIVE

Observation of the birth processes in healthy bitches under controlled conditions. The primary aim was to gain more insight into the natural birth process. Additional goal was to determine under which circumstances caregivers seek veterinary assistance.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Data regarding length of gestation, the course of the parturition process, litter size, as well as neonatal characteristics were collected from 345 Boxer bitches. A real-time evaluation supplied the data concerning the birth process itself. Statistical analysis included single- and multi-factor variance analyses, as well as correlation, regression, and rank correlation analyses.

RESULTS

Mother dogs with fewer fetuses were gravid for a significantly longer period than those with a high number (p=0.0012). The proportion of live neonates decreased significantly from the 5th litter onwards (p=0.0072). Female neonates exhibited a lower birth weight than male neonates (p<0.0001). Diurnal influences on the onset of stage II were not found. Birth processes could be divided into 3 groups based on the recorded progression: group 1 - eutocia (54.6%), group II - eutocia with prophylactic measures by the caregiver (20.5%), and group III - dystocia (24.9%). Bitches of group 1 were slightly younger than those of groups 2 and 3. In groups 2 and 3, the proportion of older primiparae (≥4 years) was significantly higher than in group 1 (p<0.05). The total duration of labor differed significantly between groups 1 and 2 (p<0.0001). Significant differences were seen between the groups in labor activity. In group 3, the proportion of bitches with a type I (=primary) weakness in labor was strikingly high (45.2%). In 83.8% of the births (groups 1 and 2), one or more pauses in labor (>60 min) occurred during the expulsive phase. This was correlated with litter size (p=0.0025), but not with age or birth number. The rate of stillbirth was positively correlated with duration of the birth process. Reasons for veterinary intervention primarily pertained to conditions of type II and III labor weakness (inadequate contractions of the uterus during parturition). The average time span between identification of a birth disorder and presentation of the bitch to a practice/clinic was 4.8±3.3 hours.

CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

In pre-partum-counselling, special attention should be paid to conditions of hyperfetia (>20% above the mean) as well as uniparous and biparous gravidity and these dams should be classified as risk patients with regard to the course of parturition. In the case of birth complications, rapid veterinary intervention is warranted in order to minimize the development of maternal inanition and fetal vitality depression.

Biochemical factors affecting newborn survival in dogs and cats

The importance and implications of small animal neonatology were underestimated until recent times. Despite the recent increasing interest for this branch of veterinary medicine, however, perinatal mortality rates in canine and feline species remain high, representing an important challenge for the clinician. In this perspective, the prompt identification of newborns requiring additional and tailored assistance becomes a key to reduce the perinatal losses in small animals. To achieve this goal, clinical and laboratory findings must be carefully evaluated. This paper focuses on biochemical parameters and their reported influence on neonatal survival, guiding through the evaluation of canine and feline newborn laboratory analyses, with a thorough discussion about the use of different biological material in these subjects. Beside blood, other biological material, such as urines and fetal fluids proved to be interesting for the identification of possible prognostic markers, thanks also to their easy and safe collection. However, the correct reading-through the results must consider many variables such as type of delivery, anesthesia protocol in case of Caesarean section, age of the newborn at samples collection, and for blood analysis, also the type of blood, site of collection, modality of collection and storage must be considered. Notwithstanding the recent progress in literature, for most of the parameters more research is needed to define cut-off values with certainty.

The effect of birth weight and time of day on the thermal response of newborn water buffalo calves

During the 1st days of life, water buffalo calves, especially those with low birth weight, are susceptible to hypothermic mortality due to scarce energy reserves provided by fats. This means that monitoring the thermal state of newborns is essential. The objectives of the present study were to apply infrared thermography (IRT) in 109 buffalo calves to detect differences in the surface temperatures of six thermal windows -lacrimal gland, lacrimal caruncle, periocular region, nostrils, ear canal, pelvic limbs-, and determine their association to birth weight during the first 6 days of life. The calves were divided into four categories according to their weight (Q₁, 37.8-41.25 kg; Q₂, 41.3-46.3 kg; Q₃, 46.4-56.3 kg; Q₄, 56.4-60.3 kg). The thermographic images were recorded in the morning and afternoon. Results showed that the animals in Q₄ registered the highest temperatures in all the thermal windows, and that these were higher in the afternoon (p < 0.0001). When considering the thermal windows, those located in the facial region recorded the highest temperatures; in contrast, the temperatures at the pelvic limbs remained below the average values of the other windows (33.41 and 33.76°C in the morning and afternoon, respectively). According to these results, the birth weight of water buffaloes is a factor that alters their thermoregulation during the 1st days of life, a condition that can be partially compensated by colostrum intake to promote development of an efficient thermoregulatory mechanism in water buffalo calves.

Life expectancy tables for dogs and cats derived from clinical data

There are few recent and methodologically robust life expectancy (LE) tables for dogs or cats. This study aimed to generate LE tables for these species with clinical records from >1,000 Banfield Pet hospitals in the USA. Using Sullivan's method, LE tables were generated across survey years 2013-2019, by survey year, and for subpopulations defined by sex, adult body size group (purebred dogs only: toy, small, medium, large and giant), and median body condition score (BCS) over life. The deceased population for each survey year comprised animals with a recorded date of death in that year; survivors had no death date in that year and were confirmed living by a veterinary visit in a subsequent year. The dataset totaled 13,292,929 unique dogs and 2,390,078 unique cats. LE at birth (LE_birth) was 12.69 years (95% CI: 12.68-12.70) for all dogs, 12.71 years (12.67-12.76) for mixed-breed dogs, 11.18 years (11.16-11.20) for cats, and 11.12 (11.09-11.14) for mixed-breed cats. LE_birth increased with decreasing dog size group and increasing survey year 2013 to 2018 for all dog size groups and cats. Female dogs and cats had significantly higher LE_birth than males: 12.76 years (12.75-12.77) vs. 12.63 years (12.62-12.64), and 11.68 years (11.65-11.71) vs. 10.72 years (10.68-10.75), respectively. Obese dogs (BCS 5/5) had a significantly lower LE_birth [11.71 years (11.66-11.77)] than overweight dogs (BCS 4/5) [13.14 years (13.12-13.16)] and dogs with ideal BCS 3/5 [13.18 years (13.16-13.19)]. The LE_birth of cats with BCS 4/5 [13.67 years (13.62-13.71)] was significantly higher than cats with BCS 5/5 [12.56 years (12.45-12.66)] or BCS 3/5 [12.18 years (12.14-12.21)]. These LE tables provide valuable information for veterinarians and pet owners and a foundation for research hypotheses, as well as being a stepping-stone to disease-associated LE tables.

Canine amniotic fluid at birth: From a discarded sample to a potential diagnostic of neonatal maturity

The definition of new reliable markers for neonatal maturity evaluation is crucial in canine clinical practice. Concerns about the safety of amniotic sampling in pregnant dogs have prevented its collection for diagnostic purposes. Moreover, amniotic fluid had been considered waste material until the latest studies reported amniocentesis as a reliable and safe procedure, even in the canine species. In our study, amniotic fluid (n = 63) collected at birth from ten dogs undergoing elective Caesarean sections at term was analysed to discover new potential indices of canine neonatal maturity. Based on gestational age, mothers and puppies were divided into two groups: the early group (≤65 days from luteinizing hormone (LH) surge, n = 5) and the late group (>65 days from LH surge, n = 5). Amniotic parameters of the lightest and heaviest puppy in individual/each litter, with a birth weight difference of at least 20% among littermates, were also compared. In particular, the content of lecithin, sphingomyelin, surfactant protein A (SP-A), cortisol, and pentraxin 3 (PTX3) in amniotic fluid, which is considered predictive of foetal development in humans, were investigated. Maternal serum SP-A and cortisol were also measured simultaneously. All amniotic parameters were detectable in canine amniotic fluid. Interestingly, the concentrations of different amniotic parameters correlated with each other. Lecithin was positively correlated with sphingomyelin (p < 0.0001), maternal SP-A (p < 0.0005), and the ratio of amniotic and maternal cortisol (p < 0.004). Amniotic SP-A was inversely correlated to maternal SP-A (p < 0.05), lecithin (p < 0.005), and lecithin-sphingomyelin ratio (p < 0.05). A positive correlation was also recorded between amniotic and maternal cortisol (p < 0.008). Considering that all puppies were born alive and mature, these data could provide a potential range of expected amniotic values in full-term new-born dogs. Furthermore, since gestational age was positively correlated with both maternal and amniotic cortisol (p < 0.0001) and amniotic PTX3 (p < 0.05), amniotic fluid seems to be an attractive, innovative, and minimally invasive matrix with potential diagnostic and prognostic utility for the investigation of canine maturity.

Environmental risk factors in puppies and kittens for developing chronic disorders in adulthood: A call for research on developmental programming

Many dogs and cats are affected by chronic diseases that significantly impact their health and welfare and relationships with humans. Some of these diseases can be challenging to treat, and a better understanding of early-life risk factors for diseases occurring in adulthood is key to improving preventive veterinary care and husbandry practices. This article reviews early-life risk factors for obesity and chronic enteropathy, and for chronic behavioral problems, which can also be intractable with life-changing consequences. Aspects of early life in puppies and kittens that can impact the risk of adult disorders include maternal nutrition, establishment of the gut microbiome, maternal behavior, weaning, nutrition during growth, growth rate, socialization with conspecifics and humans, rehoming and neutering. Despite evidence in some species that the disorders reviewed here reflect the developmental origins of health and disease (DOHaD), developmental programming has rarely been studied in dogs and cats. Priorities and strategies to increase knowledge of early-life risk factors and DOHaD in dogs and cats are discussed. Critical windows of development are proposed: preconception, gestation, the suckling period, early growth pre-neutering or pre-puberty, and growth post-neutering or post-puberty to adult size, the durations of which depend upon species and breed. Challenges to DOHaD research in these species include a large number of breeds with wide genetic and phenotypic variability, and the existence of many mixed-breed individuals. Moreover, difficulties in conducting prospective lifelong cohort studies are exacerbated by discontinuity in pet husbandry between breeders and subsequent owners, and by the dispersed nature of pet ownership.

Is the Weight of the Newborn Puppy Related to Its Thermal Balance?

Hypothermia, a factor associated with neonatal mortality, can occur immediately after birth as a protective mechanism to prevent hypoxic damage in neonates, or to reduce the metabolic rate to improve the chances of survival in the first hours of life. The heat interchange through the superficial temperature of animals can be evaluated with infrared thermography (IRT). However, to date, there is no information on thermal windows in puppies. This study aimed to evaluate, with the use of IRT, the microcirculatory alterations in 8 different thermal windows identified at 7 different times in 289 newborn puppies assigned to different groups. Three thermograms were taken from four zones of each puppy: the facial, frontal, right lateral, and left lateral regions. Newborn puppies were grouped in 4 quartiles according to their weight: Q1 (126−226 g) n = 73, Q2 (227−330 g) n = 72, Q3 (331−387 g) n = 74, and Q4 (388−452 g) n = 70. A total of 8 thermal windows were considered at 7 evaluation times from Wet at birth until 24 h after birth (AB). Two-way mixed ANOVA within and between subjects’ design for each thermal window (eight models) was performed. Results revealed a positive correlation between the puppy’s weight and its ability to achieve thermostability in all the evaluated thermal windows. Statistically significant differences (p < 0.0001) between the 4 quartiles (Q1, Q2, Q3, and Q4) were found. The lowest temperatures were recorded when the pups were still wet and the highest at 24 h AB. Thermal windows with the highest temperatures were abdominal (34.234 ± 0.056 °C), thoracic (33.705 ± 0.049 °C), nasal (30.671 ± 0.110 °C), and upper left palpebral (34.066 ± 0.052 °C), while the lowest were thoracic limb brachial biceps (27.534 ± 0.051 °C), thoracic limb elbow (27.141 ± 0.049 °C), thoracic limb metacarpal (27.024 ± 0.062 °C), and femoral pelvic limb (27.654 ± 0.055 °C). Assessing the thermal response in newborn puppies can help identify drastic temperature reductions or deficient thermoregulatory compensation during the first hours of life, preventing the consequences of hypothermia.

Neonatology: Topics on Puppies and Kittens Neonatal Management to Improve Neonatal Outcome

The productivity of kennels and catteries is directly linked to maternal prolificacy and neonatal survival. During the neonatal period, mortality is high, not only due to environmental factors after birth but also with regard to gestational fetal life, complications during delivery, and management errors. Neonatology is an area of veterinary medicine where having a strong knowledge base of applied physiology and common clinical presentations for newborns can often favor better outcomes and greater neonatal survival. The teaching of animal theriogenology topics, particularly neonatal medicine, in the veterinary curriculum has evolved significantly in recent years. It is essential that the veterinarian understands the maternal and neonatal particularities and the main aspects involved in the handling of puppies and kittens for the instruction of the correct handling to the breeders and better medical conduct. The breeder of dogs and cats, experienced or not, must count on the help of a veterinarian in their breeding. Proper management, constant monitoring of the litter, and prompt assistance are the keys to successful breeding.

Definition of low birth weight in domestic mammals: a scoping review

In people and animals, low birth weight (LBW) is recognized as highly predictive of health trajectory from the neonatal period to elderly ages. Regarding the neonatal period, although LBW is recognized as a major risk factor for neonatal mortality, there does not appear to be a clear definition of 'when a birth weight should be considered low' in all species. The aim of this work was to use the scientific literature available to map the various thresholds proposed to define LBW in domestic mammals. Using a standardized methodology, a scoping review was conducted through a literature search in three different bibliographic databases. After a two-step screening of 1729 abstracts and full-text publications by two independent reviewers, eleven studies met the inclusion criteria. Selected publications represented six mammalian species (rat, mouse, dog, pig, cow, and rabbit). Birth weight thresholds were identified through six different methods. In addition to the scarcity of scientific literature about the definition of LBW, this scoping review revealed the lack of standardization for the description, evaluation or the pertinence these definitions. Because the health consequences of LBW could be preventable, providing early identification of at-risk neonates, a consensus for the standardized definition of LBW is required.

Growth charts for small sample sizes using unsupervised clustering: Application to canine early growth

Breed-specific growth curves (GCs) are needed for neonatal puppies, but breed-specific data may be insufficient. We investigated an unsupervised clustering methodology for modeling GCs by augmenting breed-specific data with data from breeds having similar growth profiles. Puppy breeds were grouped by median growth profiles (bodyweights between birth and Day 20) using hierarchical clustering on principal components. Median bodyweights for breeds in a cluster were centered to that cluster’s median and used to model cluster GCs by Generalized Additive Models for Location, Shape and Scale. These were centered back to breed growth profiles to produce cluster-scale breed GCs. The accuracy of breed-scale GCs modeled with breed-specific data only and cluster-scale breed GCs were compared when modeled from diminishing sample sizes. A complete dataset of Labrador Retriever bodyweights (birth to Day 20) was split into training (410 puppies) and test (460 puppies) datasets. Cluster-scale breed and breed-scale GCs were modelled from defined sample sizes from the training dataset. Quality criteria were the percentages of observed data in the test dataset outside the target growth centiles of simulations. Accuracy of cluster-scale breed GCs remained consistently high down to sampling sizes of three. They slightly overestimated breed variability, but centile curves were smooth and consistent with breed-scale GCs modeled from the complete Labrador Retriever dataset. At sampling sizes ≤ 20, the quality of breed-scale GCs reduced notably. In conclusion, GCs for neonatal puppies generated using a breed-cluster hybrid methodology can be more satisfactory than GCs at purely the breed level when sample sizes are small.

Factors affecting reproductive performance in the Swedish Bernese mountain dog

Background

Good reproductive performance is fundamental for the development of a breed. Previous studies have indicated that the Bernese mountain dog has a relatively high prevalence of reproductive problems such as a high prevalence of dystocia and a low mean litter size. When reproduction is impaired, selection for other traits, including improved health, will become more difficult. The aim of this study was therefore to evaluate reproductive data and factors affecting these in the Bernese mountain dog. Data collected by the Swedish Sennenhund Club during the years 2010–2020 were evaluated by statistical analyses.

Results

Information from 1287 reported matings were included with a total of 614 bitches and 399 sires. For five reported matings that did not result in a litter, there was no information about the male identity. The reported matings resulted in 798 litters (62% whelping rate) from 502 bitches and 314 males. Paternal and maternal age had a significant effect on whelping rate with a negative effect of increasing age (P < 0.01). Median litter size at birth (LSB) was 6.00 (range 0–14) and was significantly affected by both paternal (P = 0.021) and maternal age (P < 0.001). Parity affected litter size at birth with a lower litter size in 4 year old bitches giving birth to their first litter compared to bitches giving birth to their second to fourth litters. Stillbirth occurred in 51.6% of the litters with a total of 15.4% puppies being stillborn. Total puppy mortality, including stillbirth, was 19.1%. The only factor affecting stillbirth was LSB while both LSB and season affected the risk of having post-natal puppy loss in the litter. The total prevalence of caesarean sections (CS) was 33.0%. The risk of CS decreased significantly with increasing parity and increased with increasing age. The risk of CS was significantly higher for litters with 1–2 puppies compared with litters with 3–9 puppies. The coefficient of inbreeding (F) calculated on 5 generations had no effect on any of the outcomes.

Conclusions

Parity and maternal age had opposite effects on reproductive outcomes with a positive effect of parity on increasing litter size and decreasing CS rate. The proportion of unsuccessful matings was high with a negative effect of increasing age of both males and females.

Birth weight distribution in Golden and Labrador retriever dogs: A similar morphotype with a different trend. Preliminary data

Birth weight (bW) is considered an indicator of neonatal maturity and a predictor of neonatal mortality. According to its importance, many efforts have been made so far to identify physiological body weight ranges at birth. Due to the high heterogeneity among breeds, optimal bW is difficult to define in dogs. The aim of this study was to carefully analyze the shape and pattern of the bW distribution in dogs. Furthermore, the role of breed on bW determination was specifically investigated in relation to maternal (age, weight, height, diet, season, litter size) and neonatal (sex, malformations, assistance at birth) aspects. For these purposes two canine breeds with very similar phenotypic characteristics, Golden and Labrador retrievers, were selected. An accurate statistical model to explore bW distribution and compare it between Goldens and Labradors was developed. At birth most of the Golden and Labrador pups (estimated 95th percentile) weighed up to 630 g and 500 g, respectively. The estimated 5th percentile of bW distributions was 295 g in Golden and 290 g in Labrador pups. These lowest values could be indicative cut-offs of underweight pups. The probability of neonatal mortality within 1 week of life decreased with increasing bW (P = 0.031) and was higher in Golden than Labrador pups even though this difference was not significant. In conclusion, our results suggest that genetics have a relevant influence on the determination of birth weight which is confirmed to be closely associated with neonatal mortality.

Birth weight in the feline species: Description and factors of variation in a large population of purebred kittens

Birth weight is one of the earliest health parameters with short (neonatal period) and long term (adulthood) implications for an individual. The present work was conducted on the domestic cat, with the objective of determining factors affecting kitten birth weight. Data voluntarily shared by 139 French breeders allowed building a large dataset of purebred kittens (n = 3,547) from 15 breeds. A linear mixed model with queen and cattery as random terms was used to investigate variation factors of kitten birth weight such as breed, litter size, season of birth, age of the queen, presence of stillborn in the litter, sex of the kitten. The most important factor was breed which explained 25% of the variation in birth weight observed in the study population. The five other parameters were also significant but explained only a small additional part of the variance (less than 3% each). Analyses showed that kitten birth weight increased with the age of the queen, was higher in males than females and in litters without stillbirth than in litters with at least one stillborn. In addition, lower birth weights were recorded in summer and autumn compared to other seasons, and birth weight values decreased as the number of kittens in the litter increased. In order to group feline breeds according to their average birth weights and litter sizes, a K-means algorithm was used to identify three clusters among the 15 breeds represented (Group 1: small litter sizes/low birth weights; Group 2: large litter sizes/intermediate birth weights; Group 3: large litter sizes/high birth weights). This study, based on a large dataset established at the national scale, provides reference values of feline birth weights for breeders and veterinarians. The next step could be to explore the relationship between birth weight and neonatal mortality to help identify neonates requiring specific care.

Early Blood Analysis and Gas Exchange Monitoring in the Canine Neonate: Effect of Dam’s Size and Birth Order

Simple Summary

The complications that are observed during parturition are events that affect the vitality of the newborn and can also compromise their health by predisposing them to fetal hypoxia, increasing newborn mortality. Blood gas analysis to measure the main biomarkers associated with hypoxia evaluates the physiological and metabolic alterations derived from this state, and these could help identify if said markers respond to maternal or neonatal causes. This study aimed to assess the effect of the dam’s size, the birth order, and the presentation of blood gas alterations. Recognizing if these elements are intertwined may enhance newborns’ life expectancy by enabling the planning of a perinatal protocol to avoid serious metabolic consequences that are derived from prolonged hypoxia.

Abstract

In canines, size at birth is determined by the dam’s weight, which would probably affect the newborn’s viability due to litter size and birth order. Fetal hypoxia causes distress and acidemia. Identifying physiological blood alterations in the puppy during the first minute of life through the blood gas exchange of the umbilical cord could determine the puppy’s risk of suffering asphyxiation during labor. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of the birth order and dam’s size during spontaneous labor and the alterations during the first minute of life. The results indicate that the dam’s size and the birth order have considerable physiological and metabolic effects in the puppies, mainly in birth order 1 (BO1) in small-size dogs, while in the medium size, the last puppy presented more alterations, probably because of a prolonged whelping which could have fostered hypoxic processes and death. Likewise, with large-size dogs, intrapartum asphyxiation processes were registered during the first minute of life in any birth order.

Dead or Alive? A Review of Perinatal Factors That Determine Canine Neonatal Viability

Simple Summary

The article summarizes the current knowledge on factors related to pregnancy, parturition, and newborns that affect the health status of a puppy and determine its chances for survival and development. The detailed information is provided in terms of breed predispositions, objectives of pregnancy monitoring, potential sources of complications, and veterinary advances in care and treatment of perinatal conditions. Successful pregnancy outcomes still pose challenges in veterinary neonatology; thus, publications presenting the current state of knowledge in this field are in demand.

Abstract

The perinatal period has a critical impact on viability of the newborns. The variety of factors that can potentially affect the health of a litter during pregnancy, birth, and the first weeks of life requires proper attention from both the breeder and the veterinarian. The health status of puppies can be influenced by various maternal factors, including breed characteristics, anatomy, quality of nutrition, delivery assistance, neonatal care, and environmental or infectious agents encountered during pregnancy. Regular examinations and pregnancy monitoring are key tools for early detection of signals that can indicate disorders even before clinical signs occur. Early detection significantly increases the chances of puppies’ survival and proper development. The purpose of the review was to summarize and discuss the complex interactions between all elements that, throughout pregnancy and the first days of life, have a tangible impact on the subsequent fate of the offspring. Many of these components continue to pose challenges in veterinary neonatology; thus, publications presenting the current state of knowledge in this field are in demand.

Canine Neonatal Assessment by Vitality Score, Amniotic Fluid, Urine, and Umbilical Cord Blood Analysis of Glucose, Lactate, and Cortisol: Possible Influence of Parturition Type?

Simple Summary

Parturition as a stressful event may influence puppies’ neonatal morbidity and mortality. The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of parturition type on stress in newborn puppies, their weight gains, and survival in the first week postpartum. One hundred and twenty-three puppies were divided into three groups: vaginal parturition, emergency, and elective cesarean section. The Apgar score was assessed 5, 15, and 60 min postpartum, and samples of amniotic fluid, umbilical blood, and urine were collected for lactate, glucose, and cortisol concentration measurements. Although emergency cesarean section puppies had the highest cortisol concentration of all groups, their Apgar score at 5 min postpartum was comparable to the vaginal parturition group, which had the highest lactate levels. There were no significant differences between groups regarding relative growth rate. The type of parturition had no impact on puppies’ survival in our study, but supportive treatment was provided for non-vital puppies in stress. Non-invasive analysis of amniotic fluid and/or urine could help in the assessment of the neonatal vitality.

Abstract

The objective of this study was to investigate the impact of parturition type on vitality in newborn puppies, their weight gains, and survival in the first week postpartum. One hundred and twenty-three puppies were divided in three groups: vaginal parturition (VP), emergency (EM-CS), and elective cesarean section (EL-CS). Apgar scores were assessed 5, 15, and 60 min postpartum. Lactate and glucose concentrations were measured in amniotic fluid and umbilical blood; cortisol concentrations were measured in amniotic fluid and puppy urine. Puppies’ weight gain was tracked daily for 7 days postpartum. Apgar score at 5 and 15 min was significantly better in the VP group. EL-CS puppies had significantly lower umbilical blood and amniotic fluid lactate concentrations compared to the VP group, which also had higher umbilical blood lactate concentration than EM-CS puppies. The cortisol concentration in the amniotic fluid and in urine differed significantly between the groups, with the highest concentration in the EM-CS, followed by the VP group. Glucose concentration in amniotic fluid was higher in the VP group than EM-CS group. The type of parturition had no impact on puppies’ weight gain or their survival at birth; however, supportive treatment was provided for non-vital puppies. Non-invasive analysis of puppies’ fluids could help in the assessment of the neonatal vitality.

Factors influencing ease of whelping and its relationship with maternal behaviour and puppy perinatal mortality in commercially bred dogs

For dog breeders, parturition is a critical stage in the reproductive cycle of the dam. Evidence in other mammals suggests that a difficult labour can influence maternal behaviour and offspring viability during the first hours postpartum. However, the effect of whelping difficulty on the onset of maternal behaviour has not yet been investigated in domestic dogs. Here we developed an ease of whelping (EoW) index in dams maintained within a Commercial dog Breeding Establishment (CBE) environment and investigated the relationship between intrinsic and extrinsic factors (breed group according to size/weight, litter size, parity, whelping season and origin of the dam), EoW, early maternal behaviour and puppy perinatal mortality. The behaviour of 30 dams was observed throughout the whelping process, starting 24 h before delivery of the first puppy until birth of the last puppy. Parturition duration, birth interval, and behaviours indicative of distress, restlessness, and general activity were scored and included in a Principal Component Analysis to construct the EoW index. Subsequently, mother-pup interactions and puppy perinatal mortality were recorded during the first 24 and 72 h postpartum respectively. Results showed that EoW was significantly affected by whelping season, litter size and origin of the dam (whether she was born and raised within the CBE or brought in). Furthermore, mothers that experienced more difficult parturitions (higher EoW score) spent more time lying in contact with their puppies during the first 24 h postpartum. Time in contact with puppies was also significantly affected by breed group. Nursing duration was significantly affected by breed group and origin of the dam. Additionally, medium-size breed (10-20 kg) puppies were significantly less likely to experience perinatal mortality than large breeds (> 20 kg). These findings are particularly relevant for the welfare of breeding dams maintained in large-scale CBEs where the staff-to-dog ratio might be insufficient to adequately manage multiple simultaneous parturitions.

Feline neonatology: From birth to commencement of weaning - what to know for successful management

PRACTICAL RELEVANCE

Despite considerable interest in the field of companion animal reproduction, feline neonatology remains largely unstudied. This contrasts with the need for a more professional veterinary approach to newborn kittens and feline husbandry, across the pet, breeding cattery and rescue shelter settings, to reduce kitten mortality.

GLOBAL IMPORTANCE

Feline neonatology has relevance for veterinarians around the world as cats are continuing to become established as popular companion animals.

CLINICAL CHALLENGES

Perinatal mortality in cats is remarkably high. Therefore, adequate neonatal evaluation and assistance at birth, careful monitoring of kittens in the vulnerable period until weaning begins, assessment of maternal factors and well-informed management of orphans are crucial in helping to reduce kitten losses.

AIM

This review aims to deepen the basic knowledge of the veterinary clinical team regarding the characteristics of feline newborns under normal conditions at birth through to the commencement of weaning. Much of the information is also relevant to breeders and rescue/shelter caregivers.

EVIDENCE BASE

In compiling the present review, the authors have drawn on specific feline research data, where available, complemented by data extrapolated from scientific publications on newborn dogs, and also their own and their colleagues' professional clinical experience.

Primary orthostatic tremor and orthostatic tremor-plus in dogs: 60 cases (2003-2020)

BACKGROUND

Orthostatic tremor (OT) is a rare movement disorder characterized by high-frequency (>12 Hz) involuntary, rhythmic, sinusoidal movements affecting predominantly the limbs while standing.

OBJECTIVE

To describe the signalment, presenting complaints, phenotype, diagnostic findings, treatment, and outcome of a large sample of dogs with OT.

ANIMALS

Sixty dogs diagnosed with OT based on conscious electromyography.

METHODS

Multicenter retrospective case series study. Dogs were included if they had a conscious electromyography consistent with muscle discharge frequency >12 Hz while standing.

RESULTS

Fifty-three cases were diagnosed with primary OT (POT). Giant breed dogs represented most cases (83%; 44/53). Most dogs (79%; 42/53) were younger than 2 years of age at onset of signs, except for Retrievers which were all older than 3.5 years of age. The most common presenting complaints were pelvic limb tremors while standing (85%; 45/53) and difficulty when rising or sitting down (45%; 24/53). Improvement of clinical signs occurred in most dogs (85%; 45/53) treated medically with phenobarbital, primidone, gabapentin, pregabalin or clonazepam, but it was mostly partial rather than complete. Orthostatic tremor-plus was seen in 7 dogs that had concurrent neurological diseases.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE

Primary OT is a progressive disease of young, purebred, giant/large-breed dogs, which appears to begin later in life in Retrievers. Primary OT apparently responds partially to medications. Orthostatic tremor-plus exists in dogs and can be concomitant or associated with other neurological diseases.

Management of Low Birth Weight in Canine and Feline Species: Breeder Profiling

Simple Summary

Mortality rate in puppies and kittens over the first two months of age is high, estimated at around 20%. Low birth weight has been identified as a major risk factor for neonatal mortality in these species. Using an online questionnaire, we explored perceptions and management practices of breeders regarding newborns at low birth weight. Three different profiles were identified among 649 breeders. The first one included mainly dog and cat breeders who weighed newborns and monitored their suckling by the dam (controlled suckling) but did not warm them. The second group consisted of breeders of both species who did not weigh puppies or kittens to identify low birth weight or to monitor their weight afterwards. The third and final group included mostly cat breeders who routinely weighed neonates as in the first group, but who used artificial feeding rather than controlled suckling. This better knowledge of the management of puppies and kittens at high risk of neonatal mortality in the field provides the basis to establish guidelines to increase their chances of survival.

Abstract

Low birth weight (LBW) has been identified as a major risk factor for neonatal mortality in many species. The aim of this survey was to determine the profiles of canine and feline breeders concerning their perceptions of, and management practices relating to, LBW individuals. An anonymous online survey was addressed to French cat and dog breeders in September 2019 via social networks. Multiple correspondence analysis and hierarchical clustering were used to explore breeders’ profiles. Three clusters were identified among the 649 breeders included in this analysis. Cluster 1 (49%) included dog and cat breeders who weighed newborns (and thus identified LBW) and controlled nursing by the dam (controlled suckling) but did not warm them up. Cluster 2 breeders (21%) of both species did not weigh puppies or kittens to identify LBW or to monitor the evolution of their weight afterwards. Cluster 3 (30%) including mostly cat breeders who weighed neonates routinely as in Cluster 1, but they practiced artificial feeding rather than controlled suckling. This survey provides a basis for better understanding of perceptions and practices regarding LBW puppies and kittens. It will be useful to provide guidelines for neonatal management to increase their chances of survival.

Blood Biomarker Profile Alterations in Newborn Canines: Effect of the Mother's Weight

This study aims to determine the effect of the weight of bitches on liveborn and stillbirth puppies from eutocic births, and physiological blood alterations during the first minute postpartum. A total of 52 female dogs were evaluated and distributed in four categories: C1 (4.0-8.0 kg, n = 19), C2 (8.1-16.0 kg, n = 16), C3 (16.1-32.0 kg, n = 11), and C4 (32.1-35.8 kg, n = 6). The dams produced 225 liveborn puppies and 47 were classified as stillbirth type II. Blood samples were taken from the umbilical vein to evaluate the concentration of gases, glucose, lactate, calcium, hematocrit levels, and blood pH. The liveborn puppies in C2, C3, and C4 had more evident physiological alterations (hypercapnia, acidosis) than those in C1 (p < 0.05). These signs indicate a process of transitory asphyxiation. The stillborn pups in all four categories had higher weights than their liveborn littermates. C3 and C4 had the highest mean weights (419.86 and 433.79 g, respectively) and mortality rates (C3 = 20.58%, C4 = 24.58%). Results suggest that if the weight of the bitch is >16.1 kg in eutocic births, there is a higher risk of intrapartum physiological alterations and death. The results of this study allowed us to identify that the weight of dams before birth determines the weight of the puppies at birth.

Development and Validation of a Clinical Prognostic Risk Score to Predict Early Neonatal Mortality, Ethiopia: A Receiver Operating Characteristic Curve Analysis

Background

Early neonatal death is the death of a live-born baby within the first seven days of life, which is 73% of all postnatal deaths in the globe. This study aimed to develop and validate a prognostic clinical risk tool for the prediction of early neonatal death.

Methods

A prospective follow-up study was conducted among 393 neonates at Debre Tabor Referral hospital, Northwest Ethiopia. Multivariable logistic regression model was employed to identify potential prognostic determinants for early neonatal mortality. Area under receiver operating characteristics curve (AUROC) was used to check the model discrimination probability using ‘pROC’ R-package. Model calibration plot was checked using ‘givitiR’ R-package. Finally, a risk score prediction tool was developed for ease of applicability. Decision curve analysis was done for cost-benefit analysis and to check the clinical impact of the model.

Results

Overall, 15.27% (95% CI: 12.03–19.18) of neonates had the event of death during the follow-up period. Maternal undernutrition, antenatal follow-up less than four times, birth asphyxia, low birth weight, and not exclusive breastfeeding were the prognostic predictors of early neonatal mortality. The AUROC for the reduced model was 88.7% (95% CI: 83.8–93.6%), which had good discriminative probability. The AUROC of the simplified risk score algorithm was 87.8% (95% CI, 82.7–92.9%). The sensitivity and specificity of the risk score tool was 70% and 89%, respectively. The true prediction accuracy of the risk score tool to predict early neonatal mortality was 86%, and the false prediction probability was 13%.

Conclusion

We developed an early neonatal death prediction tool using easily available maternal and neonatal characteristics for resource-limited settings. This risk prediction using risk score is an easily applicable tool to identify neonates at a higher risk of having early neonatal mortality. This risk score tool would offer an opportunity to reduce early neonatal mortality, thus improving the overall early neonatal death in a resource-limited setting.

Scalable control of developmental timetables by epigenetic switching networks

During development, progenitor cells follow timetables for differentiation that span many cell generations. These developmental timetables are robustly encoded by the embryo, yet scalably adjustable by evolution, facilitating variation in organism size and form. Epigenetic switches, involving rate-limiting activation steps at regulatory gene loci, control gene activation timing in diverse contexts, and could profoundly impact the dynamics of gene regulatory networks controlling developmental lineage specification. Here, we develop a mathematical framework to model regulatory networks with genes controlled by epigenetic switches. Using this framework, we show that such epigenetic switching networks uphold developmental timetables that robustly span many cell generations, and enable the generation of differentiated cells in precisely defined numbers and fractions. Changes to epigenetic switching networks can readily alter the timing of developmental events within a timetable, or alter the overall speed at which timetables unfold, enabling scalable control over differentiated population sizes. With their robust, yet flexibly adjustable nature, epigenetic switching networks could represent central targets on which evolution acts to manufacture diversity in organism size and form.

Low and very low birth weight in puppies: definitions, risk factors and survival in a large-scale population

Background

Neonatal mortality (over the first three weeks of life) is a major concern in canine breeding facilities as an economic and welfare issue. Since low birth weight (LBW) dramatically increases the risk of neonatal death, the risk factors of occurrence need to be identified together with the chances and determinants of survival of newborns at-risk.

Results

Data from 4971 puppies from 10 breeds were analysed. Two birth weight thresholds regarding the risk of neonatal mortality were identified by breed, using respectively Receiver Operating Characteristics and Classification and Regression Tree method. Puppies were qualified as LBW and very low birth weight (VLBW) when their birth weight value was respectively between the two thresholds and lower than the two thresholds. Mortality rates were 4.2, 8.8 and 55.3%, in the normal, LBW and VLBW groups, accounting for 48.7, 47.9 and 3.4% of the included puppies, respectively. A separate binary logistic regression approach allowed to identify breed, gender and litter size as determinants of LBW. The increase in litter size and being a female were associated with a higher risk for LBW. Survival for LBW puppies was reduced in litters with at least one stillborn, compared to litters with no stillborn, and was also reduced when the dam was more than 6 years old. Concerning VLBW puppies, occurrence and survival were influenced by litter size. Surprisingly, the decrease in litter size was a risk factor for VLBW and also reduced their survival. The results of this study suggest that VLBW and LBW puppies are two distinct populations. Moreover, it indicates that events and factors affecting intrauterine growth (leading to birth weight reduction) also affect their ability to adapt to extrauterine life.

Conclusion

These findings could help veterinarians and breeders to improve the management of their facility and more specifically of LBW puppies. Possible recommendations would be to only select for reproduction dams of optimal age and to pay particular attention to LBW puppies born in small litters. Further studies are required to understand the origin of LBW in dogs.

Apgar score or birthweight in Chihuahua dogs born by elective Caesarean section: which is the best predictor of the survival at 24 h after birth?

Background

In the dog, the correct management of parturition and the prompt neonatal evaluation and assistance can reduce the perinatal mortality rates that are particularly high in toy breeds. Newborn evaluation and factors addressing prognosis are pivotal to guarantee the correct neonatal assistance. Assessment of the Apgar score with viability classification and birthweight are recognized as predictors for neonatal survival in dogs, but breed-specific data are needed for a more feasible application in the dog species, in which wide differences among breeds are known. The present study aimed therefore to: (a) assess the role of Apgar score and birthweight as predictors for the survival of Chihuahua newborn puppies in the first 24 h of life; (b) to assess a cut-off of the Apgar score and birthweight values that can predict the survival of Chihuahua newborn puppies in the first 24 h after birth; (c) to assess the possible effect played by maternal parity, newborn gender and litter-size on Apgar score in Chihuahua newborn puppies, in order to provide breed-specific data for a better neonatal assistance.

Results

Data obtained from 176 normal developed Chihuahua puppies born by elective Caesarean section, showed that 62%, 28% and 10% of puppies were classified in the Apgar score classes 7–10, 4–6 and 0–3, respectively, with survival at 24 h after birth of 97%, 96%, 39%, in the three Apgar classes of viability, respectively. Apgar score was a better predictor for survival at 24 h after birth than birthweight (AUC 0.93, P < 0.0001; AUC 0.69, P < 0.01, respectively). Litter-size of 7 puppies/litter plays a negative effect on Apgar score. Apgar score is a better predictor of survival at 24 h than birthweight, and the best cut-off of Apgar score for survival at 24 h after birth is 4, with 96% sensitivity and 77% specificity.

Conclusions

The different proportion of “normal viable” and “less viable” neonates in comparison to other studies highlights that Chihuahua puppies born by elective Caesarean section should be carefully evaluated at birth to provide correct assistance.