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Ruedas-Torres I, Thi to Nga B, Salguero FJ. Pathogenicity and virulence of African swine fever virus. Virulence 2024; 15:2375550. [PMID: 38973077 PMCID: PMC11232652 DOI: 10.1080/21505594.2024.2375550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2024] [Accepted: 06/28/2024] [Indexed: 07/09/2024] Open
Abstract
African swine fever (ASF) is a devastating disease with a high impact on the pork industry worldwide. ASF virus (ASFV) is a very complex pathogen, the sole member of the family Asfaviridae, which induces a state of immune suppression in the host through infection of myeloid cells and apoptosis of lymphocytes. Moreover, haemorrhages are the other main pathogenic effect of ASFV infection in pigs, related to the infection of endothelial cells, as well as the activation and structural changes of this cell population by proinflammatory cytokine upregulation within bystander monocytes and macrophages. There are still many gaps in the knowledge of the role of proteins produced by the ASFV, which is related to the difficulty in producing a safe and effective vaccine to combat the disease, although few candidates have been approved for use in Southeast Asia in the past couple of years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ines Ruedas-Torres
- Vaccine Development and Evaluation Centre (VDEC), United Kingdom Health Security Agency, Salisbury, UK
| | - Bui Thi to Nga
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Vietnam National University of Agriculture, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Francisco J. Salguero
- Vaccine Development and Evaluation Centre (VDEC), United Kingdom Health Security Agency, Salisbury, UK
- School of Biosciences and Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK
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Whitaker SH, Mannelli A, Kitron U, Bellini S. An analysis of the social, cultural, and ecological factors that affect the implementation of biosecurity measures on smallholder commercial swine farms in Italy in the context of an emerging African Swine Fever outbreak. Prev Vet Med 2024; 229:106238. [PMID: 38870565 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2024.106238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2024] [Revised: 04/25/2024] [Accepted: 05/22/2024] [Indexed: 06/15/2024]
Abstract
African Swine Fever (ASF) is a contagious viral disease that infects wild and domesticated swine. In early 2022, the virus was found in wild boar in the Apennine mountains of mainland Italy.2 Since then, it has spread from wild boar to domesticated swine. To control the spread of ASF, an effective surveillance system and the implementation of strict biosecurity measures on farms are required yet are unevenly implemented across husbandry systems. Smallholder farms in particular are known to have low levels of biosecurity. In the Apennine mountains of Italy, small commercial farms have been found to have low levels of biosecurity despite being located in areas with high densities of wild boar, and, hence, being high-risk sites for potential ASF incursion and subsequent diffusion. To address the question as to why the level of biosecurity is low, interviews and participant observation were conducted with smallholder commercial farmers. The interviews identified the social, cultural, and ecological factors that affect the implementation of biosecurity measures in small commercial swine farms in the Apennines. Farmers expressed knowledge of priority biosecurity measures and an overall willingness to follow rules and regulations; however, the application of the measures in practice was uneven across farms. Economic, political, and ecological factors as well as farmer beliefs about biosecurity emerged as important factors affecting the implementation of biosecurity measures. These include economic constraints, challenges posed by the mountain environment, a shifting regulatory environment, and ideas about animal welfare. Other important factors include cultural factors such as the use of traditional agricultural methods and norms about customer access to animals, time constraints and the perceived hassle of implementing the measures, farmer age, farmer relationships with government officials and veterinarians, and the role of pigs in reducing farm waste. The study confirmed that wild boar are present in high numbers and in close proximity to smallholder commercial farms in the Apennines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah H Whitaker
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Torino, Torino, Italy; Department of Environmental Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA; Department of Anthropology, Boise State University, Boise, ID, USA.
| | | | - Uriel Kitron
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Silvia Bellini
- Experimental Zooprophylactic Institute of Lombardy and Emilia Romagna (IZSLER), Brescia, Italy
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Herrmann A, Schulz K, Wischnewski N, Brüssau J, Zeiler E, Sauter-Louis C. Risk Awareness and Attitude of German Farmers towards Biosecurity Measures. Animals (Basel) 2024; 14:1102. [PMID: 38612341 PMCID: PMC11010927 DOI: 10.3390/ani14071102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2024] [Revised: 03/30/2024] [Accepted: 04/03/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024] Open
Abstract
The implementation of management activities depends on both the attitude of the people performing the work and their understanding of why the work should be performed. In the context of animal husbandry, the implementation of such practices is crucial for the functionality of biosecurity. Therefore, it is important to know how farmers perceive biosecurity as a whole. An anonymous online survey was conducted among German farmers. In addition to general data about their farm, information about their existing concept of biosecurity, as well as about the assessment of possible introduction routes for animal diseases into the farm with regard to their likelihood, was gathered. Furthermore, information on measures to protect their farm against disease introduction were retrieved. Analysis showed that in general, farmers were aware of the importance of biosecurity and consequently had concepts of biosecurity on their farms. However, awareness about dangerous introduction routes for animal diseases into a farm was associated with a lack of knowledge of how to improve the measures in these areas. The role of the veterinarian in the context of biosecurity was highlighted and further problematic areas were indicated. Overall, the high level of commitment from farmers indicated a good implementation of daily practices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Herrmann
- Institute of Epidemiology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (A.H.); (K.S.); (J.B.); (C.S.-L.)
| | - Katja Schulz
- Institute of Epidemiology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (A.H.); (K.S.); (J.B.); (C.S.-L.)
| | - Natalie Wischnewski
- Institute of Epidemiology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (A.H.); (K.S.); (J.B.); (C.S.-L.)
- Faculty of Sustainable Agricultural and Energy Systems, University of Applied Sciences Weihenstephan-Triesdorf, Am Staudengarten 1, 85354 Freising, Germany;
| | - Jule Brüssau
- Institute of Epidemiology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (A.H.); (K.S.); (J.B.); (C.S.-L.)
| | - Eva Zeiler
- Faculty of Sustainable Agricultural and Energy Systems, University of Applied Sciences Weihenstephan-Triesdorf, Am Staudengarten 1, 85354 Freising, Germany;
| | - Carola Sauter-Louis
- Institute of Epidemiology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (A.H.); (K.S.); (J.B.); (C.S.-L.)
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Klein L, Gerdes U, Blome S, Campe A, Grosse Beilage E. Biosecurity measures for the prevention of African swine fever on German pig farms: comparison of farmers' own appraisals and external veterinary experts' evaluations. Porcine Health Manag 2024; 10:14. [PMID: 38468332 PMCID: PMC10926670 DOI: 10.1186/s40813-024-00365-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2023] [Accepted: 03/03/2024] [Indexed: 03/13/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Since its first introduction into the German wild boar population in 2020, African swine fever (ASF) has been spreading slowly from the eastern border westwards and has been introduced into eight domestic pig farms thus far. The European Food Safety Authority has named deficits in farm biosecurity and increased human activity as major risk factors for the introduction of the ASF virus into pig farms. Studies have shown that pig farms in Germany generally have a high level of biosecurity. However, veterinary practitioners and policy-makers have expressed concerns that not all pig farmers are appropriately prepared to deal with the threat of ASF. This study aimed to evaluate the level of biosecurity on pig farms in Lower Saxony and explore the reasons for deficits in the implementation of biosecurity measures. For this purpose, pig farmers were interviewed in open structured face-to-face interviews about their perception of ASF and biosecurity, and the implemented measures on their farms were assessed with a checklist. In the data analysis, the farmers' answers and the results of the biosecurity check were compared to gain further insights into the factors influencing the implementation of biosecurity measures on the farms. RESULTS The biosecurity check showed that on most farms, a high level of biosecurity had been implemented. Nevertheless, deficits were found concerning the fences and the delimitation of clean and dirty areas on farm grounds and in the anteroom. Overall, the farmers were well informed about ASF and had a realistic perception of their own biosecurity. They considered the farm layout, financial means and practicality of hygiene measures to be the main barriers to implementing biosecurity measures against ASF. However, the results also suggested that farmers' attitudes and legal regulations were major influencing factors. CONCLUSION The results indicated a high level of biosecurity against ASF on most pig farms and a realistic perception of their own biosecurity by the farmers. Current knowledge transfer and information should focus on building upon the farmers' own motivation and expertise and supporting them to put existing knowledge into practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonie Klein
- Department of Biometry, Epidemiology and Information Processing, WHO Collaborating Centre for Research and Training for Health in the Human-Animal-Environment Interface, University for Veterinary Medicine, Hannover, Buenteweg 2, 30559, Hannover, Germany.
| | - Ursula Gerdes
- Niedersaechsische Tierseuchenkasse (Animal Disease Fund), Bruehlstrasse 9, 30169, Hannover, Germany
| | - Sandra Blome
- Department of Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Suedufer 10, 17493, Greifswald - Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Amely Campe
- Department of Biometry, Epidemiology and Information Processing, WHO Collaborating Centre for Research and Training for Health in the Human-Animal-Environment Interface, University for Veterinary Medicine, Hannover, Buenteweg 2, 30559, Hannover, Germany
| | - Elisabeth Grosse Beilage
- Field Station for Epidemiology, University for Veterinary Medicine, Hannover, Buescheler Strasse 9, 49456, Bakum, Germany
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Makovska I, Chantziaras I, Caekebeke N, Dhaka P, Dewulf J. Assessment of Cleaning and Disinfection Practices on Pig Farms across Ten European Countries. Animals (Basel) 2024; 14:593. [PMID: 38396561 PMCID: PMC10886142 DOI: 10.3390/ani14040593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2023] [Revised: 01/30/2024] [Accepted: 02/08/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
This study delves into the assessment of cleaning and disinfection (C&D) measures within the context of European pig farming, employing the Biocheck.UGentâ„¢ tool as an effective instrument for evaluation. A comprehensive set of relevant parameters was examined to enable meaningful comparisons across farms from 10 European countries during four years (2019-2022). Findings indicate a notable increase in C&D measure implementation in select countries (Belgium, Finland, Italy, and Spain), reflecting heightened awareness and responsibility among farmers. Additionally, the overall score for the C&D subcategory highlights variation across countries, with Italy (75), Poland (74), and Belgium (72) displaying the highest scores, while Ireland (56), Slovenia (55), and Serbia (50) reported the lowest scores. However, the considerable variation in the number of participating farms necessitates cautious comparisons. The study identifies well-implemented C&D measures in the frame of external biosecurity but underscores gaps in the application of C&D measures for the material introduction practices across farms (22% of farms), which are attributed to awareness gaps and resource limitations. In the areas of internal biosecurity, strong points include C&D procedures after each production cycle (79%), implementing different stages in the C&D process (65%) and sufficient sanitary break (82%), while gaps are evident in the presence and using of hand hygiene stations (19% of farms) and boots disinfection equipment (40% of farms) between compartments/units. Notably, the study reveals a lack of evaluation of hygiene after C&D procedures (only 1% of farms), signaling critical knowledge gaps among farmers regarding proper assessment tools and methods. In conclusion, this comprehensive analysis sheds light on the implementation status of C&D measures in European pig farming, offering insights into both areas of progress and those requiring improvement. The findings emphasize the need for targeted awareness campaigns and training initiatives to bolster biosecurity practices within the industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iryna Makovska
- Veterinary Epidemiology Unit, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium; (I.C.); (P.D.); (J.D.)
| | - Ilias Chantziaras
- Veterinary Epidemiology Unit, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium; (I.C.); (P.D.); (J.D.)
| | | | - Pankaj Dhaka
- Veterinary Epidemiology Unit, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium; (I.C.); (P.D.); (J.D.)
- Centre for One Health, College of Veterinary Science, Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Ludhiana 141004, India
| | - Jeroen Dewulf
- Veterinary Epidemiology Unit, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium; (I.C.); (P.D.); (J.D.)
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Rajala E, Gröndal H, Sternberg Lewerin S. The first outbreak of African swine fever in Sweden: a survey of pig farmers' perceptions of information received, risks, biosecurity measures and future prospects. Acta Vet Scand 2023; 65:58. [PMID: 38110953 PMCID: PMC10729408 DOI: 10.1186/s13028-023-00722-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2023] [Accepted: 12/12/2023] [Indexed: 12/20/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND African swine fever (ASF), a viral hemorrhagic disease in domestic pigs and wild boar with up to 100% case fatality, was confirmed in Swedish wild boar in September 2023. The responsible authorities launched a control programme to eradicate the infection. The aim of the current study was to understand (i) how Swedish pig farmers have perceived the information issued by authorities and other stakeholders since the discovery of ASF in wild boar, (ii) which risks they see for introducing the infection to their farm, (iii) what biosecurity measures they have taken on their farms, and (iv) their outlook on the future. Such information is important for evaluating the effectiveness of the early stages of ASF control in Sweden. A questionnaire was designed and distributed to members of the Swedish pig producers' organisation. RESULTS A total of 155 farmers responded to the survey (response rate 36%). Almost all respondents had received general information about ASF (91%, n = 138), and 72% (n = 109) had received information about how they can protect their farm from ASF introduction. A majority (87%, n = 118) thought the information was easy to understand, 90% (n = 137) that is was relevant, and 77% (n = 117) that they currently did not lack any information. If given the resources necessary, 58% (n = 84) of the farmers would like to take additional measures such as fencing, and heavily reduce or eradicate the wild boar population. Wild boars were considered the greatest risk for introduction of ASF into their herd (39%, n = 57), followed by people (30%, n = 44), and transports (16%, n = 23). Many farmers (66%, n = 88) had a positive outlook on the future, and 89% (n = 127) have not changed their plans for the future since the ASF outbreak. CONCLUSIONS The responding farmers were in general satisfied with the information received in the beginning of the ASF outbreak. The majority have a positive outlook on the future and the outbreak has not caused them to change their plans. Actions that were highlighted as important to safeguard Sweden's pig production included measures to control the wild boar population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabeth Rajala
- Division of Bacteriology and Food Safety, Department of Biomedical Science and Veterinary Public Health, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 7054, 750 07, Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Hedvig Gröndal
- Division of Bacteriology and Food Safety, Department of Biomedical Science and Veterinary Public Health, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 7054, 750 07, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Susanna Sternberg Lewerin
- Division of Bacteriology and Food Safety, Department of Biomedical Science and Veterinary Public Health, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 7054, 750 07, Uppsala, Sweden
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Wang H, Chen M, Guo Z, Shen Y, Chen Y, Luo T, Liu Y, Li J, Wang F, Wan J. The Influencing Factors of "Post-African Swine Fever" Pig Farm Biosecurity: Evidence from Sichuan Province, China. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:3053. [PMID: 37835659 PMCID: PMC10571891 DOI: 10.3390/ani13193053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2023] [Revised: 09/23/2023] [Accepted: 09/27/2023] [Indexed: 10/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Effective biosecurity measures are crucial in controlling and preventing major pig diseases, ultimately ensuring farm income and social stability. This study extracted data from 205 farmer surveys in Sichuan Province, China, to construct a biosecurity index system for pig farms. The biosecurity levels of pig farms were evaluated using a projection pursuit method to identify weak areas. The Tobit model was then utilized to determine the factors that influenced the biosecurity levels. The results indicated that the overall biosecurity levels of the pig farms were low. The study found that the average biosecurity score among farms was 0.61, with a minimum score of 0.37 and a maximum score of 0.89 (on a scale of 0 to 1). These results suggest that there are significant differences in biosecurity levels among the farms. The study also found that the scores for first-level indicators related to breeding environment management, as well as second-level indicators related to personnel management and awareness of African swine fever prevention and control, were significantly lower than scores for other indicators in the farmers' biosecurity systems. This study investigated the factors influencing biosecurity on farms and found that technical training, farm size, income share, production organization, and government inspections had a significant impact on the level of biosecurity implemented. This study emphasizes the significance of biosecurity in enhancing pig farm biosecurity and its role in improving farm resilience to major animal diseases like African swine fever. It also provides valuable insights for policymakers to make informed decisions regarding related policies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huan Wang
- College of Management, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China; (H.W.); (M.C.); (Y.S.); (Y.C.); (T.L.); (Y.L.); (J.L.); (F.W.)
| | - Meijun Chen
- College of Management, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China; (H.W.); (M.C.); (Y.S.); (Y.C.); (T.L.); (Y.L.); (J.L.); (F.W.)
| | - Ziyao Guo
- College of Management, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China; (H.W.); (M.C.); (Y.S.); (Y.C.); (T.L.); (Y.L.); (J.L.); (F.W.)
| | - Yangyang Shen
- College of Management, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China; (H.W.); (M.C.); (Y.S.); (Y.C.); (T.L.); (Y.L.); (J.L.); (F.W.)
| | - Yufan Chen
- College of Management, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China; (H.W.); (M.C.); (Y.S.); (Y.C.); (T.L.); (Y.L.); (J.L.); (F.W.)
| | - Ting Luo
- College of Management, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China; (H.W.); (M.C.); (Y.S.); (Y.C.); (T.L.); (Y.L.); (J.L.); (F.W.)
| | - Yuying Liu
- College of Management, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China; (H.W.); (M.C.); (Y.S.); (Y.C.); (T.L.); (Y.L.); (J.L.); (F.W.)
| | - Jianqiang Li
- College of Management, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China; (H.W.); (M.C.); (Y.S.); (Y.C.); (T.L.); (Y.L.); (J.L.); (F.W.)
| | - Fang Wang
- College of Management, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China; (H.W.); (M.C.); (Y.S.); (Y.C.); (T.L.); (Y.L.); (J.L.); (F.W.)
| | - Jiangjun Wan
- College of Architecture and Urban-Rural Planning, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611830, China
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