Effects of encapsulated cinnamaldehyde and citral on the performance and cecal microbiota of broilers vaccinated or not vaccinated against coccidiosis

Validating the use of a newly developed cinnamaldehyde product in commercial broiler production

Essential oils (EOs) have been considered as an alternative to antibiotics for animal production. In the current study, 4 trials were conducted on a commercial broiler farm to investigate the effects of dietary supplementation of an encapsulated cinnamon EO product (NE-OFF) on the bird growth performance, gut health, and gene expression in the ileum, spleen, and liver relating to the host response to heat and other stresses, including potential NE challenge. In each trial, approximately 30,000 Cobb or Ross broilers were randomly allocated to 4 treatments: a raised without antibiotics (RWA) commercial diet as positive control, an adjusted RWA commercial diet as negative control, and the negative control diet supplemented with 2 different dosages of NE-OFF, which was added during feed pelleting. Although the final average body weight did not differ significantly among treatment groups, birds fed NE-OFF had an increased ratio of villus height and crypt depth in the jejunum, and reduced fecal oocyst counts. Trial 2 was conducted in the summer and had a necrotic enteritis (NE) outbreak. The supplementation of NE-OFF reduced the NE incidence and bird mortality. The samples from Trial 2 were hence selected for the analyses of Clostridium perfringens and NetB toxin gene abundance in the ileum, and host responses. The C. perfringens population appeared to be positively correlated with the NetB gene abundance. The gene expression analysis suggested that NE-OFF supplementation improved nutrient absorption and transportation as well as antioxidant activities to help the birds against stress. These on-farm trial results support the hypothesis that the use of NE-OFF as a feed additive can improve bird gut health and performance in commercial broiler production, especially for preventing NE outbreaks when birds are under stress.

In Vitro Evaluation of Phytobiotic Mixture Antibacterial Potential against Enterococcus spp. Strains Isolated from Broiler Chicken

Enterococcus spp. are normal intestinal tract microflorae found in poultry. However, the last decades have shown that several species, e.g., Enterococcus cecorum, have become emerging pathogens in broilers and may cause numerous losses in flocks. In this study, two combinations (H1 and H2) of menthol, 1,8-cineol, linalool, methyl salicylate, γ-terpinene, p-cymene, trans-anethole, terpinen-4-ol and thymol were used in an in vitro model, analyzing its effectiveness against the strains E. cecorum, E. faecalis, E. faecium, E. hirae and E. gallinarum isolated from broiler chickens from industrial farms. To identify the isolated strains classical microbiological methods and VITEK 2 GP cards were used. Moreover for E. cecorum a PCR test was used.. Antibiotic sensitivity (MIC) tests were performed for all the strains. For the composition H1, the effective dilution for E. cecorum and E. hirae strains was 1:512, and for E. faecalis, E. faecium and E. gallinarum, 1:1024. The second mixture (H2) showed very similar results with an effectiveness at 1:512 for E. cecorum and E. hirae and 1:1024 for E. faecalis, E. faecium and E. gallinarum. The presented results suggest that the proposed composition is effective against selected strains of Enterococcus in an in vitro model, and its effect is comparable to classical antibiotics used to treat this pathogen in poultry. This may suggest that this product may also be effective in vivo and provide effective support in the management of enterococcosis in broiler chickens.

Management and control of coccidiosis in poultry - A review

Poultry coccidiosis is an intestinal infection caused by an intracellular parasitic protozoan of the genus Eimeria. Coccidia-induced gastrointestinal inflammation results in large economic losses, hence finding methods to decrease its prevalence is critical for industry participants and academic researchers. It has been demonstrated that coccidiosis can be effectively controlled and managed by employing anticoccidial chemical compounds. However, as a result of their extensive use, anticoccidial drug resistance in Eimeria species has raised concerns. Phytochemical/herbal medicines (Artemisia annua, Bidens pilosa, and garlic) seem to be a promising strategy for preventing coccidiosis, in accordance with the "anticoccidial chemical-free" standards. The impact of herbal supplements on poultry coccidiosis is based on the reduction of oocyst output by preventing the proliferation and growth of Eimeria species in chicken gastrointestinal tissues and lowering intestinal permeability via increased epithelial turnover. This review provides a thorough up-to-date assessment of the state of the art and technologies in the prevention and treatment of coccidiosis in chickens, including the most used phytochemical medications, their mode of action, and the applicable legal framework in the European Union.

Effect of an Alliaceae Encapsulated Extract on Growth Performance, Gut Health, and Intestinal Microbiota in Broiler Chickens Challenged with Eimeria spp

This study analyzed the effects of an Alliaceae encapsulated extract (AE-e) on daily gain (ADG), feed intake (ADFI), feed conversion ratio (FCR), oocysts per gram of feces (OPG), intestinal lesion (LS), and microbiota composition in broilers challenged with Eimeria spp. A total of 4800 one day Cobb-500 were allotted into 10 treatment groups with 12 replicates of 40 birds in a 2 × 4 + 2 factorial arrangement. The first factor was non-challenged (NC) or challenged (C), the second was four levels of AE-e added in the basal diet, 0 (AE0), 250 (AE250), 500 (AE500), and 750 mg·kg-1 (AE750), plus two ionophore controls, non-challenged (NC-Ion) and challenged (C-Ion). No interactions were observed between factors (NC0, NC250, NC500, NC750, C0, C250, C500, and C750), while C-Ion improved FCR at 21 d. The challenge affected negatively ADG and FCR and promoted enteropathogens in cecum. AE750 improved FCR in the finisher and cumulative phases, while C-Ion had fewer total OPG than C0 and C250. Likewise, at 21d, C250, C500, and C-Ion had fewer LS than C0, while at 28 d, C750 showed lower than C-Ion. In the cecum microbiota, C500 had more Ruminococcus, Firmicutes b, and Intestinimonas than C-Ion. In summary, AE-e showed beneficial results in broilers infected with Eimeria spp.

Effects of Anticoccidial Vaccination and Taraxacum officinale Extract on the Growth Performance, Biochemical Parameters, Immunity, and Intestinal Morphology of Eimeria-Challenged Chickens

A total of 160 Ross 308 male chickens were used in a 2 × 2 factorial design to examine the effects of anticoccidial vaccination (ACV; lack or 1× dose recommended by the manufacturer) and dietary supplementation with Taraxacum officinale (dandelion) extract (DE; with or without) on growth performance, immunity, biochemical parameters, and intestinal morphology in broiler chickens challenged with Eimeria spp. At 20 days of age, all birds were challenged with a 25× dose of ACV, including Eimeria acervulina, E. maxima, E. mitis, and E. tenella. No interaction between ACV and DE was observed in terms of growth performance. Vaccinated birds showed increased feed intake (FI) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) during the 11-20 day period. Meanwhile, DE supplementation led to decreased FI and body weight gain (BWG) during the 1-10 day period. ACV effectively induced immunity against Eimeria, as evidenced by reduced oocyst shedding and less intestinal lesions, decreased levels of pro-inflammatory interleukin-6, and improved BWG during both the post infection (PI) period (21-35 days) and the entire growth period. DE supplementation lowered FCR and increased BWG during the 35-42 day period, increased the concentration of butyric acid in the cecal digesta, and lowered oocyst shedding PI. In vaccinated birds, DE elevated levels of plasma total protein and immunoglobulin M, and influenced tight junction proteins zonula occludens-1 and claudin-3, indicating a more robust epithelial barrier. DE also lowered alanine aminotransferase activity in unvaccinated birds. Both ACV and DE independently improved intestinal morphology in the jejunum, decreasing crypt depth and increasing the villus height-to-crypt ratio. These findings suggest that both ACV and DE could be effective strategies for managing coccidiosis in broiler chickens.

Microbiome of Ceca from Broiler Chicken Vaccinated or Not against Coccidiosis and Fed Berry Pomaces

American cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon) and lowbush/wild blueberry (V. angustifolium) pomace are polyphenol-rich products having potentially beneficial effects in broiler chickens. This study investigated the cecal microbiome of broiler-vaccinated or non-vaccinated birds against coccidiosis. Birds in each of the two groups (vaccinated or non-vaccinated) were fed a basal non-supplemented diet (NC), a basal diet supplemented with bacitracin (BAC), American cranberry (CP), and lowbush blueberry (BP) pomace alone or in combination (CP + BP). At 21 days of age, cecal DNA samples were extracted and analyzed using both whole-metagenome shotgun sequencing and targeted-resistome sequencing approaches. Ceca from vaccinated birds showed a lower abundance of Lactobacillus and a higher abundance of Escherichia coli than non-vaccinated birds (p < 0.05). The highest and lowest abundance of L. crispatus and E. coli, respectively, were observed in birds fed CP, BP, and CP + BP compared to those from NC or BAC treatments (p < 0.05). Coccidiosis vaccination affected the abundance of virulence genes (VGs) related to adherence, flagella, iron utilization, and secretion system. Toxin-related genes were observed in vaccinated birds (p < 0.05) in general, with less prevalence in birds fed CP, BP, and CP + BP than NC and BAC (p < 0.05). More than 75 antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs) detected by the shotgun metagenomics sequencing were impacted by vaccination. Ceca from birds fed CP, BP, and CP + BP showed the lowest (p < 0.05) abundances of ARGs related to multi-drug efflux pumps, modifying/hydrolyzing enzyme and target-mediated mutation, when compared to ceca from birds fed BAC. Targeted metagenomics showed that resistome from BP treatment was distant to other groups for antimicrobials, such as aminoglycosides (p < 0.05). Significant differences in the richness were observed between the vaccinated and non-vaccinated groups for aminoglycosides, β-lactams, lincosamides, and trimethoprim resistance genes (p < 0.05). Overall, this study demonstrated that dietary berry pomaces and coccidiosis vaccination significantly impacted cecal microbiota, virulome, resistome, and metabolic pathways in broiler chickens.

Nano-encapsulation of halofuginone hydrobromide enhances anticoccidial activity against Eimeria tenella in chickens

Coccidiosis is a worldwide epidemic intestinal disease with high incidence, which causes huge economic losses. Halofuginone hydrobromide (HF) is widely applied as an effective anticoccidial drug in the poultry industry. However, its therapeutic efficacy is severely restrained due to toxic effects, poor aqueous solubility and low permeability. Nanotechnology can improve the biological effect of drugs, and thus, reduce administered doses and toxic effects. The objective of this study was to investigate the therapeutic and preventive potential of novel HF-loaded D-α-tocopherol polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate (TPGS) polymer micelles (HTPM) for preventing coccidiosis in chickens. The HTPM were approximately spherical with a hydrodynamic diameter of 12.65 ± 0.089 nm, a zeta potential of 8.03 ± 0.242 mV, a drug loading of 14.04 ± 0.12%, and an encapsulation efficiency of 71.1 ± 4.15%. HF was encapsulated in the polymer micelles through interactions with TPGS, as characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy. Cellular take up assays showed that TPGS polymer micelles could enhance drug internalization to alleviate intestinal apoptosis induced by coccidiosis and promote the necrosis of second-generation merozoites of E. tenella. Notably, clinical trials proved that 1.5 mg L^-1 HTPM had a stronger anticoccidial effect on E. tenella than that of 3 mg kg^-1 HF premix. Amplicon sequencing identified that HTPM could alleviate coccidiosis by restoring the structure of the gut microbiome. These findings indicated that the anticoccidial efficacy of HF was significantly enhanced after being encapsulated in polymer micelles, and further demonstrated the potential protective application of nano-encapsulating anticoccidial drugs as a promising approach to control coccidiosis in poultry. In summary, HTPM hold huge potential as an effective therapeutic agent for coccidiosis.

The modulatory effect of encapsulated bioactives and probiotics on gut microbiota: improving health status through functional food

The gut microbiota can be a determining factor of the health status of the host by its association with some diseases. It is known that dietary intake can modulate this microbiota through the consumption of compounds like essential oils, unsaturated fatty acids, non-digestible fiber, and probiotics, among others. However, these kinds of compounds can be damaged in the gastrointestinal tract as they pass through it to reach the intestine. This is due to the aggressive and changing conditions of this tract. For this reason, to guarantee that compounds arrive in the intestine at an adequate concentration to exert a modulatory effect on the gut microbiota, encapsulation should be sought. In this paper, we review the current research on compounds that modulate the gut microbiota, the encapsulation techniques used to protect the compounds through the gastrointestinal tract, in vitro models of this tract, and how these encapsulates interact with the gut microbiota. Finally, an overview of the regulatory status of these encapsulates is presented. The key findings are that prebiotics are the best modulators of gut microbiota fermentation metabolites. Also, probiotics promote an increase of beneficial gut microorganisms, which in some cases promotes their fermentation metabolites as well. Spray drying, freeze drying, and electrodynamics are notable encapsulation techniques that permit high encapsulation efficiency, high viability, and, together with wall materials, a high degree of protection against gastrointestinal conditions, allowing controlled release in the intestine and exerting a modulatory effect on gut microbiota.

Microencapsulation protected Lactobacillus viability and its activity in modulating the intestinal microbiota in newly weaned piglets

Lactobacilli are sensitive to heat, which limits their application as probiotics in livestock production. Lactobacillus rhamnosus LB1 was previously shown to reduce enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) and Salmonella infections in pigs. To investigate its potential in the application, the bacterium was microencapsulated and examined for its survival from feed pelleting and long-term storage as well as its function in modulating pig intestinal microbiota. The in vitro studies showed that freshly microencapsulated Lactobacillus rhamnosus LB1 had viable counts of 9.03 ± 0.049 log10 colony-forming units/g, of which only 0.06 and 0.87 Log of viable counts were reduced after storage at 4 and 22 °C for 427 d. The viable counts of encapsulated Lactobacillus rhamnosus LB1 were 1.06 and 1.54 Log higher in the pelleted and mash feed, respectively, than the non-encapsulated form stored at 22 °C for 30 d. In the in vivo studies, 80 piglets (weaned at 21 d of age) were allocated to five dietary treatments for a 10-d growth trial. The dietary treatments were the basal diet (CTL) and basal diet combined with either non-encapsulated LB1 (NEP), encapsulated LB1 (EP), bovine colostrum (BC), or a combination of encapsulated LB1 and bovine colostrum (EP-BC). The results demonstrated that weaning depressed feed intake and reduced growth rates in pigs of all the treatments during 21 to 25 d of age; however, the body weight gain was improved during 25 to 31 d of age in all groups with the numerically highest increase in the EP-BC-fed pigs during 21 to 31 d of age. Dietary treatments with EP, particularly in combination with BC, modulated pig intestinal microbiota, including an increase in Lactobacillus relative abundance. These results suggest that microencapsulation can protect Lactobacillus rhamnosus LB1 against cell damage from a high temperature during processing and storage and there are possible complementary effects between EP and BC.

Production systems and important antimicrobial resistant-pathogenic bacteria in poultry: a review

Economic losses and market constraints caused by bacterial diseases such as colibacillosis due to avian pathogenic Escherichia coli and necrotic enteritis due to Clostridium perfringens remain major problems for poultry producers, despite substantial efforts in prevention and control. Antibiotics have been used not only for the treatment and prevention of such diseases, but also for growth promotion. Consequently, these practices have been linked to the selection and spread of antimicrobial resistant bacteria which constitute a significant global threat to humans, animals, and the environment. To break down the antimicrobial resistance (AMR), poultry producers are restricting the antimicrobial use (AMU) while adopting the antibiotic-free (ABF) and organic production practices to satisfy consumers' demands. However, it is not well understood how ABF and organic poultry production practices influence AMR profiles in the poultry gut microbiome. Various Gram-negative (Salmonella enterica serovars, Campylobacter jejuni/coli, E. coli) and Gram-positive (Enterococcus spp., Staphylococcus spp. and C. perfringens) bacteria harboring multiple AMR determinants have been reported in poultry including organically- and ABF-raised chickens. In this review, we discussed major poultry production systems (conventional, ABF and organic) and their impacts on AMR in some potential pathogenic Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria which could allow identifying issues and opportunities to develop efficient and safe production practices in controlling pathogens.

Dietary Oregano Essential Oil Supplementation Influences Production Performance and Gut Microbiota in Late-Phase Laying Hens Fed Wheat-Based Diets

This study aimed to investigate the potential effects of OEO on production performance, egg quality, fatty acid composition in yolk, and cecum microbiota of hens in the late phase of production. A total of 350 58-week-old Jing Tint Six laying hens were randomly divided into five groups: (1) fed a basal diet (control); (2) fed a basal diet + 5 mg/kg flavomycin (AGP); (3) fed a basal diet + 100 mg/kg oregano essential oil + 20 mg/kg cinnamaldehyde (EO1); (4) fed a basal diet + 200 mg/kg oregano essential oil + 20 mg/kg cinnamaldehyde (EO2); (5) fed a basal diet + 300 mg/kg oregano essential oil + 20 mg/kg cinnamaldehyde (EO3). Compared to the control group, group EO2 exhibited higher (p < 0.05) egg production during weeks 5−8 and 1−8. EO2 had a lower feed conversion ratio than the control group during weeks 1−8. The content of monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) in EO2 was higher (p < 0.05) than that of the control and AGP groups. EO2 increased (p < 0.05) the abundance of Actinobacteriota and decreased the abundance of Desulfovibri in the cecum. The abundances of Anaerofilum, Fournierella, Fusobacterium, and Sutterella were positively correlated with egg production, feed conversion ratio, and average daily feed intake, while the abundances of Bacteroides, Desulfovibrio, Lactobacillus, Methanobrevibacter, and Rikenellaceae_RC9_gut_group were negatively correlated with egg production, feed conversion ratio, and average daily feed intake. Dietary supplementation with 200 mg/kg OEO and 20 mg/kg cinnamaldehyde could improve egg-production performance, decrease feed conversion ratio, and alter the fatty acid and microbial composition of eggs from late-phase laying hens.

Microbiota and Transcriptomic Effects of an Essential Oil Blend and Its Delivery Route Compared to an Antibiotic Growth Promoter in Broiler Chickens

This study evaluated the effect of the delivery of a commercial essential oil blend containing the phytonutrients star anise, cinnamon, rosemary, and thyme oil (via different routes) on broiler chickens’ ileal and ceca microbiota and liver transcriptome compared to an antibiotic growth promoter. Eggs were incubated and allocated into three groups: non-injected, in ovo saline, and in ovo essential oil. On day 18 of incubation, 0.2 mL of essential oil in saline (dilution ratio of 2:1) or saline alone was injected into the amnion. At hatch, chicks were assigned to post-hatch treatment combinations: (A) a negative control (corn-wheat-soybean diet), (B) in-feed antibiotics, (C) in-water essential oil (250 mL/1000 L of drinking water), (D) in ovo saline, (E) in ovo essential oil, and (F) in ovo essential oil plus in-water essential oil in eight replicate cages (six birds/cage) and raised for 28 days. On days 21 and 28, one and two birds per cage were slaughtered, respectively, to collect gut content and liver tissues for further analysis. Alpha and beta diversity differed significantly between ileal and ceca samples but not between treatment groups. In-feed antibiotic treatment significantly increased the proportion of specific bacteria in the family Lachnospiraceae while reducing the proportion of bacteria in the genus Christensenellaceae in the ceca, compared to other treatments. Sex-controlled differential expression of genes related to cell signaling and tight junctions were recorded. This study provides data that could guide the use of these feed additives and a foundation for further research.

Dietary Cinnamon Bark Affects Growth Performance, Carcass Characteristics, and Breast Meat Quality in Broiler Infected with Eimeria tenella Oocysts

A total of 150 broiler chicks were used to determine the impact of dietary cinnamon bark powder (CBP; Cinnamomum verum) on breast meat quality, growth performance, and carcass characteristics of birds under coccidiosis, as one of the protozoan parasitic diseases. A total of 5 replicates of birds received 1 of the following 6 groups for 34 days: control groups (1 and 2) received a basal diet without the addition of CBP or salinomycin; group 3 received a basal diet with 0.066 g salinomycin; groups 4-6 were given a basal diet supplemented with 2, 4, and 6 g CBP/kg feed, respectively. On day 21, 4 × 104/100 µL of Eimeria tenella oocysts/bird were challenged, except for the negative control (NC). At the end of the experimental trial, five birds/group were sampled for carcass characteristics and breast attributes. Overall, emeriosis negatively affects slaughter body mass, carcass yield, and the majority of carcass characteristics in birds, and cinnamon can mitigate these effects. Cinnamon groups, particularly at the 2 g level, alleviated the negative effect on performance caused by coccidia infestation to the same or greater extent as the negative control and salinomycin treatment groups. Furthermore, when compared with the other experimental groups, the addition of cinnamon improved some physicochemical properties with some affecting meat quality, such as decreasing MFI and increasing toughness in cinnamon-treated groups. In summary, it can be concluded that CBP can enhance the shelf life, carcass, and quality of birds' meat by maximizing the productive performance efficiency and breast meat productivity of birds under coccidiosis infestation. Further research is required to investigate the use of cinnamon to optimize the quality of meat and the productivity of both healthy and diseased broilers.

Protective and immunostimulatory effects of in-feed preparations of an anticoccidial, a probiotic, a vitamin-selenium complex, and Ferulago angulata extract in broiler chickens infected with Eimeria species

Background

Two experiments were conducted to compare the growth-promoting (experiment 1), protective, and immunostimulatory effects (experiment 2) of salinomycin, probiotic, a vitamin-selenium complex, and Ferulago angulata hydroalcoholic extract (FAE) against coccidiosis in broilers. In each experiment, 350 1-day-old broiler chickens were equally divided in 7 groups: uninfected negative control (NC); infected positive control (PC); or PC supplemented with salinomycin (Sal); probiotic (Pro); a combination of vitamin E, vitamin C, and selenium (ECSe); 200 mg/kg of FAE (FAE200); or 400 mg/kg of FAE (FAE400). All these groups (except NC) were challenged via oral gavage with oocysts of mixed Eimeria spp. on d 10 (experiment 1) or d 14 (experiment 2).

Results

In the first trial, all treatments improved growth and feed conversion compared with the PC group, where the best values were noticed in the NC and FAE400 groups throughout the entire experimental period (d 1 to 42). Further, a lower mortality rate (P < 0.05) was observed in the NC, Sal, and FAE400 groups as compared to that in the PC group. In the second trial, intestinal lesion scores and total oocyst numbers were reduced in the Sal, Pro, and FAE400 groups compared to the PC group, albeit all coccidiosis-challenged groups had higher oocyst shedding (P < 0.05) compared to NC group. Immune responses revealed that among challenged birds, those fed diets Pro, ECSE, and FAE400 had significantly higher primary total and secondary total and IgG antibody titers against sheep red blood cells, serum and cecum specific IgG levels, and serum IFN-γ concentration than the PC group.

Conclusions

Considering the results, dietary FAE, especially at high levels of inclusion in broiler diet (400 mg/kg), could beneficially influence growth performance and immune status under coccidiosis challenge, which was comparable to that of probiotic supplement.

Antimicrobial Resistance Phenotypes and Genotypes of Escherichia coli Isolates from Broiler Chickens Fed Encapsulated Cinnamaldehyde and Citral

ABSTRACT

This study was conducted to investigate the effects of in-feed encapsulated cinnamaldehyde (CIN) and citral (CIT) alone or in combination on antimicrobial resistance (AMR) phenotypes and genotypes of Escherichia coli isolates recovered from feces of 6-, 16-, 23-, and 27-day-old broiler chickens. The five dietary treatments including the basal diet (negative control [NC]) and the basal diet supplemented with 55 ppm of bacitracin (BAC), 100 ppm of encapsulated CIN, 100 ppm of encapsulated CIT, or 100 ppm each of encapsulated CIN and encapsulated CIT (CIN+CIT). Antimicrobial susceptibility testing of 240 E. coli isolates revealed that the most common resistance was to β-lactams, aminoglycosides, sulfonamides, and tetracycline; however, the prevalence of AMR decreased (P < 0.05) as birds aged. The prevalence of resistance to amoxicillin-clavulanic acid, ceftiofur, ceftriaxone, cefoxitin, gentamicin, and sulfonamide was lower (P < 0.05) in isolates from the CIN or CIN+CIT groups than in isolates from the NC or BAC groups. Whole genome sequencing of 227 of the 240 isolates revealed 26 AMR genes and 19 plasmids, but the prevalence of some AMR genes and the number of plasmids were lower (P < 0.05) in E. coli isolated from CIN or CIN+CIT birds than in isolates from NC or BAC birds. The most prevalent resistance genes were tet(A) (108 isolates), aac(3)-VIa (91 isolates), aadA1 (86 isolates), blaCMY-2 (78 isolates), sul1 (77 isolates), aph(3)-Ib (58 isolates), aph(6)-Id (58 isolates), and sul2 (24 isolates). The numbers of most virulence genes carried by isolates increased (P < 0.05) in chickens from 6 to 27 days of age. The prevalence of E. coli O21:H16 isolates was lower (P < 0.05) in CIN and CIN+CIT, and the colibacillosis-associated multilocus sequence type (ST117) was most prevalent in isolates from 23-day-old chickens. A phylogenetic tree of whole genome sequences revealed a close relationship between 25 of the 227 isolates and human or broiler extraintestinal pathogenic E. coli strains. These findings indicate that AMR and virulence genotypes of E. coli could be modulated by providing encapsulated CIN or CIN+CIT feed supplements, but further investigation is needed to determine the mechanisms of the effects of these supplements.

HIGHLIGHTS

Dietary oregano essential oil supplementation improves intestinal functions and alters gut microbiota in late-phase laying hens

BACKGROUND

Dietary essential oil (EO) supplementation can exert favorable effects on gut health in broilers. However, it is unknown whether EO could improve intestinal functions, consequently beneficial for egg performance and quality in late-phase laying hens. This study was aimed to investigate the potential effects of EO on production performance, egg quality, intestinal health and ileal microbiota of hens in the late phase of production. A total of 288 60-week-old Hy-line Brown laying hens were randomly divided into 4 groups and fed a basal diet (control) or basal diets supplemented with oregano EO at 100, 200 and 400 mg/kg (EO100, EO200 and EO400).

RESULTS

Dietary EO supplementation resulted in a quadratic decrease (P < 0.05) in feed conversion ratio with lower (P < 0.05) feed conversion ratio in EO200 group than the control during weeks 9-12 and 1-12 of the trial. Compared to the control, EO addition resulted in higher (P < 0.05) eggshell thickness at the end of week. 4, 8 and 12 and higher (P < 0.05) chymotrypsin activity. There was a quadratic elevation (P < 0.05) in ileal chymotrypsin and lipase activity, along with a linear increase in villus height to crypt depth ratio. Quadratic declines (P < 0.05) in mRNA expression of IL-1β, TNF-α, IFN-γ and TLR-4, concurrent with a linear and quadratic increase (P < 0.05) in ZO-1 expression were identified in the ileum with EO addition. These favorable effects were maximized at medium dosage (200 mg/kg) of EO addition and intestinal microbial composition in the control and EO200 groups were assessed. Dietary EO addition increased (P < 0.05) the abundances of Burkholderiales, Actinobacteria, Bifidobacteriales, Enterococcaceae and Bacillaceae, whereas decreased Shigella abundance in the ileum.

CONCLUSIONS

Dietary EO addition could enhance digestive enzyme activity, improve gut morphology, epithelial barrier functions and modulate mucosal immune status by altering microbial composition, thus favoring feed efficiency and eggshell quality of late-phase laying hens.

Effects of encapsulated cinnamaldehyde on growth performance, intestinal digestive and absorptive functions, meat quality and gut microbiota in broiler chickens

Essential oils are potential antimicrobial alternatives and their applications in animal feeds are limited due to their fast absorption in the upper gastrointestinal tract. This study investigated the effects of encapsulated cinnamaldehyde (CIN) at 50 mg/kg or 100 mg/kg on the growth performance, organ weights, meat quality, intestinal morphology, jejunal gene expression, nutrient digestibility, and ileal and cecal microbiota. A total of 320 male day-old broiler Cobb-500 chicks were randomly allocated to four treatments with eight pens per treatment (10 birds per pen): 1) basal diet (negative control, NC); 2) basal diet supplemented with 30 mg/kg avilamycin premix (positive control, PC); 3) basal diet with 50 mg/kg encapsulated CIN (EOL); 4) basal diet with 100 mg/kg encapsulated CIN (EOH). Despite birds fed EOH tended to increase (P = 0.05) meat pH at 24 h, all pH values were normal. Similar to PC group, meats from birds fed EOL and EOH showed a reduced (P < 0.05) Warner-Bratzler force shear (WBFS) compared to the NC group. The highest villus to crypt ratios (VH/CD; P < 0.05) were observed in broilers fed either EOL or EOH, with an average of 14.67% and 15.13% in the duodenum and 15.13% and 13.58% in the jejunum, respectively. For jejunal gene expressions, only six out of the 11 studied genes showed statistically significant differences among the dietary treatments. Gene expressions of cationic amino acid transporter 1 (CAT-1) and neutral amino acid transporter 1 (B0AT-1) were upregulated in EOH-fed birds compared to PC and NC-fed birds (P < 0.05), respectively; while the expression of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) was downregulated in EOL-fed birds when compared to NC birds (P < 0.05). Nonetheless, the expressions of cadherin 1 (CDH-1), zonula occludens 1 (ZO-1), and maltase-glucoamylase (MG) were all upregulated (P < 0.05) in EOH-fed birds compared to PC-fed birds. The apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of dry matter, crude protein, crude fat and of all 18 tested amino acids increased in EOL-fed birds (P < 0.01). Additionally, relative abundances (%) of ileal Proteobacteria decreased, while ileal and cecal Lactobacillus increased in EOH-fed birds (P < 0.05). In conclusion, dietary encapsulated CIN improved meat quality and gut health by reducing meat WBFS, increasing VH/CD in intestines, jejunal gene expressions, AID of nutrients and beneficial ileal and cecal microbiota composition.

Choice of 16S ribosomal RNA primers affects the microbiome analysis in chicken ceca

We evaluated the effect of applying different sets of 16S rRNA primers on bacterial composition, diversity, and predicted function in chicken ceca. Cecal contents from Ross 708 birds at 1, 3, and 5 weeks of age were collected for DNA isolation. Eight different primer pairs targeting different variable regions of the 16S rRNA gene were employed. DNA sequences were analyzed using open-source platform QIIME2 and the Greengenes database. PICRUSt2 was used to determine the predicted function of bacterial communities. Changes in bacterial relative abundance due to 16S primers were determined by GLMs. The average PCR amplicon size ranged from 315 bp (V3) to 769 bp (V4–V6). Alpha- and beta-diversity, taxonomic composition, and predicted functions were significantly affected by the primer choice. Beta diversity analysis based on Unweighted UniFrac distance matrix showed separation of microbiota with four different clusters of bacterial communities. Based on the alpha- and beta-diversity and taxonomic composition, variable regions V1–V3(1) and (2), and V3–V4 and V3–V5 were in most consensus. Our data strongly suggest that selection of particular sets of the 16S rRNA primers can impact microbiota analysis and interpretation of results in chicken as was shown previously for humans and other animal species.

Effects of Bacillus amyloliquefaciens Instead of Antibiotics on Growth Performance, Intestinal Health, and Intestinal Microbiota of Broilers

The aim of this study was to evaluate the dietary effects of Bacillus amyloliquefaciens SC06 (SC06) instead of antibiotics on the growth performance, intestinal health, and intestinal microbiota of broilers. A total of 360 30-day-old Lingnan yellow broilers were randomly allocated into two groups with six replicates per group (30 birds per replicate). The broilers were fed either a non-supplemented diet or a diet supplemented with 10⁸ colony-forming units lyophilized SC06 per kilogram feed for 30 days. Results showed that SC06 supplementation had no effect on the growth performance compared with that of the control group. SC06 treatment significantly (P <0.05) increased the total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC), total superoxide dismutase (T-SOD) activity in the liver, and the activities of trypsin, α-amylase (AMS), and Na⁺K⁺-ATPase in the ileum, whereas it decreased (P < 0.05) lipase, gamma glutamyl transpeptidase (γ-GT), and maltase activities in the ileum. Meanwhile, SC06 treatment also improved the immune function indicated by the significantly (P < 0.05) increased anti-inflammatory cytokine [interleukin (IL)-10] level and the decreased (P < 0.05) pro-inflammatory cytokine [IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α] levels in the ileum. Furthermore, we also found that SC06 enhanced the intestinal epithelial intercellular integrity (tight junction and adhesion belt) in the ileum. Microbial analysis showed that SC06 mainly increased the alpha diversity indices in the jejunum, ileum, and cecum. SC06 treatment also significantly (P < 0.05) increased the abundances of Bacteroidetes, Bacteroidales, Bacteroides, Fusobacteria, Clostridiaceae, and Veillonellaceae in the cecum and simultaneously decreased the abundances of Planococcaceae in the duodenum, Microbacteriaceae in the jejunum, and Lachnospiraceae, [Ruminococcus] and Ruminococcus in cecum. In conclusion, these results suggested that B. amyloliquefaciens instead of antibiotics showed a potential beneficial effect on the intestinal health of broilers.

Effects of Vaccination Against Coccidiosis on Gut Microbiota and Immunity in Broiler Fed Bacitracin and Berry Pomace

Feeding practices have been found to influence gut microbiota which play a major role in immunity of poultry. In the present study, changes in cecal microbiota and humoral responses resulting in the 55 ppm bacitracin (BACI), 1% each of cranberry (CP1) and wild blueberry (BP1) pomace alone or in combination (CP+BP) feeding in broiler Cobb 500 vaccinated or not against coccidiosis were investigated. In the non-vaccinated group, no significant treatment effects were observed on performance parameters. Vaccination significantly affected bird's performance parameters particularly during the growing phase from 10 to 20 days of age. In general, the prevalence of coccidiosis and necrotic enteritis (NE) was reduced by vaccination (P < 0.05). BACI-treated birds showed low intestinal lesion scores, and both CP1 and BP1 feed supplementations reduced Eimeria acervulina and Clostridium perfringens incidences similar to BACI. Vaccination induced change in serum enzymes, minerals, and lipid levels in 21-day old birds while, levels of triglyceride (TRIG) and non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) were higher (P < 0.05) in CP1 treated non-vaccinated group than in the control. The levels of NEFA were lower in BACI- and CP1-fed birds than in the control in non-vaccinated day 28 old birds. The highest levels of all estimated three immunoglobulins (IgY, IgM, and IgA) were found in the vaccinated birds. Metagenomics analysis of the cecal bacterial community in 21-day old birds showed the presence of Firmicutes (90%), Proteobacteria (5%), Actinobacteria (2%), and Bacteroidetes (2%). In the vaccinated group, an effect of BACI was noted on Proteobacteria (P = 0.03). Vaccination and/or dietary treatments influenced the population of Lactobacillaceae, Enterobacteriaceae, Clostridiaceae, and Streptococcaceae which were among the most abundant families. Overall, this study revealed that besides their beneficial effects on performance, alike bacitracin, berry pomaces in poultry feed have profound impacts on the chicken cecal microbiota and blood metabolites that could be influenced by vaccination against coccidiosis.

Understanding the interactions between Eimeria infection and gut microbiota, towards the control of chicken coccidiosis: a review

The gastrointestinal tract in poultry harbours a diverse microbial community that serves a crucial role in digestion and protection. Disruption of the gut environment due to Eimeria spp. parasite infection causes an imbalance in intestinal homeostasis, driving the increment of pathogens such as Clostridium species. Coccidiosis infection affects the composition and integrity of gut microbiota, resulting in elevated susceptibility to diseases that pose a serious threat to the overall health and productivity of chickens. Anticoccidial drugs have proven effective in curbing coccidiosis but with concerning drawbacks like drug resistance and drug residues in meat. The exploration of natural alternative strategies such as probiotics and phytochemicals is significant in controlling coccidiosis through modification and restoration of gut microbiota, without inducing drug resistance. Understanding the interaction between Eimeria parasites and gut microbiota is crucial for the control and prevention of coccidiosis, and the development of novel alternative treatments.

Cinnamon Extract and Probiotic Supplementation Alleviate Copper-Induced Nephrotoxicity via Modulating Oxidative Stress, Inflammation, and Apoptosis in Broiler Chickens

The present study aimed to assess the potential protective effects of cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Cin) and probiotic against CuSO₄-induced nephrotoxicity in broiler chickens. One-day-old Cobb chicks were assigned into seven groups (15 birds/group): control group, fed basal diet; Cin group, fed the basal diet mixed with Cin (200 mg/kg); PR group, receiving PR (1 g/4 L water); Cu group, fed the basal diets mixed with CuSO₄ (300 mg/kg); Cu + Cin group; Cu + PR group; and Cu + Cin + PR group. All treatments were given daily for 6 weeks. Treatment of Cu-intoxicated chickens with Cin and/or PR reduced (p < 0.05) Cu contents in renal tissues and serum levels of urea, creatinine, and uric acid compared to the Cu group. Moreover, Cin and PR treatment decreased lipid peroxidation and increased antioxidant enzyme activities in chickens' kidney. Additionally, significant reduction (p < 0.05) in the mRNA expression of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin (IL-2) and Bax, and in cyclooxygenase (COX-II) enzyme expression, and significant elevation (p < 0.05) in mRNA expression of IL-10 and Bcl-2 were observed in kidneys of Cu + Cin, Cu + PR, and Cu + Cin + PR groups compared to Cu group. Conclusively, Cin and/or PR afford considerable renal protection against Cu-induced nephrotoxicity in chickens.

The effects of dietary supplementation of encapsulated thyme essential oil on growth, pro-inflammatory cytokines, and serum amino acid profiles of broiler chicks challenged with Salmonella typhimurium

Salmonella Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium) causes inflammation and has adverse effects on the growth of broiler chicks. Meanwhile, plant derivations improve the growth performance and decrease inflammation, but they do not have enough stability. Encapsulation of essential oils is a new strategy for decreasing their instability. This study was conducted to investigate the effects of dietary supplementation of encapsulated Thyme essential oil (ETEO) on growth, inflammatory cytokines, and amino acid profiles of broiler chicks challenged with S. Typhimurium. Three hundred one-d-old broiler chicks were assigned into 6 groups, and 5 replications per group. The broiler chicks (3 groups) were challenged with S. Typhimurium, on day 21 and birds received basal diet (positive control), encapsulated Thyme (P-ETEO), and non-capsulated Thyme (P-NETEO), while other groups received the same diets, but under normal as a negative control, encapsulated Thyme (N-ETEO) and non-capsulated Thyme (N-NETEO). Growth performance, pro-inflammatory cytokines, and serum amino acid profiles were assessed on day 42. The challenged birds in positive control showed lower growth performance, higher concentration for inflammatory cytokines, and disturbed blood serum concentrations for amino acid profiles compared to the negative control (P<0.05). The result showed that dietary supplementation of the ETEO could improve growth performance and amino acid profiles, and also decrease inflammatory responses (P<0.05). In sum, S. Typhimurium had negative effects on growth, immunity, and inflammation, but dietary inclusion of the ETEO could decrease its negative effects.

Gut Microbiota Dynamics, Growth Performance, and Gut Morphology in Broiler Chickens Fed Diets Varying in Energy Density with or without Bacitracin Methylene Disalicylate (BMD)

High-energy-density diet could increase body weight at the expense of the intestinal health of the animals. In order to optimize production without negatively influencing the gut health of chickens, dietary supplementation with bacitracin methylene disalicylate (BMD) is a common feeding strategy adopted to enhance production performance and intestinal health. Studies have suggested that BMD could improve chicken growth performance and gut health through modulation of the gut microbiota. The current study investigated the effect of BMD supplementation in a normal-energy (NE) or high-energy (HE) diet on growth performance, organ weights, jejunal morphology, and gut microbiota of broiler chickens at different growth stages. Birds were allocated to four treatments: normal-energy basal diet (NE-BAS), normal-energy BMD diet (NE-BMD), high-energy basal diet (HE-BAS), and high-energy BMD diet (HE-BMD). In the starter phase, body weight and body weight gain were reduced significantly (p < 0.05) in chickens fed HE diets compared to those fed NE diets. The FCR was significantly higher (p < 0.05) in birds fed HE-BMD diets in the starter phase but lower (p < 0.05) during the grower phase when compared to other treatments. Moreover, the relative bursa weight increased significantly (p = 0.0220) among birds that received HE diets. Birds fed HE-BMD had greater villus height (p = 0.054) than NE-BMD group. Among the chickens fed the HE diets, those that received BMD treatment had a significantly increased (p = 0.003) villus width (13.3% increase) compared to those that received the basal diet. Improved population of Firmicutes was observed in chickens fed HE-BMD diet when compared to HE-BAS. Our results imply that BMD may be more effective in improving intestinal health when supplemented in a high-energy diet for broiler chickens.

Effects of Scrophularia striata hydroalcoholic extract in comparison to salinomycin on growth performance, intestinal health and immunity in broiler chickens following a mixed-species Eimeria challenge

Poultry coccidiosis is an important disease affecting performance which is characterized by intestinal epithelium damageand increased mortality and is caused by the protozoa parasites of the genus Eimeria. This study evaluated the growth-promoting (experiment 1), protective, and immunostimulatory effects (experiment 2) of salinomycin and Scrophularia striata hydroalcoholic extract (SSE) against coccidiosis in broilers. Two experiments were conducted with 300 1-day-old broiler chickens, which were randomly assigned to 5 treatments with 6 replicate pens of 10 birds (experiment 1) or 10 replicate cages of 6 birds (experiment 2). In both experiments, treatments were: negative control (NC: untreated, and uninfected); positive control (PC: untreated, infected); or PC supplemented with salinomycin (Sal); 200 mg/kg of SSE (SSE200); or 400 mg/kg of SSE (SSE400). All these groups (except NC) were challenged via oral gavage with of sporulated oocysts of Eimeria species (Eimeria acervulina, Eimeria maxima, and Eimeria tenella) on d 10 (experiment 1) or d 14 (experiment 2). In the first trial, all treatments improved growth and feed conversion compared with the PC group, where the best values were noticed in the NC, SAL, and SSE400 groups throughout the entire experimental period (d 1-42). Further, a lower mortality rate (P < 0.05) was observed in the NC, Sal, and SSE400 groups as compared to that in the PC group. In the second trial, intestinal lesion scores and total oocyst numbers were reduced in the Sal and SSE400 groups compared to the PC group, although all coccidiosis-challenged groups had higher intestinal lesion scores (P < 0.05) compared to NC group. Immune responses revealed that among challenged birds, those fed diets Sal and SSE400 had significantly higher Eimeria-specific cecum IgG and IgM levels, but lower serum IFN-γ concentration than the PC group. Among the experimental treatments, broiler chickens fed diet SSE400 had greater (P < 0.05) Eimeria-specific serum IgG and TGF-β levels, but lower (P < 0.05) serum IL-6 concentration than those fed the PC diet at d 24. Considering the results, dietary SSE, especially at high levels of inclusion in broiler diet (400 mg/kg), could result in a comparable growth performance and a better immune response, compared to a salinomycin supplement under coccidiosis challenge.

Essential Oils in Livestock: From Health to Food Quality

Using plant essential oils (EOs) contributes to the growing number of natural plants' applications in livestock. Scientific data supporting the efficacy of EOs as anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and antioxidant molecules accumulates over time; however, the cumulative evidence is not always sufficient. EOs antioxidant properties have been investigated mainly from human perspectives. Still, so far, our review is the first to combine the beneficial supporting properties of EOs in a One Health approach and as an animal product quality enhancer, opening new possibilities for their utilization in the livestock and nutrition sectors. We aim to compile the currently available data on the main anti-inflammatory effects of EOs, whether encapsulated or not, with a focus on mammary gland inflammation. We will also review the EOs' antioxidant activities when given in the diet or as a food preservative to counteract oxidative stress. We emphasize EOs' in vitro and in vivo ruminal microbiota and mechanisms of action to promote animal health and performance. Given the concept of DOHaD (Developmental Origin of Health and Diseases), supplementing animals with EOs in early life opens new perspectives in the nutrition sector. However, effective evaluation of the significant safety components is required before extending their use to livestock and veterinary medicine.

Dietary Application of Tannins as a Potential Mitigation Strategy for Current Challenges in Poultry Production: A Review

Simple Summary

There are diverse challenges in the poultry production industry that decrease the productivity and efficiency of poultry production, impair animal welfare, and pose issues to public health. Furthermore, the use of antibiotic growth promoters (AGP) in feed, which have been used to improve the growth performance and gut health of chickens, has been restricted in many countries. Tannins, polyphenolic compounds that precipitate proteins, are considered as alternatives for AGP in feed and provide solutions to mitigate challenges in poultry production due to their antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and gut health promoting effects. However, because high dosages of tannins have antinutritional effects when fed to poultry, determining appropriate dosages of supplemental tannins is critical for their potential implementation as a solution for the challenges faced in poultry production.

Abstract

The poultry industry has an important role in producing sources of protein for the world, and the size of global poultry production continues to increase annually. However, the poultry industry is confronting diverse challenges including bacterial infection (salmonellosis), coccidiosis, oxidative stress, including that caused by heat stress, welfare issues such as food pad dermatitis (FPD) and nitrogen and greenhouse gasses emissions that cumulatively cause food safety issues, reduce the efficacy of poultry production, impair animal welfare, and induce environmental issues. Furthermore, restrictions on the use of AGP have exacerbated several of these negative effects. Tannins, polyphenolic compounds that possess a protein precipitation capacity, have been considered as antinutritional factors in the past because high dosages of tannins can decrease feed intake and negatively affect nutrient digestibility and absorption. However, tannins have been shown to have antimicrobial, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, and as such, have gained interest as promising bioactive compounds to help alleviate the challenges of AGP removal in the poultry industry. In addition, the beneficial effects of tannins can be enhanced by several strategies including heat processing, combining tannins with other bioactive compounds, and encapsulation. As a result, supplementation of tannins alone or in conjunction with the above strategies could be an effective approach to decrease the need of AGP and otherwise improve poultry production efficiency.

Anticoccidial effectivity of a traditional medicinal plant, Cinnamomum verum, in broiler chickens infected with Eimeria tenella

The anticoccidial influences of various amounts of Cinnamomum verum powder were compared with that of salinomycin as standard synthetic anticoccidial drug on the anticoccidial indicators and production performance in broilers experimentally exposed to coccidiosis. Broiler chicks at 1 d of age (n = 150) were arbitrarily distributed into 6 groups. Birds from groups 1–3 were received the starter and finisher diets plus 2, 4, and 6 g of cinnamon/kg of the diet, respectively. Birds from group 4 were fed the starter and finisher diets plus 66 mg of salinomycin, group 5 constituted the positive control (PC), with the coccidial challenge, and group 6 constituted the negative control (NC), without the coccidial infection, which were both maintained on diets without any cinnamon. The results showed that BW gain, feed conversion ratio, and production efficiency factor declined considerably (P < 0.05) in the PC compared with the NC. At seventh day postinfection (DPI), the lesion score was significantly (P < 0.05) lower in the ceca of salinomycin-treated birds than the PC. The anticoccidial index was moderate in the chickens treated with salinomycin and 6 g cinnamon at 7 DPI compared with those in the PC group. In addition, cinnamon- or salinomycin-treated birds exhibited lower oocyst values and higher oocyst reduction rate than those in the PC. We concluded that C. verum at level 6 g cinnamon/kg diet moderately reduced coccidiosis and attempted to improved BW, feed conversion ratio, and production efficiency at 7 DPI compared with the infected groups.

Effects of a microencapsulated formula of organic acids and essential oils on nutrient absorption, immunity, gut barrier function, and abundance of enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli F4 in weaned piglets challenged with E. coli F4

The objective was to study the effects of microencapsulated organic acids (OA) and essential oils (EO) on growth performance, immune system, gut barrier function, nutrient digestion and absorption, and abundance of enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli F4 (ETEC F4) in the weaned piglets challenged with ETEC F4. Twenty-four ETEC F4 susceptible weaned piglets were randomly distributed to 4 treatments including (1) sham-challenged control (SSC; piglets fed a control diet and challenged with phosphate-buffered saline (PBS)); (2) challenged control (CC; piglets fed a control diet and challenged with ETEC F4); (3) antibiotic growth promoters (AGP; CC + 55 mg·kg-1 of Aureomycin); and (4) microencapsulated OA and EO [P(OA+EO); (CC + 2 g·kg-1 of microencapsulated OA and EO]. The ETEC F4 infection significantly induced diarrhea at 8, 28, 34, and 40 hr postinoculation (hpi) (P < 0.05) in the CC piglets. At 28 d postinoculation (dpi), piglets fed P(OA+EO) had a lower (P < 0.05) diarrhea score compared with those fed CC, but the P(OA+EO) piglets had a lower (P < 0.05) diarrhea score compared with those fed the AGP diets at 40 dpi. The ETEC F4 infection tended to increase in vivo gut permeability measured by the oral gavaging fluorescein isothiocyanate-dextran 70 kDa (FITC-D70) assay in the CC piglets compared with the SCC piglets (P = 0.09). The AGP piglets had higher FITC-D70 flux than P(OA+EO) piglets (P < 0.05). The ETEC F4 infection decreased mid-jejunal VH in the CC piglets compared with the SCC piglets (P < 0.05). The P(OA+EO) piglets had higher (P < 0.05) VH in the mid-jejunum than the CC piglets. The relative mRNA abundance of Na+-glucose cotransporter and B0AT1 was reduced (P < 0.05) by ETEC F4 inoculation when compared with the SCC piglets. The AGP piglets had a greater relative mRNA abundance of B0AT1 than the CC piglets (P < 0.05). The ETEC F4 inoculation increased the protein abundance of OCLN (P < 0.05), and the AGP piglets had the lowest relative protein abundance of OCLN among the challenged groups (P < 0.05). The supplementation of microencapsulated OA and EO enhanced intestinal morphology and showed anti-diarrhea effects in weaned piglets challenged with ETEC F4. Even if more future studies can be required for further validation, this study brings evidence that microencapsulated OA and EO combination can be useful within the tools to be implemented in strategies for alternatives to antibiotics in swine production.

Combination of Bacillus licheniformis and Salinomycin: Effect on the Growth Performance and GIT Microbial Populations of Broiler Chickens

Simple Summary

The beneficial effects of Bacillus spp. probiotic preparations used for poultry are well-documented and characterized by growth performance improvement and positive modulation of gastrointestinal tract (GIT) microbiota. Moreover, the favorable influence of salinomycin has been frequently studied as an ionophore coccidiostat, as well as an antimicrobial agent. However, limited data are available in terms of the parallel usage of both Bacillus licheniformis DSM 28710 and salinomycin in poultry diets. From a practical point of view, evaluating the potential interactions between this species and agent is crucial to assess their parallel usage, and the current study confirmed the positive effect of their mixture on the modulation of pH value in the crop and ceca, as well as the GIT microbiota, especially in the jejunum and ceca. Additionally, the results obtained in this study show positive effects of B. licheniformis on the growth performance, as well as the influence of both experimental factors used separately in the case of GIT microbiota modulations.

Abstract

The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of Bacillus licheniformis and salinomycin supplementation in broiler diets as individual factors or in combination on the growth performance, GIT morphometry, and microbiota populations. Four hundred one-day-old Ross 308 chicks were randomly distributed to four dietary treatments (10 replicates, 10 birds each). The following treatments were applied: NC—no additives; NC + SAL—salinomycin addition (60 mg/kg diet), NC + PRO—B. licheniformis DSM 28710 preparation (1.6 × 10⁹ CFU/kg; 500 mg/kg diet), and NC + SAL + PRO—combination of salinomycin and B. licheniformis. Probiotic administration resulted in improvement (p < 0.05) of the performance parameters, including body weight gain (1–10 d, and 11–22 d) and feed conversion ratio (11–22 d, 1–36 d). An interaction (p < 0.05) between experimental factors was observed in terms of lower pH values in the crop (tendency, p = 0.053) and ceca. Both factors lowered the alpha diversity and Enterobacteriaceae and promoted Bacillaceae communities in the jejunum (p < 0.05). Interactions were also observed in terms of reducing Clostridiaceae in the ceca. In conclusion, the combined use of B. licheniformis and salinomycin in broilers’ diets had beneficial effects.

Gut Microbiota, Blood Metabolites, and Spleen Immunity in Broiler Chickens Fed Berry Pomaces and Phenolic-Enriched Extractives

This study evaluated the performance, gut microbiota, and blood metabolites in broiler chickens fed cranberry and blueberry products for 30 days. A total of 2,800 male day-old broiler Cobb-500 chicks were randomly distributed between 10 diets: control basal diet; basal diet with bacitracin (BACI); four basal diets with 1 and 2% of cranberry (CP1, CP2) and blueberry (BP1, BP2) pomaces; and four basal diets supplemented with ethanolic extracts of cranberry (COH150, COH300) or blueberry (BOH150, BOH300) pomaces. All groups were composed of seven replicates (40 birds per replicate). Cecal and cloacal samples were collected for bacterial counts and 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Blood samples and spleens were analyzed for blood metabolites and gene expressions, respectively. The supplementation of COH300 and BOH300 significantly increased the body weight (BW) during the starting and growing phases, respectively, while COH150 improved (P < 0.05) the overall cumulated feed efficiency (FE) compared to control. The lowest prevalence (P = 0.01) of necrotic enteritis was observed with CP1 and BP1 compared to BACI and control. Cranberry pomace significantly increased the quinic acid level in blood plasma compared to other treatments. At days 21 and 28 of age, the lowest (P < 0.05) levels of triglyceride and alanine aminotransferase were observed in cranberry pomace and blueberry product-fed birds, respectively suggesting that berry feeding influenced the lipid metabolism and serum enzyme levels. The highest relative abundance of Lactobacillaceae was found in ceca of birds fed CP2 (P < 0.05). In the cloaca, BOH300 significantly (P < 0.005) increased the abundances of Acidobacteria and Lactobacillaceae. Actinobacteria showed a significant (P < 0.05) negative correlation with feed intake (FI) and FE in COH300-treated birds, whereas Proteobacteria positively correlated with the BW but negatively correlated with FI and FE, during the growing phase. In the spleen, cranberry products did not induce the release of any pro-inflammatory cytokines but upregulated the expression of several genes (IL4, IL5, CSF2, and HMBS) involved in adaptive immune responses in broilers. This study demonstrated that feed supplementation with berry products could promote the intestinal health by modulating the dynamics of the gut microbiota while influencing the metabolism in broilers.

Terpenoids, Cannabimimetic Ligands, beyond the Cannabis Plant

Medicinal use of Cannabis sativa L. has an extensive history and it was essential in the discovery of phytocannabinoids, including the Cannabis major psychoactive compound—Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC)—as well as the G-protein-coupled cannabinoid receptors (CBR), named cannabinoid receptor type-1 (CB1R) and cannabinoid receptor type-2 (CB2R), both part of the now known endocannabinoid system (ECS). Cannabinoids is a vast term that defines several compounds that have been characterized in three categories: (i) endogenous, (ii) synthetic, and (iii) phytocannabinoids, and are able to modulate the CBR and ECS. Particularly, phytocannabinoids are natural terpenoids or phenolic compounds derived from Cannabis sativa. However, these terpenoids and phenolic compounds can also be derived from other plants (non-cannabinoids) and still induce cannabinoid-like properties. Cannabimimetic ligands, beyond the Cannabis plant, can act as CBR agonists or antagonists, or ECS enzyme inhibitors, besides being able of playing a role in immune-mediated inflammatory and infectious diseases, neuroinflammatory, neurological, and neurodegenerative diseases, as well as in cancer, and autoimmunity by itself. In this review, we summarize and critically highlight past, present, and future progress on the understanding of the role of cannabinoid-like molecules, mainly terpenes, as prospective therapeutics for different pathological conditions.