Passionate love and relationship thinkers: experimental evidence for acute cortisol elevations in women

Silence between words: Is solitude important for relatedness?

Chronic loneliness is a risk factor for physical and health problems, in part due to dysfunction of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and sympathetic nervous system. In contrast, temporary moments of positive solitude (passing good times alone and not feeling lonely) appear to have positive effects on mental health, social life, and creativity, and seems to be a buffer against loneliness. Herein, three ways of how solitude may have positive effects on health and relatedness are discussed, namely effects on enhancement of mind-wandering, interoceptive awareness, and spirituality. Solitude may facilitate (1) activation of the default mode network (DMN) underlying mind-wandering including daydreaming about other people; (2) activation of brain areas supporting interoceptive awareness; (3) deactivation of prefrontal cortex, or deactivation and decreased connectivity of the DMN, giving raise to susceptibility to spiritual experiences. The capacity to handle and enjoy solitude is a developmental process that may be difficult for many persons. Craving for social connections and external stimulation with digital technologies (e.g., internet, smartphones, social media) might be interfering with the development of the capacity for solitude and thereby increasing loneliness; this might be partly due to impaired interoceptive awareness and impaired functional mind-wandering (common in solitude). Congruently, overuse of digital technologies was associated with reduced activity, and reduced gray matter volume and density, in brain areas supporting interoceptive awareness, as well as with decreased connectivity of the DMN supporting creative insights. Solitude has been a relatively dismissed topic in neuroscience and health sciences, but a growing number of studies is highlighting its importance for well-being.

The Heteronormativity Theory of Low Sexual Desire in Women Partnered with Men

Low sexual desire in women partnered with men is typically presumed to be a problem-one that exists in women and encourages a research agenda on causation and treatment targeting women. In this paper, we present a distinct way forward for research on low sexual desire in women partnered with men that attends to a more structural explanation: heteronormativity. A heteronormative worldview assumes that relationships and structures are heterosexual, gender (usually conflated with sex) is binary and complementary, and gender roles fit within narrow bounds including nurturant labor for women. We propose the heteronormativity theory of low sexual desire in women partnered with men, arguing that heteronormative gender inequities are contributing factors. We outline four hypotheses and their predictions related to: inequitable divisions of household labor, blurring of partner and mother roles, objectification of women, and gender norms surrounding sexual initiation. We discuss some mechanisms-social, physiological, and otherwise-for the heteronormativity theory, especially related to stress, objectification, and nurturance. We close by noting some limitations of our paper and the ways that the heteronormativity theory of low sexual desire in women partnered with men provides a rigorous, generative, and empirical way forward.

Closeness-inducing discussions with a romantic partner increase cortisol and testosterone

Despite progress in understanding the social neuroendocrinology of close relationship processes, most work has focused on negative experiences, such as relationship conflict or stress. As a result, much less is known about the neuroendocrine implications of positive, emotionally intimate relationship experiences. In the current study, we randomly assigned 105 dating or married couples to a 30-minute semi-structured discussion task that was designed to elicit either high or low levels of closeness. Participants provided pre- and post-task saliva samples (to assess cortisol and testosterone) and post-task reports of self-disclosure, closeness, attraction, positive and negative affect, and stress. Participants found the discussion conditions comparably positive and enjoyable, but those in the high-closeness condition reported that they disclosed marginally more and felt marginally closer to their partners than those in the low-closeness condition. Participants also showed larger increases in cortisol and testosterone during the high (versus low) closeness discussion, and self-reported disclosure mediated these increases in cortisol and testosterone. Self-reported closeness and other theoretically plausible mediators, such as sexual attraction and excitement, did not mediate changes in either hormone. Taken together, the current findings contribute to our understanding of neuroendocrine changes associated with emotionally intimate relationship experiences. We consider possible explanations for the hormone changes we observed and offer directions for future research on the neuroendocrine implications of close relationship experiences.

CortiLove: A pilot study on hair steroids in the context of being in love and separation

While romantic infatuation and separation influence psychological and physiological functioning, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis with its biomarkers cortisol, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), and progesterone central for coping and distress has been scarcely researched in this context. In particular, endocrine hair analyses assumed to be more valid than saliva or blood assessments for studying long-term processes have not yet been conducted in the context of romantic love. Thus, 101 female subjects in phases of infatuation (n = 16), separation (n = 14), long-term relationships (n = 40), and singlehood (n = 31) reported psychological distress and provided 1 cm hair samples for the assessment of long-term integrated cortisol, DHEA, and progesterone over the last month. Separated, infatuated, and single women exhibited higher cortisol levels than those in a long-term relationship (all ps ≤ .031), while self-reported distress was only evident in separated individuals. Further, no group differences for progesterone (p = .602), but higher DHEA levels in the separation (p = .009) and single group (p = .016) compared to the long-term relationship group were detected. This is the first study showing that compared to women in long-term relationships, infatuation, separation, and single groups exhibit higher levels of physiological, but not necessarily self-reported indicators of distress. These findings, albeit on a very small and preliminary sample, are discussed in the context of the stress-buffering effect of relationships, and provide important starting points for bigger, more balanced studies combining multimodal self-report and biological markers in psychological research of romantic love.

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Higher hair cortisol in separation, infatuation, singlehood vs. stable relationship.

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Higher hair DHEA only in separation and singlehood vs. stable relationship.

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No group difference for progesterone.

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Divergence of physiological and self-reported indicators of distress.

In the Flow of Life: Capturing Affective Socializing Dynamics Using a Wearable Sensor and Intensive Daily Diaries

Interpersonal socializing is important to many sociological outcomes, but assessing the affective dynamics within interactional contexts is extremely challenging methodologically. As a first step toward capturing socializing and affective outcomes concurrently, this pilot study (n = 118) combines intensive daily surveys with a wearable sensor that tracked affective arousal. This approach allowed the operationalization of affect along its two primary dimensions, valence and arousal, which were then linked to periods socializing with a romantic partner, a best friend, and/or a group of friends. Although socializing predicted positive and negative affective valence concurrently in time, only socializing with groups of friends consistently predicted increased affective arousal. Findings for romantic partners and/or socializing with a close friend suggest that low arousal "downtime" with close intimates may also provide important social functions. This work demonstrates a new biosignaling approach to affective dynamics broadly relevant to emotion-related sociological research.

Emotions relating to romantic love-further disruptors of adolescent sleep

OBJECTIVE

Early-stage romantic involvement may resemble hypomania in its manifestation on behavioral, physiological, and psychological levels. Previous research suggests that self-reported sleep duration may diminish as a result of falling in love during adolescence. We investigated how feelings of infatuation are related to subjective and objective measures of sleep duration, quality, and timing.

METHODS

1374 adolescents (66% girls; mean age: 16.9, SD=0.6 years) selected from the population register responded to online questionnaires regarding romantic love, mental well-being, and sleep behavior. A subsample (n=309) underwent a week-long actigraphy measurement (GENEActiv Original). We compared the sleep duration, quality, and timing of those who reported being in the early stages of love to those who were not.

RESULTS

11% of all participants reported being in the early stages of romantic love. Those girls and boys who were in love had higher scores of depression and anxiety than others. Girls who were in love reported poorer sleep quality, later sleep timing, and shorter sleep duration both on weekdays (mean difference: 32 minutes, p≤0.001) and at weekends (15 minutes, p=0.037) than those who were not in love. Actigraphy measurements were similar (sleep duration mean difference: 27 minutes, p=0.04).

CONCLUSIONS

We conclude that romantic love is one further cause for short or poor quality sleep in girls and may relate to symptoms of depression and anxiety in both sexes. However, feelings of infatuation contain important developmental lessons.

Romantic Love and Reproductive Hormones in Women

Increased reproductive success is among the most commonly proposed adaptive functions of romantic love. Here, we tested if hormonal changes associated with falling in love may co-vary with hormonal profiles that predict increased fecundity in women. We compared blood serum levels of estradiol (E2, E2/T), luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), prolactin (PRL), free testosterone (fT), and cortisol (CT), measured in the early follicular phase of the menstrual cycle in single women (N = 69) and in women at the beginning of a romantic heterosexual relationship who reported being in love with their partner (N = 47). Participants were healthy, regularly cycling women aged 24 to 33 who did not use hormonal contraception. We found that women in love had higher levels of gonadotropins (FSH, LH) and lower testosterone levels compared to single women who were not in love. These groups of women did not, however, differ in terms of estradiol, prolactin, or cortisol levels.

Falling in love is associated with immune system gene regulation

Although falling in love is one of the most important and psychologically potent events in human life, the somatic implications of new romantic love remain poorly understood. Psychological, immunological, and reproductive perspectives offer competing predictions of the specific transcriptional regulatory shifts that might accompany the experience of falling in love. To characterize the impact of romantic love on human genome function, we conducted genome-wide transcriptome profiling of 115 circulating immune cell samples collected from 47 young women over the course of a 2-year longitudinal study. Analyses revealed a selective alteration in immune cell gene regulation characterized by up-regulation of Type I interferon response genes associated with CD1C+/BDCA-1+ dendritic cells (DCs) and CLEC4C+/BDCA-2+ DCs, and a reciprocal down-regulation of α-defensin-related transcripts associated with neutrophil granulocytes. These effects emerged above and beyond the effects of changes in illness, perceived social isolation, and sexual contact. These findings are consistent with a selective up-regulation of innate immune responses to viral infections (e.g., Type I interferons and DC) and with DC facilitation of sexual reproduction, and provide insight into the immunoregulatory correlates of one of the keystone experiences in human life.

I love you from the bottom of my hypothalamus: The role of stress physiology in romantic pair bond formation and maintenance

Monogamous pair bonds helped solve ancestral problems pertinent to our survival as a species. In order for these pair bonds to succeed, biological systems were co-opted to support and reinforce attachment bonds through feelings of pleasure and reward. One of the major biological systems that may play an important role in the formation of romantic attachments is the stress response system (autonomic nervous system and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis). Research suggests attraction, mate preference, and emotional connectedness may be supported by the activation or inhibition of the stress response system. Further, as romantic relationships progress, new findings suggest partners' physiological patterns coalesce, potentially serving a regulatory function that reinforces the pair bond and affects overall well-being. Based on this evidence, the current paper puts forth the Physiology of Romantic Pair Bond Initiation and Maintenance Model, which will provide researchers with a new perspective on the function of the stress response system in romantic relationships.

Effects of relationship functioning on the biological experience of stress and physical health

In this paper, we outline how relationship functioning affects the biological experience of stress and its consequences for physical health. Negative relationship perceptions and processes, such as attachment insecurity, hostility, and frequent conflict, tend to heighten stress responses and generate worse health over time, whereas positive relationship perceptions and processes, such as responsiveness, support, and intimacy, are generally associated with reduced or buffered stress responses and improved health (with some caveats). Future research should focus on the mechanisms behind these effects, the extent to which they can be changed or reversed, incorporating developmental perspectives, and effects of individual differences on these processes.

"Tell me, how bright your hypomania is, and I tell you, if you are happily in love!"--among young adults in love, bright side hypomania is related to reduced depression and anxiety, and better sleep quality

BACKGROUND

Studies on adolescents and adults show that romantic love (RL) is associated with favorable emotional states. However, data on these associations are scarce for adults. The aim of the present study was, therefore, to explore the associations between RL, symptoms of depression, anxiety, hypomania (bright side and dark side), and sleep in a sample of adults.

METHOD

A total of 844 participants currently in love (M = 24.79 years, 75.8% females) took part in the study. They completed a series of questionnaires related to RL, symptoms of depression, anxiety, hypomania (bright side and dark side), and sleep.

RESULTS

An increased state of RL was associated both with the bright and the dark side of hypomania (BRHYP and DAHYP). Relative to participants with BRHYP, participants with DAHYP reported stronger symptoms of depression and state anxiety, and poor sleep quality.

CONCLUSIONS

The pattern of results adds to our knowledge that in adults RL is not entirely a joyful and happy period of life. Rather, data suggest that for young adults in love, bright versus dark side of hypomania was associated with a different quality of psychological functioning and sleep. We conclude that experiencing RL might be a critical life event associated with symptoms of depression and anxiety, and poor sleep.

"I love you more than I can stand!" - romantic love, symptoms of depression and anxiety, and sleep complaints are related among young adults

BACKGROUND

Falling in love is a universal human behavior. Studies indicate that both adolescents and adults experience romantic love (RL) and emotional states of joy and happiness. However, there is evidence that among adolescents RL is also associated with symptoms of depression and anxiety, but no data on these associations are available for adults. The aim of the present study was therefore to explore the associations between RL, symptoms of depression, anxiety, hypomania, and sleep among a sample of Iranian adults.

METHODS

One hundred adults (mean age: 26 years; 53% males) took part in the study. They completed a series of questionnaires related to RL, symptoms of depression, anxiety, hypomania, and sleep.

RESULTS

An increased state of RL was associated with the bright side of hypomania, stronger symptoms of depression and state anxiety, and better sleep quality. There was no relation to sleep duration.

CONCLUSIONS

Unlike psychobiological studies assessing highly selected samples of adults happily in love, the present pattern of results shows that in adults, RL is not entirely a joyful and happy period of life. Rather, data suggest that for young adults, falling in love might be a critical life event also associated with uncertainty and unpleasant feelings.

Energized by love: thinking about romantic relationships increases positive affect and blood glucose levels

We assessed the impact of thinking of a current romantic partner on acute blood glucose responses and positive affect over a short period of time. Participants in romantic relationships were randomly assigned to reflect on their partner, an opposite-sex friend, or their morning routine. Blood glucose levels were assessed prior to reflection, as well as at 10 and 25 min postreflection. Results revealed that individuals in the routine and friend conditions exhibited a decline in glucose over time, whereas individuals in the partner condition did not exhibit this decline (rather, a slight increase) in glucose over time. Reported positive affect following reflection was positively associated with increases in glucose, but only for individuals who reflected on their partner, suggesting this physiological response reflects eustress. These findings add to the literature on eustress in relationships and have implications for relationship processes.

Mutual influences between partners' hormones shape conflict dialog and relationship duration at the initiation of romantic love

Early-stage romantic love involves reorganization of neurohormonal systems and behavioral patterns marked by mutual influences between the partners' physiology and behavior. Guided by the biobehavioral synchrony conceptual frame, we tested bidirectional influences between the partners' hormones and conflict behavior at the initiation of romantic love. Participants included 120 new lovers (60 couples) and 40 singles. Plasma levels of five affiliation and stress-related hormones were assessed: oxytocin (OT), prolactin (PRL), testosterone (T), cortisol (CT), and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS). Couples were observed in conflict interaction coded for empathy and hostility. CT and DHEAS showed direct actor effects: higher CT and DHEAS predicted greater hostility. OT showed direct partner effects: individuals whose partners had higher OT showed greater empathy. T and CT showed combined actor-partner effects. High T predicted greater hostility only when partner also had high T, but lower hostility when partner had low T. Similarly, CT predicted low empathy only in the context of high partner's CT. Mediational analysis indicated that combined high CT in both partners was associated with relationship breakup as mediated by decrease in empathy. Findings demonstrate the mutual influences between hormones and behavior within an attachment bond and underscore the dynamic, co-regulated, and systemic nature of pair-bond formation in humans.

Personality, relationships, and health

This special issue of the Journal of Personality focuses on the importance of considering both personality and relationship forces when examining physical and psychological health. The nine articles presented in this issue employed a variety of research designs, theoretical rationales, health outcomes, and advanced statistical methodologies in order to better understand how both individual differences and social factors are relevant to our health. These articles embody several prominent themes: Conscientiousness is a robust predictor of health; traits beyond the Five-Factor Model should be considered in attempts to understand personality, relationships, and health; links among personality, relationships, and health begin early in life; and relationship transitions are consequential to health. It is hoped that these studies inspire personality researchers to consider the relationship context of health and relationship researchers to consider individual differences when attempting to understand health behaviors and outcomes.

In Iranian female and male adolescents, romantic love is related to hypomania and low depressive symptoms, but also to higher state anxiety

BACKGROUND

Experiencing romantic love is important in individual development. Little is known about romantic love among adolescents in non-Western countries. The aim of the present study was to explore romantic love among Iranian male and female adolescents.

METHOD

A total of 201 adolescents (mean age: 17.73 years) took part in the study; of these, 81 indicated they were experiencing romantic love at the time of survey, and 120 indicated they were not in love. Participants answered questionnaires related to affective states (hypomania, depressive symptoms, state and trait anxiety) and exercise, and completed a sleep log for seven consecutive nights.

RESULTS

Compared to controls, participants in love displayed favourable hypomania scores, fewer depressive symptoms and increased concentration during the day. However, participants in love also had higher state anxiety scores. Moreover, hypomanic-like stages increased with duration of relationship in female, but not in male participants.

CONCLUSIONS

The pattern of results suggests a favourable association between being currently in love and emotional and cognitive processes. Sleep, however, seemed unrelated to this specific state.

Individual differences in mate poaching: an examination of hormonal, dispositional, and behavioral mate-value traits

The personality and hormonal correlates of mate poaching (attempting to steal another person's partner away) and of the target of the seducer (the mate poached) were examined in a sample 154 undergraduate university students (91 females; 63 males). Thirteen variables were modeled into two regression equations to predict and profile mate poachers and the mate poached. Findings revealed that (1) male mate poachers were better looking and had higher cortisol levels, lower levels of testosterone, and reported being higher on self-esteem, cold affect, and criminal tendencies and (2) female mate poachers and targets of mate poachers reported being more physically attractive, as did male targets of mate poachers. Sex differences in the context of mate poaching attraction as well as the characteristics of those who are successful in their attempts to lure away another person's romantic partner were discussed.

Sexual thoughts: links to testosterone and cortisol in men

Sexual stimuli increase testosterone (T) or cortisol (C) in males of a variety of species, including humans, and just thinking about sex increases T in women. We investigated whether sexual thoughts change T or C in men and whether hormone measures (baseline, post-activity, and changes) correlate with psychological sexual arousal. We used the Imagined Social Situation Exercise to assess how hormones respond to and correlate with sexual thoughts and arousal relative to three control conditions: neutral, stressful, and positive. A total of 99 men provided a baseline saliva sample, imagined and wrote about a sexual or control situation, and provided a second saliva sample 15 min later. Results indicated that, for participants in the sexual condition, higher baseline and post-activity C corresponded to larger increases in self- reported sexual and autonomic arousal. Although sexual thoughts increased sexual arousal, they did not change T or C compared to control conditions. Our results suggest that sexual thoughts are not sufficient to change T or C in men, but C may facilitate sexual arousal by directing energy towards a sexual situation.

Measuring romantic love: psychometric properties of the infatuation and attachment scales

Romantic love is ubiquitous and has major influences on people's lives. Because romantic love consists of infatuation and attachment, researchers need to be able to differentiate between these constructs when examining the behavioral, affective, cognitive, and physiological correlates of this intriguing phenomenon. Existing love questionnaires appear less suitable for measuring the two-dimensional construct of romantic love. We present here the new 20-item Infatuation and Attachment Scales (IAS) questionnaire. In Study 1, exploratory factor analyses in a Dutch-speaking sample (n = 162) revealed a clear-cut two-factor structure, with 10 infatuation and 10 attachment items loading on separate components. This two-factor structure was confirmed in a new Dutch-speaking sample (n = 214, Study 2), and in an English-speaking sample (n = 183, Study 3). In all studies, it was additionally shown that both scales possessed good convergent and discriminant validity, as well as excellent internal consistency and test-retest reliability. We argue that the IAS is a widely applicable, psychometrically sound instrument that will be useful in future research exploring the effects of infatuation and attachment on behavior, emotion, cognition, peripheral physiology, and brain functioning.

I do…do you? Dependence and biological sex moderate daters' cortisol responses when accommodating a partner's thoughts about marriage

We examined how daters' levels of relationship dependence interact with men's and women's degree of accommodation during a likelihood of marriage discussion to predict cortisol levels at the conclusion of the discussion. Upon arriving at the laboratory, couple members were separated and asked to graph their perceived likelihood of one day marrying each other. Couples were reunited and instructed to create a joint graph depicting their agreed-upon chance of marriage. For the majority of couples, negotiating their likelihood of marriage required one or both partners to accommodate each other's presumed likelihood of marriage. Multilevel analyses revealed a significant Dependence×Accommodation×Sex interaction. For women who increased their likelihood of marriage, feelings of dependence predicted heightened levels of cortisol relative to baseline; we suggest such a response is indicative of eustress. Among men, those who accommodated by decreasing their likelihood of marriage experienced significantly lower levels of cortisol to the extent that they were less dependent on their partners. Discussion focuses on why men and women show different physiological reactions in response to seemingly favorable outcomes from a relationship discussion.

Differences and similarities on neuronal activities of people being happily and unhappily in love: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study

BACKGROUND

Brain activity was studied in grief following frustrated love compared to romantic love, and it was hypothesized that unhappy lovers compared to happy lovers would have decreased brain activity in regions specific to emotional and reward circuits, such as frontal brain areas, anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), bilateral insula or posterior cingulate cortex (PCC).

METHODS

Twelve volunteers intensely in love and 12 volunteers recently separated from their romantic partners were scanned performing 3 runs of functional magnetic resonance imaging acquisition. Subjects viewed partner pictures versus erotic pictures during the first run of the scanning process, autobiographical pictures versus neutral pictures during the second and autobiographical texts versus neutral texts during the third run. The Passionate Love Scale (PLS) and the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) were additionally recorded.

RESULTS

Decreased brain activity in unhappy lovers compared to happy lovers occurred in frontal areas, ACC and PCC and bilateral insula. Unhappy lovers also revealed clinical depressive symptoms in the BDI.

CONCLUSION

Unhappy lovers compared to happy lovers exhibited clinical depressive symptoms and reduced blood oxygen level dependency changes in a brain network which has been described as being involved in major depression. This might be a cue for the close relationship between grief and depression.

In female adolescents, romantic love is related to hypomanic-like stages and increased physical activity, but not to sleep or depressive symptoms

OBJECTIVE

Experiencing romantic love is important in individual development. Little is known about romantic love among adolescents in non-Western countries. The aim of the present study was therefore to explore romantic love among Iranian female adolescents.

METHODS

Eighty-six females (mean age: 17.97 years) took part in the study; 38 of them (44%) indicated they were experiencing romantic love at the time of survey, and 48 (56%) indicated they were not in love. Participants completed questionnaires related to affective states and physical activity, and a sleep log for seven consecutive nights.

RESULTS

Compared to controls, participants in love had higher scores for hypomanic-like states, positive mood, physical activity, but not for better sleep quality or for depressive symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

Against expectations, hypomania scores increased with the duration of the romantic relationship, suggesting that culture-related issues might shape the way romantic love may be experienced.

Sexy thoughts: effects of sexual cognitions on testosterone, cortisol, and arousal in women

Previous research suggests that sexual stimuli increase testosterone (T) in women and shows inconsistent effects of sexual arousal on cortisol (C), but effects of cognitive aspects of arousal, rather than behaviors or sensory stimuli, are unclear. The present study examined whether sexual thoughts affect T or C and whether hormonal contraceptive (HC) use moderated this effect, given mixed findings of HC use confounding hormone responses. Participants (79 women) provided a baseline saliva sample for radioimmunoassay. We created the Imagined Social Situation Exercise (ISSE) to test effects of imagining social interactions on hormones, and participants were assigned to the experimental (sexual) or one of three control (positive, neutral, stressful) conditions. Participants provided a second saliva sample 15 min post-activity. Results indicated that for women not using HCs, the sexual condition increased T compared to the stressful or positive conditions. In contrast, HC using women in the sexual condition had decreased T relative to the stressful condition and similar T to the positive condition. The effect was specific to T, as sexual thoughts did not change C. For participants in the sexual condition, higher baseline T predicted larger increases in sexual arousal but smaller increases in T, likely due to ceiling effects on T. Our results suggest that sexual thoughts change T but not C, baseline T levels and HC use may contribute to variation in the T response to sexual thoughts, and cognitive aspects of sexual arousal affect physiology.

Neuroimaging of love: fMRI meta-analysis evidence toward new perspectives in sexual medicine

INTRODUCTION

Brain imaging is becoming a powerful tool in the study of human cerebral functions related to close personal relationships. Outside of subcortical structures traditionally thought to be involved in reward-related systems, a wide range of neuroimaging studies in relationship science indicate a prominent role for different cortical networks and cognitive factors. Thus, the field needs a better anatomical/network/whole-brain model to help translate scientific knowledge from lab bench to clinical models and ultimately to the patients suffering from disorders associated with love and couple relationships.

AIM

The aim of the present review is to provide a review across wide range of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies to critically identify the cortical networks associated with passionate love, and to compare and contrast it with other types of love (such as maternal love and unconditional love for persons with intellectual disabilities).

METHODS

Retrospective review of pertinent neuroimaging literature.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Review of published literature on fMRI studies of love illustrating brain regions associated with different forms of love.

RESULTS

Although all fMRI studies of love point to the subcortical dopaminergic reward-related brain systems (involving dopamine and oxytocin receptors) for motivating individuals in pair-bonding, the present meta-analysis newly demonstrated that different types of love involve distinct cerebral networks, including those for higher cognitive functions such as social cognition and bodily self-representation.

CONCLUSIONS

These metaresults provide the first stages of a global neuroanatomical model of cortical networks involved in emotions related to different aspects of love. Developing this model in future studies should be helpful for advancing clinical approaches helpful in sexual medicine and couple therapy.